
Class. U- 

Book_^- 



GPO 



EUROPE, 



I (~ 



PAST AND PRESENT: 



A COMPREHENSIVE MANUAL 



EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY; 

WITH 



SEPARATE^ DESCRIPTIONS AND STATISTICS OF EACH STATE, 



A COPIOUS INDEX, 

FACILITATING REFERENCE TO EVERY ESSENTIAL FACT IN THE HISTORY 
AND PRESENT STATE OF EUROPE. 



BY FRANCIS H. UNGEWITTER, LLJX, 




NEW YORK: 
GEO. P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY, 

AND 49 BOW LANE, CHEAPSIDE, LONDON. 
1850, 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, 

B Y G. P. P U T N A M, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of Now York. 



THOMAS B. SMITH, STEREOTYPER, 
216 WILLIAM STREET, N. Y. 



.US"? 



PKEF ACE. 



As author of several extensive geographical works, 
which have been successfully published in Germany, 
my native country, I have ventured to prepare this vol- 
ume with the view of offering to the American public a 
guide in European Geography and History. 

It is superfluous to say that the value of such a work 
depends entirely upon its authenticity and accuracy : 
and that these qualities are, especially in Germany, es- 
sential to success. In endeavoring to avoid all superficial 
and unfounded statements, I have hoped also to steer 
clear of pedantry and prolixity. For such a volume, in 
the present state of popular information, I should not 
have felt justified in using any other than original and 
authentic materials. 

Fortunately, materials of this kind are not at all lack- 
ing in Europe. First, in most European countries an 
official almanac is published every year, which contains, 
more or less copious statistical particulars to be relied 



iv PREFACE. 



on. Secondly, a census is taken in certain periods, not 
restricted to the population only, but extended to a great 
variety of other statistical matters. Thirdly, there is 
scarcely a European state without its special geographi- 
cal and historical description, written by a native scholar. 
Beside these abundant materials, the official parliamen- 
tary reports and documents in many states furnish au- 
thentic statements with regard to the public finances, 
the army, the navy, etc. Moreover, I have visited most 
of the European countries, and have thus been enabled 
to fill up deficiencies almost inevitable with him who 
knows a people or a country merely by books. 

The index, annexed to this volume, and containing 
nearly ten thousand names, will enable the reader to find 
readily any essential fact connected with European geog- 
raphy or history. The table of contents, prefixed to the 
volume, gives at once a clear view of all those fifty-six 
states, which constitute Europe in a political sense. 

The arrangement with reference to the mountain 
ranges, rivers, lakes, etc., of all Europe, by compressing 
them within the compass of one common description, will 
perhaps meet with the approbation of the reader ; tedi- 
ous repetitions being avoided in this way. Beside this, 
the introduction contains a general, yet condensed history 
of Europe. 

Concerning the description of each of these fifty-six 
European states, the order observed is thus : first, the 
statements about area and population, surface, soil, 



PREFACE. 



natural products, manufactures, commerce and trade, 
public finances, form of government, strength of the 
army and (with maritime states) of the navy, and the 
orders of honor ; secondly, the history ; and thirdly, the 
topography of the state. 

Trusting that the public will kindly make allowance 
for my want of an elegant English style, the more so 
as until the last year I never had any suitable oppor- 
tunity to improve in it practically, I sincerely wish, that 
for the rest this volume may answer every reasonable 
expectation on the part of the reader. 

F. H. UNGEWITTER. 

~Nr.w York, June 20th, 1850. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

INTRODUCTION", OR GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE, 1 

The Mountain Ranges of Europe, 4 

Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits, 9 

Lakes of Europe, „ 10 

Rivers of Europe, 12 

Independent States of Europe, 21 

SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE, 23 

PORTUGAL, 62 

History of Portugal, 67 

SPAIN, 76 

History of Spain, 84 

ITALY, 99 

1. The Kingdom of Sardinia, 103 

2. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 115 

3. The Duchy of Parma, 115 

4. The Duchy of Modena, 117 

5. The Grand-Duchy of Tuscany, (including Lucca) 120 

6. The States of the Church, 127 

7. The Republic of San Marino, 136 

8. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, 137 

9. Malta, 149 

SWITZERLAND, , 151 

History of Switzerland, 1 54 



viii CONTENTS. 



PAOK 

FRANCE, HO 

History of France, 179 

The Provinces of Isle de France, Normandy, Picardy, 182 

The Provinces of Artois, French Flanders, Champagne, 189 

The Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 193 

The Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comte, 199 

The Provinces of Bourbonnais, Nivernais and Berry, 203 

The Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou,. 205 

The Provinces of Maine, Perche and Brittany, 207 

The Provinces of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumais, La Marche, 210 

The Provinces of Limousin, Auvergne and Lyonnais 213 

The Provinces of Guyenne and Gascony, , 214 

The Provinces of Navarre, Beam, Foix and Roussillon, 218 

The Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny, 219 

The Provinces of Provence, Avignon and Corsica, 223 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 227 

British History, 232 

A. The Kingdom of England, 234 

B. The Kingdom of Scotland, 248 

C. The Kingdom of Ireland, 256 

THE NETHERLANDS, 261 

1. The Kingdom of the Netherlands, 265 

2. The Kingdom of Belgium, 275 

GERMANY, 284 

1. German Provinces of Austria, 309 

2. German Provinces of Prussia, 310 

3. The Kingdom of Bavaria, 311 

4. The Kingdom of "Wirtemberg, 329 

5. The Grand-Duchy of Baden, 337 

6-7. The Principalities of Hohenzollern, 347 

8. The Principality of Liechtenstein, 350 

9. The Grand-Duchy of Hesse, 351 

10. The Landgraviate of Hesse, 358 

11. The Duchy of Nassau, 360 

12. The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and Duchy of Limburg 365 

13. The Electorate of Hesse, 368 

14. The Principality of Waldeck, 375 

15. The Kingdom of Saxony, 376 

16. The Grand-Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, 386 

17. The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, 389 



CONTENTS. ix 



PAGE 

1 8. The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 392 

19. The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg, 395 

20-21. The Principalities of Reuss, 397 

22-23. The Principalities of Schwarzburg, 399 

24-25. The Duchies of Anhalt, 402 

26. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg Schwerin, 406 

27. The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 410 

28. The Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, 412 

29. The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg, 420 

30. The Principality of Lippe-Detmold, 427 

31. The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe, 428 

32. The Kingdom of Hanover, 430 

33. The Duchy of Brunswick, 444 

34. The Free City of Hamburg 448 

35. The Free City of Lubec, 451 

36. The Free City of Bremen, 453 

37. The Free City of Frankfort, 454 

THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, 457 

History of Prussia, 462 

THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE, 501 

1. The German Provinces of Austria, 508 

2. The Kingdom of Galicia 518 

3. The Kingdom of Hungary, 520 

4. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania, 530 

5. The Military Frontier, 533 

6. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, 534 

7. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 536 

DENMARK,. 543 

1. The Danish Islands, 549 

2. Jutland, 552 

3. The Duchy of Sleswick, 554 

4. The Faroe Isles, 557 

5. Iceland, 559 

SWEDEN AND NORWAY, 562 

A. The Kingdom of Sweden, 567 

B. The Kingdom of Norway, 575 

RUSSIA IN EUROPE,. 579 

1. Great Russia, 590 



x CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

2. Little Russia, 594 

3. The Baltic Provinces, 595 

4. The Grand-Duchy of Finland, 598 

5. West, or Polish Russia, 600 

6. The Kingdom of Poland, 603 

7. The Kingdom of Kasan, 607 

8. The Kingdom of Astrachan, 608 

9. South Russia, 610 

THE IONIAN ISLANDS......... 614 

History of the Ionian Islands, 615 

GREECE, 617 

History of Greece, 619 

EUROPEAN TURKEY, 624 

1. Roumelia, 628 

2. Bulgaria, t 629 

3. Macedonia, , 630 

4. Thessalia, 631 

5. The Islands, 631 

6. Albania, 632 

7. Bosnia, 633 

8. Tributary Provinces, 634 

Servia 634 

"Wallachia, 635 

Moldavia,. 636 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



INTRODUCTION: GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 

Area of Europe : 3,816,936 square miles. 
Population of Europe : 262,300,000 inhabitants. 

1. Before entering upon the subject, it may be remarked that 
most of the statistical statements in this work, especially those 
concerning the population of states, cities, towns, etc., correspond 
with the official and other authentic reports from the beginning 
of the year 1848. The political revolutions which since have 
occurred in most of the European countries, have in many in- 
stances changed the state of things, caused numerous emigrations, 
and, at all events, prevented a careful investigation in statistical 
matters. Moreover, a census is in Europe nowhere taken annu- 
ally, but, for instance, in France every fifth, in Germany every 
third year, and so on. However, the statements in this work 
being thoroughly authentic, they will afford a sure stand-point 
with regard to all future events, until matters and things are 
completely settled again in Europe. 

2. The above-stated area of 3,816,936 square miles, is distrib- 
uted as follows : — 

Germany, 244,375 square miles. 

The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 36,508 " " 

Hungary, Galicia, etc., . . . 164,521 " " 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Area and Population of each country. 



Italy, . 

Switzerland, . 

Holland and Belgium, 

France, 

Spain and Portugal, 

British Islands (including Guernse 

Denmark (including Iceland), 

Sweden and Norway, . 

Russia (in Europe), 

Ionian Islands, 

Greece, 

Turkey (in Europe), 



y, etc.), 



Total, 



119,706 


square 


15,315 


" 


24,644 


u 


204,825 


(I 


216,429 


(« 


117,921 


it 


49,927 


It 


293,280 


u 


2,099,903 


(t 


1,108 


a 


19,149 


u 


209,422 


a 



miles. 



3,816,936 



Thus, the extent of Europe is almost equal to that of the 
United States, and of Mexico, put together. 

3. The population of Europe, is distributed as follows : — 



Germany, ...... 

The Prussian provinces of Prussia and Posen, 

Hungary, Galicia, etc., 

Italy, . 

Switzerland, . 

Holland and Belgium, 

France, . 

Spain, 

Portugal, 

British Islands (including Guernsey, 

Denmark (including Iceland), 

Sweden and Norway, 

Russia (in Europe), 

Ionian Islands, 

Greece, . 

Turkey (in Europe), 

Total, . 



etc), 



42,000,000 inhabitants. 

3,865,000 
20,082,000 
24,573,100 

2,400,000 

7,558,000 
35,401,000 
12,000,000 

3,750,000 
28,500,000 

1,800,000 

4,650,000 

62,000,000 

220,000 

1,000,000 
12,500,000 



262,299,100 






GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 



Density of Population — Boundaries — Climate. 



This makes a population of about 70 inhabitants to a square 
mile — the highest ratio in any division of the world. For Asia 
(including the Indian Archipelago) has only 32, Africa has 13, 
America (i. e., North and South America) has but 3, and Aus- 
tralasia and Polynesia have no more than 1 inhabitant on a 
square mile. If the United States, whose extent (including 
Texas, but excluding California) is estimated at 2,620,000 square 
miles, and where, upon an average, at present only 9 souls live on 
a square mile, were as thickly settled as Europe, they would 
have a population of 183.400,000 inhabitants ; and not less than 
801,720,000, if the proportion were like that of Holland and 
Belgium, where the population is 306 to a square mile. 

4. The most northerly point of the European continent is 
North Cape (which belongs to Norway), N. lat. 71° 11' ; and its 
most southerly point is Gibraltar, N. lat. 36° 7'. Thus these 
parallels correspond with those of the northern part of Hudson's 
Bay, and of Hillsboro, or Louisburg, in North Carolina. The 
distance between North Cape and Gibraltar, is 2,424 miles. The 
most easterly point of Europe is Catharinburg (at the frontier of 
European Russia and Siberia), long. 60° 40' E. from Greenwich ; 
and its most westerly point is Cape Roxant (belonging to Portu- 
gal), long. 9° 31' W. from Greenwich; and the distance between 
these two extreme points, is 3,370 miles. 

5. Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic, and on the 
west by the Atlantic Ocean. On the east the Ural Mountains, 
the Ural River, the Bosphorus, the Dardanelles, and the Archi- 
pelago, form the boundaries towards Asia ; and on the south, 
Europe is separated from Asia by the Black Sea, and from Africa 
by the Mediterranean Sea. 

6. The climate is generally much warmer than in the same 
parallels in America and Asia, and the difference is equivalent to 
eight or ten degrees of latitude. This may be accounted for by 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Surface. — Mountains : Alps— Pyrenees. 



the almost universal cultivation of the soil in Europe, and by the 
absence of those extensive forests, which are to be found in 
America and Siberia. 

7. In the north (with the exception of European Russia) and 
in the south, the surface is generally mountainous ; but in the 
middle parts of Europe, plains, here and there intersected by ranges 
of low mountains and hills, are prevailing. From the mouths of 
the Rhine, an immense plain runs through Holland, the north of 
Germany, the provinces of West and East Prussia, Poland, and 
Russia, to the Ural Mountains ; and its highest elevation, near 
the sources of the Volga, Dnieper, and Don, is 1,064 feet. Other 
plains of smaller extent are to be found in Hungary, Wallachia, 
Lombardy, France, &c. The mountainous regions of the Euro- 
pean continent, occupy together an area of about 979,800 square 
miles. The most remarkable mountain ranges of Europe are the 
following : — 

a. The Alps, the principal chain of mountains in Europe, occupying an 
area of nearly 74,550 square miles, run from the coast of the Mediterranean 
Sea, at the boundary between France and Italy, through Savoy, Switzerland 
Tyrol, and other provinces of Austria, to the western parts of Turkey, at a 
distance of about 550 miles. Several regions of them have particular names, 
as, Maritime Alps (nearest to the coast), Cottian Alps (with the Pelvoux de 
Vallouise), Gray Alps (between Savoy and Piedmont), Pennine Alps (with 
the Mont Blanc), Lepontine Alps (with the Mount Rosa), etc. The highest 
peaks of the Alps, are: the Mont Blanc (in Savoy, 15,668 feet high), Mount 
Rosa (in Savoy, but near the frontier of Switzerland, 15,527 £), Finsteraar- 
horn (in Switzerland, 14,325 £), Pelvoux de Vallouise (on the French territory, 
14,044 £), Jungfrau (or Virgin, 13,730 f), Schreckhom (13,310 f— the two 
latter in Switzerland), Ortles (in Tyrol, 13,065 £), Watzmann (in Bavaria, 
9,150 £), and Terglou (in Carinthia, 10,194 f. high). 

b. The Pyrenees separate France from Spain, running in an almost westerly 
direction from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, to that of the Bay of Biscay. 
The highest peaks of this mountain range, are: the Maladetta (11,436 f.), 
Mont Perdu (10,482 f), and Pico Las Posets (10,584 f.) on the Spanish side, 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 



Mountains : Sierra Nevada — Appenines — Carpathians, etc. 

and the Marbore (10,314 f.), Vignemale (10,350 f.), Piclong (9,972 £), and 
Gmiigou (8,800 f.) on the French side. 

c. The Sierra Nevada, the principal mountain range of Spain, covers chiefly 
that part of the country commonly called Upper Andalusia, or the province 
of Granada. Its highest peaks are the Cumbre de Mulhacen (11,678 f.), and 
JPicacho de Veleta (11,200 f.). One branch of the Sierra Nevada, running in 
the direction of Cadiz, and ending in Cape Trafalgar, is partly named Alpu- 
jarras, partly Sierra de Ronda. Parallel with the Sierra Nevada, and in the 
direction of Algarve (the southern province of Portugal), runs the Sierra 
Morena, winch, in Portugal, bears the name of Sierra Monchique. Other 
mountain ranges in Spain, are the Cantabrian and Iberian Mountains, the 
Sierra de Cuenca, Sierra de Guadarama, and Sierra de Guadalupe. 

d. The Apennines skirt the Gulf of Genoa, and run south-east to the south 
extremity of Italy. They bear particular names, according to their local 
position. Ligurian Apennines (with the Monte Gimone, in the Duchy of 
Modena, 6,778 feet high), Etruscan Apennines, Roman Apennines (with the 
Monte di Sibylla, 7,038 f.), Neapolitan Apennines, and Abruzzi (in the 
northern part of the kingdom of Naples, with the Gran Sasso dPtalia, 9,577 
f. high). The volcano Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, is 3,932 feet high. On 
the island of Sicily are, besides the volcano Mount Etna or Monte Gibello 
(10,870 f. high), to be noted the Gallata bellata (3,699 f), Cuceio (3,329 £), 
and Scudery (3,190 f.) ; on the island of Sardinia, the Gennargentu (5,630 f.), 
and Gigantinu (3,744 f.) ; and on the island of Corsica, the Monte Rotondo 
(8,500 £), Pagalia Orba (8,100 f.), and Cinto (7,900 f.). 

e. The Carpathes, forming the boundary between Hungary and Galicia, 
run in a south-easterly direction from the sources of the Oder River to the 
Danube. The western part bears the particular name of the Beskides, the 
middle part that of the Carpathes Proper or Tatra Mountains, and the south- 
east part, comprising Transylvania, Upper Hungary, and the north of Walla- 
chia, is called the Highland Erdely. The highest peaks of the Carpathian 
Mountains are, the Ruska Poyana (9,912 f.), Gailuripi (9,000 £), Lomnitzer 
Spitze (Peak of Lomnitz, 8,316 f.), and Krivan (7,818 £). The highest peak 
of the Beskides in particular, is the Babia Gura, which rises to 5,420 feet. 

f. The Scandinavian Mountains form, for a great part, the boundary be- 
tween Sweden and Norway, where they are called Kblen (literally, the Keel). 
Near Roeraas, in Norway, the chief branch of the range, running south-west, 
assumes the name of Dovre-fjeld (fjeld has the signification of Alpine range), 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Mountains : in Turkey, France, Germany. 



and its highest peak is here the Skagastoeltind (8,400 f.). Other peaks of the 
Skandinavian Mountains, are the Snoehcetta (8,122 f.), and Sulitelma (6,840 £). 

g. The Balkan or Haemus, running east through the midst of Turkey, rises 
to the height of no more than 3,000 feet, and is thoroughly covered with 
extensive forests. Among its five passes, those of Schumla are renowned in 
military history. Another mountain range in Turkey, and partly hi Greece, 
is the Pindus, rising to the height of more than 5,000 feet, and some of its 
divisions are called the Bora, Mezzovo, and Agrapha Mountains, 

h. In France are, besides the Pyrenees, to be noted : the Jura Mountains, 
forming the boundary between France and Switzerland (with the Reculet, 
5,280 f., and Grand Colombier, 5,220 f., on the French side ; and with the 
Dole, 5,141 i.,Mont Tendre, 5,170 f., Chasseron, 4,976 £, Creux du Vent, 4,512 
f., and Tete de Rang, 4,384 f, on the side of Switzerland); the Sevennes, 
commencing near the east end of the Pyrenees, and running north, form the 
dividing ridge between the valleys of the Rhone and Loire (their highest 
summits are, the Mezin of 6,162 f., Lozere of 5,584 f., Tarare of 4,350 f., and 
Pilot of 3,696 f. in height) ; the Mountains of Auvergne, branching from the 
Sevennes and running north-west, form the dividing ridge between the valleys 
of the Loire and the Garonne ; their principal part is known by the name of 
Mont Pore, and their highest peaks, commonly called Puy, are : Puy de Sancy 
(5,838 f.), Puy de Dome (4,548 f.), and Plomb de Cantal (5,718 f.) ; the Vosges, 
running parallel with the Rhine, separate the provinces of Lorraine and Alsace, 
and rise to 4,400, 4,300, 3,900, and 3,100 feet, in the Ballon de Sulz, Tete 
d' Ours, Ballon d' Alsace, and Grand Donnon (branches at the north end of 
the Vosges, bear the names of Monts de Faucille and Hardt Mountains, the 
latter with the Mont de Tonnere, 2,035 f. high) ; the Cote d'Or (in the prov- 
ince of Burgundy), and Morwan Mountains (on the high road between Paris 
and Lyons), rise to 1,842 and 2,000 feet; lastly, the Ardennes, running from 
the northern parts of Champagne to Luxemburg, are woody hills rising to 
1,800 feet, and part of them are called the Argonnes. 

i. The highest mountain range in the north of Germany, are the Sudetes, 
or Sudetic Mountains, along the southern frontier of Silesia, with different 
divisions and names. The Sudetic Mountains proper form the boundary 
between Austrian Silesia and Moravia (with the Altvater 4,640 f, and the 
Great Schneeberg or Snow-peak, 4,400 f. high). The Riesengebirge, or Giants' 
Mountains, form the boundary between Silesia and Bohemia, (with the Riesen, 
or Schneehoppe, 5,056 £, the Great Sturmhaube, 4,540 f., Little Sturmhaube, 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 



Mountains of Germany. 



4,400 f., and Great Bad, or Wheel, 4,707 f.), and the Lusatian Mountains 
(with the Jeschken, 3,140 f., and Lausche, 2,460 f.), form the boundary between 
Lusatia and Bohemia. Other divisions of the Sudetes are : the Moravian 
Mountains, (between Moravia and Bohemia), the Habelschwerdt Mountains 
(in Silesia), the Eulen-Gebirge, or Owl Mountains, (with the Hohe Eule, 3,082 
f., in Silesia), and Heuscheuer Gebirge, or Haybarn Mountains (partly in 
Silesia, partly in Bohemia). Between Breslau and the Eulen-Gebirge, rises 
the Zobtenberg to 2,280 feet. 

j. Other mountain ranges in Germany, are : the Boehmerwald Mountains, 
which form the boundary between Bohemia and Bavaria, and rise to 4,000 
and 4,500 f. ; the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, which form the boundary 
between Bohemia and Saxony, and rise to 3,870 f. (in the Sonnenwirbel), 
3,732 f. {Kleine or Little Fichtelberg), and 3,721 f. (Grosse or Great Fichtel- 
berg) ; the Fichtel-Gebirge, in the north-east part of Bavaria, with the 
Sch/ieeberg, 3,221 f., and Ochsenkopf, 3,123 f. ; the Black Forest (Schwarz- 
wald), partly belonging to Wirtemberg, but chiefly occupying the southern 
part of Baden ; it is covered with gloomy pine forests (hence its name), and 
its middle elevation is between 3,000 and 3,500 feet ; although the Feldberg 
and Belchen (both in Baden), rise to 4,650 and 4,397 feet; the Alp (which 
has nothing in common with the Alps in Switzerland and Italy), in Wirtem- 
berg, where it is commonly called Swabian Alp (with the Ober-Hohenberg, 
3,160 f, Schafberg, 3,121 f, and Flattenberg, 3,100 f), and partly Rauhe 
(rough) Alp, and then running north-east through Bavaria, by the name of 
Franconian Alp; the Odenwald, branching from the Black Forest and 
running north through Hesse Darmstadt (with the Katzenbuckel, 2,180 f., 
and Malchen, or Melibocus, 1,690 f.) ; parallel with it runs on its western side 
the so-called Bergstrasse, between Frankfort and Heidelberg ; the Spessart, 
between Aschaffenburg and Wurtzburg, in Bavaria, with an elevation not 
exceeding 1,900 feet, and having in its neighborhood the inferior ranges of the 
Hass- Gebirge, and the Steigerwald ; the Rhoen-Gebirge, on the north-west 
boundary of Bavaria, with the Holy Kreuzberg (2,856 f), Dammersfeld (2,840 
f.), and Beierberg (2,264 f); to the westward, in Hesse Darmstadt, is to be 
noted the range of the Vogelsberg, with an elevation of 2,388 feet; the 
Thuringerwald (Forest of Thuringid), forming the boundary between 
Bavaria and the Saxon Duchies, with the Beerberg (3,064 f), Schneekopf 
(3,043 £), Inselsberg (2,855 £), and Kickelhahn (2,643 f.); its eastern extrem- 
ity is called the Frankenwald ; the Hartz, a more or less isolated mountain 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Mountains of Great Britain, Iceland, Russia. 



range, occupying the south of Hanover, part of Brunswick, and part of the 
Prussian province of Saxony ; it has its highest elevation in the Brocken or 
Blocksberg (3,500 f), and that part situated on the west side of the Brocken 
is called Upper Hartz, and the other part is called Lower Hartz; theHuNS- 
rucken, or Hundsrxick (dog's back), a rough and woody table-land between 
Treves and Coblentz, rising to 2,263 feet in the Idarkopf; the Eifel, between 
Aix la Chapelle and Treves, rising to 2,260 feet ; the Taunus, in Nassau, with 
the Greut Feldberg (2,605 f), and Altkonig (2,400 £); the Westekwald, 
partly in Nassau, partly in the Prussian province of Westphalia ; its north- 
west slope is formed by the Siebengebirge, or Seven Hills, on the right bank 
of the Rhine, opposite to Bonn ; the Osning, or Teutoburger Wald, in Lippe- 
Detmold ; the Wesergebirge, or Weser Mountains, along the Weser River. 
Other inferior or hilly ranges, are : the Habichtswald, near Cassel, the Sollin- 
ger Wald, the Deister, and Suntel, in Hanover. 

k. The principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, are : the Grampian 
Hills (with the Ben Lawers, 4,051 £, Ben Nevis, 4,3*79 f, and Cairngorm, 
4,050 f.), running from the head of the frith of Clyde, north-east through the 
centre of Scotland ; and the Cheviot Hills, on the southern boundary of 
Scotland. The highest peaks in England are, the Wharnside (4,052 f.), and 
Ingleborough (3,981 f.), and, in Wales, the Snowdon (3,568 £), and Cader Idris 
(3,550 £). 

I. Iceland — this rocky island on the borders of the frigid zone, is almost 
entirely covered with volcanoes, among them the celebrated Mount Hecla, 
rising to 5,210 feet. The highest peaks of the island are, the Oeraefe-Joekul 
(6,240 £), and the Oester-Joekul, or JEyjafialle-Joekul (5,794 £). 

in. In European Russia is only to be noted the Tauric Mountains, in 
Crimea, rising to 4,740 feet in the Tschadyrdagh. The Wolchonsky Forest, 
between St. Petersburg and Moscow, is nothing else but a ridge of low hills, 
not exceeding 1,000 £ in height; although the Volga and other mighty rivers 
have their sources here. The Ural and Caucasus Mountains belong to Asiatic 
Russia. 

8. The Northern and Atlantic Oceans, by which Europe is 
bounded on the north and west, penetrate in many parts of the 
continent, thus forming a great number of peninsulas, bays, and 
inland seas. The most remarkable of the latter, formed by the 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 



Inland Seas, Bays, Sounds, Straits. 



Arctic Ocean, is the White Sea, which penetrates the northern 
coast of Russia to the extent of 276 miles. 

The principal inland seas, bays, etc., formed by the Atlantic 
Ocean, are the following : — 

The North Sea, which separates the British Islands from the 
European continent, and has an extent nearly equal to that of 
Germany. A branch of the North Sea, called Skagerack, and 69 
miles wide, separates the Danish peninsula of Jutland from 
Norway; the then following Cattegat (about 140 miles long and 
70 wide), separates Jutland from Sweden ; and the following 
three channels, or straits, lead from the Cattegat into the Baltic 
Sea, viz. : the Oeresound, commonly called Sound (between Zealand 
and Sweden), the Great Belt (between Funen and Zealand), and 
the Little Belt (between Sleswick and Funen). 

The Baltic Sea, with an extent of 135,680 square miles, and 
surrounded by Sweden, Russian, Prussian, German, and Danish 
countries, is, between Ystad and the island of Rugen, only 53 
miles wide. Two gulfs set up from the Baltic : the Gulf of 
Bothnia, between Sweden and Finland, and the Gulf of Finland, 
between Finland and Esthland. Inferior to them in extent is the 
Gulf of Riga, before the mouth of the Duna Biver. Between 
Tilsit- and Memel is the Curische Haff, or Sea, almost entirely 
enclosed by a long and small tongue of land, with a narrow pass- 
age into the Baltic. Other seas of the same kind, are the Fresh 
Haff, before the mouths of the Pregel and other rivers, and the 
Great and Little Haff, before the mouth of the Oder. 

A great inland sea, or bay, in the north of Holland, is the 
Zuyder Zee, 90 miles long, and 45 miles wide. Far inferior to it 
in extent is the Dollart, before the mouth of Ems River. 

The Strait of Dover, separating England from France, is about 
27 miles wide ; and the well-known English Channel, is, upon an 
average, 70 miles wide. 

1* 



10 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Seas, Channels, Straits, Lakes. 

St. George's Channel separates Ireland from England and 
Wales ; at its south end is to be noted the Bristol Channel, be- 
fore the mouth of Severn River, and at its north end the North 
Channel, which separates Ireland from Scotland. 

Between the French peninsula of Bretagne, and the northern 
coast of Spain, is the Bay of Biscay, about 345 miles wide. 

A narrow passage, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the 
Mediterranean Sea, is the Strait of Gibraltar, which separates 
Spain from Africa. 

The Mediterranean Sea, separating Europe from Africa, and 
on the east bordered by Asia, has an extent of 1,01 1,750 square 
miles, and is 2,415 long, while its breadth is very different. 
Before the mouth of the Rhone, is the Gulf of Lyons, and before 
the city of Genoa, the Gulf of Genoa. The Strait of Bonifacio 
separates the islands of Corsica and Sardinia, and the Strait of 
Messina separates the island of Sicily from continental Italy. 
At the south-east extremity of Italy, is the Gulf of Taranto ; 
farther to the east, the Strait of Olranto separates Italy from 
Turkey, and connects the Ionian Sea (between the Ionian 
Islands and Sicily) with the Adriatic Sea, which latter separates 
Italy from Dalmatia, and whose extent is estimated at nearly 
63,900 square miles. The Grecian Archipelago separates Greece 
and European Turkey from Asia Minor, and is connected by the 
Dardanelles Strait, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus Strait, 
with the Black Sea, the extent of which is computed at 182,115 
square miles. The Strait of Jenikale connects the Black Sea 
with the Sea of Azof, before the mouth of the Don. 

9. The most remarkable lakes are in the north of Europe, and 
in the region of the Alps. 

In Russia are to be noted : Lake Ladoga, east of the Gulf of Finland, and 
in the neighborhood of St. Petersburg ; its extent, computed at 6,220 square 
miles, exceeds that of the kingdom of Saxony ; Lake Onega, east of the former, 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 11 

Lakes. 

with an extent of 4,260 square miles ; Lake llmen, 28 miles long and 20 wide, 
in the province of Novogorod ; Lake Saima, about 40 miles long and wide, in 
Finland. 

In Sweden, which abounds in lakes, are to be noted : Lake Wener, not 
very far from Gottenburg, with an extent of 2,130 square miles ; Lake Wetter, 
in the midst of the country, celebrated for its romantic environs, and remark- 
able by its extraordinary depth, is 100 miles long, and between 14 and 28 
miles wide ; Lake Maelar, near Stockholm, contains about 1,300 islands and 
islets, with many handsome mansions and castles on them ; Lake Hjelmar, in 
the neighborhood of the former, 46 miles long and 20 wide; Lake jStor 
(literally, Great Lake), in the province of Jemtland, and Lake Silja, in the 
province of Dalame. 

In Norway, are Lake Ifjos (north of Christiana, 83 miles long and 11 
wide), and Lake Faemund (at the frontier of Sweden, about 40 miles long). 

On the boundary of Switzerland and Germany, is the Lake of Constance, 
3*7 miles long and about 9 wide. Three bays set up from it, and are called 
Ueberlingen, Lower, and Zeller Lakes. 

On the confines of Switzerland and Savoy, is the Lake of Geneva, 42 
miles long and 7 wide. 

In Switzerland are to be noted: the Lake of Neufchatel, 18 miles Ion a- 
and about 5 wide, in the canton of Neufchatel ; Lake of Biel, in the canton of 
Bern ; Lake of Thun, in the canton of Bern ; Lake of Luzerne, in the centre 
of Switzerland ; Lake of Zurich, surrounded by the cantons of Zurich, St. 
Gall, and Schwytz ; and Lake of Lugano, in the canton of Tesino. 

The most remarkable lakes of Italy are : Lake Maggiore, in Lombardy 
and Piedmont, 37 miles long and about 8 wide ; Lake Como, in Lombardy, 
32 miles long; Lake di Gar da, east of the former; Lake of Perugia, in the 
States of the Church. 

In Hungary, are the Lake of Balaton, or Platten-See (in Lower Hungary, 
46 miles long), and Lake of Neusiedl, near the frontier of Austria. 

In Germany are to be noted : the Lakes of Gmunden, of Ossiach, of Cla- 
genfurt, and of Cirknitz, in Austria ; the Lakes of Chiem, of Starenberg, and 
of Tegern, in Bavaria ; of Muritz, Schwerin, and Malchin, in Mecklenburg ; 
of Ploen, in Holstein, and Lake of Madue, in Prussia. 

In Holland is the Haarlem Lake, covering a tract of 33,000 acres. 

In Scotland are to be noted: the Loch Lomond (23 miles long and 9 



12 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Rivers. 

wide), Loch Ness (20 miles long), and Loch Awe ; in Ireland, Lough Neagh 
(18 miles long) ; and in England, Lake Winander (14 miles long). 
In the other countries of Europe, are no remarkable lakes to be found. 

10. Among the rivers of Europe, ranks, foremost, the Volga; 
next in length is the Danube; then follow the Dnieper, Don, 
Rhine, etc. We describe the course and tributaries of the prin- 
cipal rivers of Europe in the following order : — 

Through Russia flow : the Volga, having its head in the Wolchonsky Forest 
(see § 7, m.), and a length of course of 2,166 miles, and emptying by about 
70 outlets into the Caspian Sea. Its chief branches are the Oka, Sura, 
Mologa, Kostroma, Wetluga, and Kama. 

The Dnieper (the Borysthenes of the ancients), having its sources in the 
province of Smolensk, and a length of course of 1,209 miles, and emptying, in 
the neighborhood of Odessa, into the Black Sea, forming there the Gulf of 
Liman. Its chief branches are the Beresina, Pripet, Bog, Desna, and Sa- 
mara (the latter is by the Cossacks called the Holy River). 

The Don (in ancient times Tanais) : its sources in the neighborhood of 
Tula, its length of course 1,081 miles, emptying into the Sea of Azof. Its 
chief branches are the Choper and Donez. 

The Dniester (in ancient times called Tyras, or Danastris) : its sources in 
the Carpathian Mountains, not far from Lemberg"; its length 506 miles, and 
emptying into the Black Sea, near the mouth of the Dnieper. 

The Kuban (by Herodotus called Hypanis, by Ptolemy Vardanes, and by 
the Genoese, in the middle ages, Copa) ; its sources in the Caucasus Mountains ; 
its length 473 miles, and emptying by one outlet into the Sea of Azof, and by 
another into the Black Sea. 

The Terek, having its sources in the Caucasus Mountains, and emptying 
into the Caspian Sea. 

The Petschora: its sources in the Ural Mountains; its length 690 miles; 
its mouth in the Arctic Ocean. 

The Mezen : its sources in the province of Wologda ; its length 552 miles ; 
its mouth in the "White Sea. 

The Dwina-. its head in the province of Wologda; its length 736 miles; 
its mouth in the White Sea. Its chief branches are the Wytschegda, Pinega 
and Waga. 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 13 



Rivers. 



The Onega, having its sources in the province of Olonetz, and emptying into 
the White Sea. 

The Kemi, having its sources in Finland, and emptying into the Gulf of 
Bothnia. 

The Newa, issuing from the Lake Ladoga, and emptying into the Gulf of 
Finland, has a length of only 39 miles, but is at St. Petersburg from 1,800 to 
2,400 feet wide. 

The Duna, rising near the sources of the Volga, has a length of 644 miles, 
and flows, below Riga, into the Gulf of Riga. 

The Tornea, emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia, forms the boundary 
between Russia and Sweden. 

The JNiemen rises in the Russian province of Minsk, has a length of 530 
miles, and crossing Prussia, where it receives the name of Memel, empties 
into the Curische Haff (see § 8). 

Poland and Prussia are crossed by the Vistula, which rises at the frontier 
of Austrian Silesia, has a length of 681 miles, is in Prussia from 1,000 to 
2,000 feet wide, and empties into the Baltic Sea by two outlets, of which the 
eastern is called Nogat. The chief branches of the Vistula are the Bug, San, 
Wieprz, Drewenz, Ossa, Pilica, and Mottlau. 

Through Prussia flow : the Pregel, in East Prussia, empties into the Fresh 
Haff [see § 8]. 

The Passarge, in East Prussia, empties into the same Haff. 

The Persante and the Rega, in Pomerania, emptying into the Baltic Sea. 

The Oder, which rises in the Sudetic Mountains, at the frontier of Moravia, 
crosses Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania, and empties, below Stettin, 
into the Great Haff, which, by the Peene, Swine, and Pivenow, is connected 
with the Baltic Sea. Its length is 616 miles. The chief tributary of the Oder 
is the Warthe, into which flows the Netze. Other branches are the Oppa, the 
Silesian, and the Lusatian Neisse, the Ohlau, Katzbach, Bober, Olsa, Klod- 
nitz, Malapane, and Stober. 

In Sweden are to be noted : the Clara river which has its sources in the 
Dovrefjeld, flows through the Wener Lake after which it is called the Gotha 
river, and empties, below Gottenburg, into the Cattegat. Its whole length is 
322 miles. 

The Dal river, which rises in the province of Dalarne, and empties into 
the Gulf of Bothnia. 



14 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Rivers. 

In Norway are to be noted : the Glommen, which rises in Dovrefjeld, and 
empties into the Cattegat. 

The Louven : sources in Dovrefjeld, and mouth in the Skager Rack. 

Denmark has no remarkable river, besides the G-uden, in Jutland, where it 
empties into the Cattegat. 

The Eider, winch has ever formed the boundary between Denmark and 
Germany since the days of Charlemagne, has its source in Holstein, and 
empties into the North Sea. 

In Great Britain and Ireland are to be noted : the Thames and Humber 
(formed by the united rivers Ouse and Trent), emptying into the North Sea, 
and the Severn, which flows into the Bristol Channel, — in England. 

The Tay and the Forth, emptying into the North Sea, and the Clyde, 
which flows into the North Channel, — in Scotland. 

The Shannon and Barrow, in Ireland, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. 

In Spain are to be noted : the Ebro, which has its sources in the Canta- 
brian Mountains, forming then the boundary between Old Castile and the Bas- 
cyan provinces and Navarre, and crossing Aragon and Catalonia, empties into 
the Mediterranean Sea. Its length is 405 miles, and its chief branches are 
the Aragon, Gallego, and Segro. 

The Guadalaviar, which rises in the province of Arragon, and crossing the 
province of Valencia, empties into the Mediterranean Sea. Likewise, into 
the latter flow the Xucar and the Segura. 

The Guadalquivir, which rises on the boundary of Jaen and Murcia, and 
empties into the Atlantic Ocean, a few miles north of Cadiz. Its length is 
300 miles. 

Spain and Portugal are crossed by : the Tagus, which rises at the frontier 
of Aragon and New Castile, crosses the latter province, Estremadura, and 
Portugal, where it is called Tejo, and empties, below Lisbon, into the Atlantic 
Ocean. Its length is 552 miles. 

The Duero (in Portugal called Douro) rises between Saragossa and Bur- 
gos, crosses Old Castile, Leon, and Portugal, and empties into the Atlantic 
Ocean. Its length is 478 miles. 

The Minho, which has its sources in the Spanish province of Galicia, forms 
the boundary between the latter and Portugal, and empties into the Atlantic 
Ocean. 

The Guadiana, which has its sources in the southern part of New, Castile, 
forms the boundary between the Portuguese province of Algare and the Span- 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. . 15 

Rivers. 

ish province of Sevilla, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Its length is 
483 miles. 

In Italy are to be noted : the Po, the chief river of Italy, has its sources 
on the Cottic Alps, crosses Piedmont and Lombardy, has a length of 405 
miles, and empties by several outlets into the Adriatic Sea. Its chief branches 
are the Tanaro, Scrivia, Dora Riparia, Dora Baltea, Sesia, Ticino, Adda, 
Oglio, and Mincio. 

The Adige, having its sources in Tyrol, and a length of 221 miles, empties 
into the Adriatic Sea. 

The Tagliamento, Piave, and Brenta, in Lombardy, flow into the Adriatic 
Sea also. 

The Arno (in Tuscany), the Volturno (in Naples), and the Tiber and 
Garigliano (rising in the States of the Church), flowing west, and emptying 
into the Mediterranean Sea. 

In Turkey are : the Marissa, having its sources in the Balkan, a length of 
243 miles, and its mouth in the Archipelago. The Karasu or Mesto, the 
Stromza or Struma (by the ancients called Strymoii), and the Vardar (Axius 
by the ancients), have their mouths in the Archipelago also ; while the Drin 
and Narenta (partly crossing Dalmatia) empty into the Adriatic Sea. 

In France are to be noted : The Seine, having its sources in Burgundy, 
near Dijon, a length of 442 miles, and emptying into the English Channel. 
Its chief branches are the Marne, Oise, Aube, Yonne, and Sure. 

The Loire, the largest river in France, rising in the Sevennes, crossing the 
centre of the country, having a length of 607 miles, and emptying into the 
Atlantic Ocean, below Nantes. Its chief branches are the AJlier, Cher, 
Indre, Vienne, Sevre Nantaise, Arroux, Nievre, and Mayenne. 

The Garonne, rising in the Pyrenees, having a length of 416 miles, and 
emptying into the Atlantic Ocean, below Bordeaux, where it receives the 
name of Gironde. Its chief branches are the Dordogne, Tarn, Lot, and Gers. 

The Rhone, having its sources at the foot of the St. Gotthard, in Switzer- 
land, flowing through the Lake of Geneva, then crossing the southern prov- 
inces of France, and emptying into the Mediterranean Sea, west of Marseilles. 
Its outlets form a delta, called Gamargue ; its length is 460 miles, and its 
chief branches are the Saone, here, Drome, Durance, Ardeche, and Gard. 

Other rivers are : the Var, Herault, and Aude, emptying into the Medi- 
terranean Sea ; the Somme, and Orne, emptying into the English Channel ; 



» 



16 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Rivers. 

and the Vilaine, Sevre Niortaise (into which flows the Vendee), Charente, 
and Adour, emptying into the Atlantic Ocean. 

Through France, Belgium, and Holland flows : the Meuse, which rises at 
the frontier of Champagne and Franche-Comte, crosses Lorraine and Cham- 
pagne, then the eastern part of Belgium, receives below Gorkum in Holland 
the name of Merwe, but above Rotterdam is called Meuse again, and empties 
into the North Sea. Its chief branches are the Sambre, Ourthe, and Roer. 

Through Belgium and part of Holland flows : the Scheldt, which rises 
near the frontier of France and Belgium, runs through the west of Belgium, 
by Ghent and Antwerp, and dividing, forms a delta at its mouth. One outlet, 
which runs northward into the North Sea, is called East Scheldt, and the 
other, running southward, is called West Scheldt. The chief tributaries of the 
Scheldt are the Scarpe, Lys, Bender, and Rupel. 

From Switzerland, through Germany, into Holland, runs the Rhine, 
which has its sources on the east side of Mount St. Gotthard, in the canton 
of Grisons, forms the boundary between Switzerland and Tyrol, flows through 
the Lake of Constance, divides France and Germany, is in the neighborhood 
of Spire 3,000, and below Mentz 2,500 feet wide, and divides within the 
boundary of Holland into several branches, called Waal, Yssel, Leek, and Old 
Rhine. Its length is 874 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Mayne 
(rising at the Fichtelgebirge ; see § 7, j.), and the Moselle (rising in the Vosges, 
at the frontier of Lorraine and Alsace). Other branches of the Rhine are, 
namely : the Neckar (having its sources in the Black Forest), the Nahe, Lahn, 
Sieg, Wupper, Ruhr, and Lippe. 

Through Germany, Hungary, and Turkey flows : the Danube, having its 
sources at Donaueschingen, in Baden, crossing the middle parts of Bavaria, 
the archduchy of Austria, Lower and Upper Hungary, dividing the Turkish 
provinces of Bulgaria and Wallachia, and emptying into the Black Sea. Its 
length is 1,868 miles, and its chief branches are : the lller, Lech, Isar, Inn, 
Altmuhl, Nab, and Regen (in Bavaria) ; the Traun, Ens, March, and Trasen 
(in Austria) ; the Waag, Neitra, Gran, Theiss, Leitha, Raab, JDrave, and Save 
(in Hungary); the Morawa, Aluta, Sereth, and Pruth (in Turkey). 

In Germany are to be noted : the Elbe, rising in the Giant Mountains, 
crossing Bohemia, Saxony, and Prussia, forming the boundary between Hano- 
ver and Mecklenburg and Holstein, and emptying into the North Sea ; its 
length being 713 miles. Its chief branches are: the Moldau and Eger (in 
Bohemia) ; the Black Elster and Saale (in Prussia) ; the Mulde (in Anhalt. 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 17 

Natural Productions. 

Dessau) ; the Havel (in Prussia) ; the llmenau, Luhe, and Sehiuinge (in Han- 
over); the Alster (in Hamburg); and the Stoer (in Holstein). 

The Weser, formed by the junction of the Werra and Fulda, near Munden 
(in Hanover), divides Oldenburg and Hanover, and enters the North Sea near 
the Elbe. Its length is 253 miles; and its chief branches are the Alter 
(whose principal branch is the Leine), the Wumme or JLesum, Geeste, and 
Hunte. 

The Ems, rising in the Teutoburger Wald (see § 7, j.), and emptying into 
the Dollart (see § 8). Its chief branch is the Haase. 

The Trave, rising in Holstein, and entering the Baltic Sea below Lubec. 
Its chief branch is the Steckenitz. 

The Warnow, in Mecklenburg, entering the Baltic Sea below Rostock. Its 
only branch is the Nebel. 

11. Europe abounds in a variety of useful natural productions. 
As for minerals, no other division of the world has so many iron, 
lead, copper, tin, quicksilver, salt, and coal mines ; whereas, pre- 
cious- metals are more abundant in America, Asia, and Africa. 
The Russian gold and silver mines, are situated in Asia. Hun- 
gary and Transylvania have the richest gold mines in Europe. 
Silver is chiefly found in the Carpathic, Ore, Hartz, and Scandi- 
navian Mountains ; copper, in Sweden, Norway, Russia, Hungary, 
and England; iron, in Sweden, Russia, Austria, France, Prussia, 
England, and Belgium ; tin, in England. Lead is very generally 
diffused in Europe ; but quicksilver is obtained exclusively from 
the mines of Almaden, in Spain ; of Idria, in Austria ; and of 
Wolfstein, in the Palatinate of Bavaria. The most noted coal 
mines are near Newcastle, in England ; yet this mineral is also 
found, in almost inexhaustible quantities, in France, Belgium, and 
Germany. Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania, abound in rock 
salt ; and the salt mines of Wieliczka, in Galicia, are the most 
noted in the world. Nowhere are found so many mineral springs 
as in Europe. The staple agricultural products of Europe, are 
wheat, rye, barley, and oats. Maize is cultivated in the south of 



18 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Natural Productions — Animals — Races of Men. 

Europe, and rice only in Lonibardy, and Turkey. The potato is 
very common in Europe ; and the highest degree of latitude, 
where it thrives, is the 60th. In the cultivation of the vine 
(from 48° and 49° of latitude down to the southern extremity of 
Europe), olive (chiefly in France and Italy), and chestnut, Europe 
excels ; and this division of the world is, at the same time, the 
only one where the forests are regularly managed. With regard 
to animals, horses (the finest breed in England and Germany), 
cattle (the finest in Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, and 
Holland), sheep (of various breeds, but the finest in Germany, 
Spain, and England), hogs, and other valuable domestic animals 
are found in great perfection throughout Europe, nearly to the 
parallel of 60°. Mules are reared in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and 
in the south of France. The ferocious and other wild animals of 
Europe, are generallly less in number than those of some of the 
other quarters of the earth. The wolf and bear are still found 
in Russia, Sweden, and in the mountainous regions of France ; 
elks, in some parts of Sweden, Russia, and East Prussia ; the 
wild ox (in ancient times, very common in Germany) is still pre- 
served in the forest of Bialowicza, in Lithuania. The largest 
bird of Europe, is the great bustard (otis tarda.) Silkworms are 
most abundant in Italy. 

12. Nearly all the Europeans belong to the Caucasian race. 
Only a few tribes in Russia are Mongolians. With respect to their 
origin, the Europeans form three great divisions : the Germanes , 
Slavonians, and Romanians, (a.) The Germanes are to be con- 
sidered as descendants of Gomer (Gen. x. 2), or of the Kimres, 
who at first lived in the countries near the mouths of the Dnieper 
and Dniester, whence they afterwards moved to the north and 
north-west, and peopled the Scandinavian peninsula, the present 
kingdom of Denmark, Germany, etc. The old Goths were like- 
wise Germanes. Thus, to the great family or .tribe of the Ger- 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 19 



Races of Men— Religion. 



manes belong the Germans proper, most of the Swiss, and part 
of the Fitglish, the Dutch, the Flemings (in Belgium), the Danes, 
Icelanders, Norwegians, and Swedes. (b.) The Slavonians (or 
rather Slaves, but in another sense than those who are in bondage), 
in ancient times called Sarmates, are probably descendants of 
Magog and Madai. (Gen. x. 2), or of the Scythians and Medes. 
In the beginning they lived in the country between the Don, 
Volga, and the Caucasus Mountains, and in the course of time 
spread over the present Russia and Poland, and westward to the 
Elbe River. To the great family or tribe of the Slavonians, 
belong the Russians, Poles, Servians, Bosniacs, Bulgarians, Croats, 
Slavonians proper, Bohemians, etc. (c.) The Romanians are de- 
scendants, partly of the ancient Iberians, Gauls, etc., partly of the 
ancient Romans and Greeks, and partly of the Germanes ; and the 
Italians, French, Spaniards, Portuguese, and part of the Swiss, 
belong to this great family, or tribe. Besides these three great 
divisions, there are still found descendants of the ancient Celts, 
or Gaels, in Ireland and Wales, and the highlands of Scotland ; 
and Basques, or descendants of the Iberians, in Biscay, and the 
neighborhood of Bayonne, in France. The Turks belong to the 
Tartar tribe ; the Magyars, in Hungary, are probably descend- 
ants of the ancient Scythians, and lived, until the close of the 
ninth century of the Christian era, in the vicinity of the Ural 
River ; and the Greeks are descendants partly of the ancient 
Greeks, but chiefly of Slavonian tribes. The descent of the Jews 
is universally known. 

13. With the exception of about 7,000,000 Mohammedans, 
3,000,000 Jews, and a few Pagans among the Samojedes and 
Kalmucs, all the Europeans are Christians. Of these, nearly 
133,000.000 are Roman Catholics (occupying the Pyrenean pe- 
ninsula and Italy, and prevailing in France, Ireland, Belgium, 
Poland, Austria, and Bavaria), more than 59,000,000 are attached 



20 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Civilization — Science and Arts. 

to the Greek Church (chiefly in Russia, and moreover prevailing 
in Turkey, Greece, and the Ionian Islands), and about 58,000,000 
are Protestants (almost exclusively occupying the Scandinavian 
peninsula and Denmark, and prevailing in Great Britain, Prussia, 
Holland, Finland, in the Baltic provinces of Russia, and in most 
of the German states). 

14. All Europeans are civilized, except the Laplanders, Samo 
jedes, some Kalmuc tribes, and the Gipsies (the latter chiefly in 
Hungary, Russia, Spain, and England), who are to be regarded 
as half-civilized; and as civilization has prevailed among them for 
many hundred years, Europe is not only the most enlightened, but 
also the best cultivated grand division of the earth. By its emi- 
grants, America, and civilized countries of other parts of the 
world, have been peopled. Husbandry is at the highest pitch of 
improvement in England, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzer- 
land, and Lombardy. In manufactures and commerce, Great 
Britain excels all other empires ; but in the former, or at least 
in many branches of manufactures, France, Belgium, and Ger- 
many rival it. The states of Europe, next after Great Britain in 
commercial importance, are : France, Russia, Germany, Austria, 
Holland, etc. The improvement of all the sciences, and the 
finest productions of genius, belong exclusively to the Europeans. 
In almost all European countries, numerous universities, colleges, 
and other schools, provide for every branch of learning ; and, on 
the other hand, the fine arts have their chief seat in Europe. All 
the great painters, sculptors, artists in music, architects, and 
poets of ancient and modern times, were Europeans.* There are 
to be found, it is true, huge monuments of ancient architecture 
in Africa, Asia, and America, but compared with the sublime 



* These remarks are intended to include the descendants of Europeans in 
the United States and elsewhere. 



GENERAL VIEW OF EUROPE. 21 

Independent States. 

works of the ancient Greeks and Romans, with the Gothic build- 
ings of the middle ages, and even with the performances of mod- 
ern architects in Europe, they must yield the palm to them. 
Most of the European countries are noted for their excellent 
roads (above all England), and only Turkey and Hungary are 
without them. Canals are most numerous in England, and, as 
for the European continent, in Russia, Holland, Belgium, France, 
and Sweden. Besides this, England is crossed in almost every 
direction by rail-roads, which are now also to be found in every 
country of the continent. 

15. Europe comprises 55 independent states, of which 33 belong 
to Germany, (exclusive of Prussia and Austria, the grand-duchy 
of Luxemburg, and the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg), 7 
to Italy, and 2 to the Netherlands (Belgium and Holland being 
called thus in a general signification). If we mark Germany, 
Italy, and the Netherlands with the name of countries, we may 
say that Europe comprises 16 countries, of which 14 are at the 
same time states, or political bodies. 

These 16 European countries are the following: — 1, Russia; 
2, Sweden and Norway ; 3, Denmark ; 4, Great Britain and Ire- 
land ; 5, Portugal ; 6, Spain ; 7, France ; 8, the Netherlands ; 
9, Germany; 10, the kingdom of Prussia; 11, the Austrian em- 
pire; 12, Switzerland ; 13, Italy; 14, the Ionian Islands; 15, 
Turkey; and 16, Greece. 

Of those 55 states, 8 have a republican, and the remaining 47 
a monarchic form of government. 

The 7 republics are : France, San Marino, the Helvetic and 
the Ionian Republics, and the free German cities, Hamburg, Bre- 
men, Lubec, and Frankfort. 

Among the 47 monarchic states are — 

3 Empires : Austria, Russia, and Turkey (for the Grand Sig- 
nior is in some respect considered as successor of the ancient 



22 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESEJN'l. 

Independent States. 

Greek emperors, and, partly for this reason, entitled emperor by 
the Europeans). 

15 Kingdoms: Prussia, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Great 
Britain and Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Greece, Two Sicilies, Sar- 
dinia, Holland, Belgium, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and Wur- 
temberg. 

7 Grand Duchies: Tuscany, Saxe Weimar, Mecklenburg — 
Schwerin, Mecklenburg — Strelitz, Oldenburg, Hesse — Darm- 
stadt, and Baden. 

9 Duchies : 3 Saxon, 2 Anhaltian, Brunswick, Nassau, Modena, 
and Parma. 

10 Principalities : 2 Keussian, 2 Lippian, Hohenzollern — Hech- 
ingen, Hohenzollern — Sigmaringen, Schwartzburg — Rudolstadt, 
Schwartzburg — Sondershausen, Waldeck, and Liechtenstein : (the 
other principalities in Europe are not independent). 

1 Electorate : Hesse — Cassel. 

1 Landgr aviate : Hesse — Homburg. 

1 Ecclesiastical State : the States of the Church. 

The oldest republic in Europe is San Marino, (from 469 
A. D.); the oldest empire is the Turkish (from 1453; the 
Russian dates from 1721, and the Austrian from 1804) ; the 
oldest kingdoms are Spain, Denmark, and England ; the oldest 
grand duchy is Tuscany, and the oldest duchy is Brunswick. 

Russia comprises the most extensive territory, the principality 
of Liechtenstein is the smallest state in population, and San Ma- 
rino the smallest in extent among the European states. 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY OF EUROPE. 

The history of Europe can, as a general historical sketch 
of all the European states, of course, not go farther back than 
to the time of the migration of nations, or to that of the dissolu- 
tion of the western Roman empire ; because until that time most 
of the European countries were constituent parts of the Roman 
empire, while the rest were then still in a too barbarous stage of 
society to form a proper subject of political history. We will 
only add, that at the time of the Christian era, the Roman em- 
pire comprised the whole south of Europe, all France, England, 
the greatest part of the Netherlands. Switzerland and the south 
of Germany, Hungary, Turkey, and Greece, beside many other 
nations and kingdoms in Asia and Africa. 

1. In the fourth century after Christ, the Goths (see Introd. 
§ 12) occupied the north-east of Europe, the Visigoths were 
settled in Dacia (Moldavia and Wallachia)" and west of the 
Dnieper : and the Ostrogoths east of the Dnieper river. The 
Goths were the first among all the Germanic tribes, who adopted 
Christianity. Between the Volga and Don rivers lived the 
Alans. 

2. Meanwhile the Huns, whose primitive seat was near the 
northern boundary of China, had moved onward to the west ; in 
375, they attacked and pressed forward the Alans, and then both 
nations pressed on the Goths. In this way commenced the great 



24 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Alans — Vandals — Burgundians — Saxons. 

migration of nations into the several parts of the Roman empire. 
In 378 the Visigoths, conjointly with the Huns and Alans, in- 
vaded Thracia, and defeated the Roman emperor Valens at 
Adrian ople. Afterwards Alaric, king of the Visigoths, was in- 
vested with the government of Illyricum (Dalmatia and the 
southern provinces of Turkey), and in 403 he invaded Italy, 
threatened Rome twice with destruction, and in the year 410 he 
took the city and gave it up to plunder. He shortly after died, 
and his successor, Athaulf, making peace with emperor Hono- 
rius, conducted his Visigoths to Gaul or France (in the year 412), 
and in 414 to Spain, where the Visigoths soon became the ruling 
nation, and founded an empire which comprised Aquitania (Guy- 
enne, Gascogne, and Languedoe, in France) also, and whose capi- 
tal was Toulouse. 

3. About the same time, other Germanic tribes, the Alans, 
Vandals, Burgundians, and Sueves (ancestors of the Suabians in 
Wurtemberg), had moved on in the same direction, and. crossing 
the Rhine (in 406), settled themselves permanently in various 
parts of the Roman empire. The Vandals had their primitive 
seat in the north of Germany, between the Elbe and Vistula 
rivers,, and in the first half of the 4th century transferred it to 
Pannonia (Bosnia and parts of Hungary) . The Burgundians, 
at first residing in the vicinity of the Vandals, were compelled 
by the Gepides (a Gothic tribe) to move from the mouth of 
the Vistula into Germany, and afterwards into Switzerland 
and the south-eastern provinces of the present France. The 
Sueves had their primitive seat near the Elbe and in the middle 
parts of Germany, and many of them joined afterwards the 
Alans and Vandals on their march to the south-west of Europe. 

4. In 426, the last Roman troops withdrew from Britannia, 
or England, which since was invaded and ravaged by the ancient 
Scots. The Britons, therefore, asked the assistance of two tribes 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 25 

The Henili — (Ocloacer) — Ostrogoths— (Theodoric) — Franks. 

of people from Germany, called Saxons (occupying the present 
kingdom of Hanover and the duchy of Holstein) and Angles 
(in the present duchy of Sleswick). These people readily com- 
plied with the request, and in 449 went over to Britain ; they 
drove back the Scots, but instead of then returning to Germany, 
they took possession of the country. Britain was afterwards 
divided by them into seven small kingdoms, called the Saxon 
Heptarchy. The Britons partly retired into Wales, partly emi- 
grated to Armorica (in France), which since received the name 
of Bretagne, or Brittany. 

5. At the same time the Huns, now ruled by an enterprising 
king, Attila, re-appeared on the European theatre of war. At 
the head of 700,000 men, Attila marched from Hungary into 
Germany, ravaging and plundering everywhere, and then invaded 
Gaul, or France, which he was about to conquer likewise. But 
in a bloody battle at Chalons on the Marne, in 451. he was de- 
feated, whereupon he invaded Italy, and died (in 452). After 
his death the ties of his empire loosened, and the Huns them- 
selves dispersed by degrees among other nations. 

6. In the year 476, almost the last independent part of the 
Western empire, or Italy, with Rome itself, was entirely subju- 
gated by Odoacer, the leader of another northern tribe, called 
the Heruli ; and it remained under this dominion for 1 4 years. 

7. Meanwhile the Ostrogoths (see § 1 of the History) had 
transferred their seat into Pannonia (Bosnia) and Thracia, and 
were on good terms with the rulers of the Eastern empire at 
Constantinople. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, now made 
to emperor Zeno the offer of conquering Italy for him. His 
proposal being agreed to, Theodoric emigrated with all the Os- 
trogoths to Italy, defeated in 490 Odoacer in three battles, made 
himself master of the whole country, and was by emperor Anas- 
tasius, successor of Zeno, acknowledged as king of Italy. But 



•26 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Merovingian Dynasty, founded by Clovis in Gaul. 



after his death, which occurred in 526, emperor Justinian (who 
reigned from 527 to 565), anxious to realize his claims on Italy, 
sent thither two eminent commanders. Belisarius and Narscs, 
who, after a struggle of eighteen years, succeeded in their task, 
and made of Italy a province of the Eastern empire. The 
Eastern and Western empires were thus reunited, but only for 
a short period, as we soon shall see. 

8. It is now time to cast a look at Gaul, or France. This 
latter name the country derived from the Franks, a German 
tribe, who, between the third and fourth centuries, or in the 
period from 237 to 375, got possession of the northern part of 
Graul. It is said, their first king here was Pharamond, who died 
in 428. His grandson Meroveus, who died in 458, was the 
founder of the dynasty of the Merovingians, reigning in France 
for about three hundred years. But the most eminent of the 
Merovingians was Clovis, who drove the Bomans out of France 
(in 486), subdued the Armoricans in Bretagne, subjected the 
Burgundians (see § 3) to tribute, wrested considerable tracts of 
land from the Visigoths in the south of France (see § 2), and 
extended his conquests northward to the Bhine. Clovis, having 
married a Christian princess, and attributing his success to the 
God whom she worshipped, determined to become a Christian 
himself, and in 496, he, with three thousand of his subjects, was 
baptized and anointed as king of the Franks, at Bheims, by the 
bishop Bemigius. After his death (which occurred in 511), 
France was divided among bis four sons. This impolitic proceed- 
ing proved fatal to the common interest ; the more so, as it was 
followed by subsequent divisions. At last, after the death of 
king Charibert, of Paris, or since the year 539, France, or rather 
the Frankish empire, was divided into three distinct states, viz. : 
Auslrasia, or the eastern empire (comprising the north-east of 
Gaul and the southern half of Germany, between Tyrol and the 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 21 



The Majores-domus in France.— Carlovin^ian Dynasty. 



forest of Thuringia, and between the Rhine and the Inn rivers); 
Neustria, or the western empire (comprising the north-west of 
Gaul, between the Waal and Loire rivers) ; and Burgundy, or the 
southern empire (comprising Provence, parts of Aquitania, parts 
of Switzerland and Alsace). The capital of Austrasia was 
MetZj that of Neustria Soissons, and that of Burgundy Orleans. 
In the beginning of the 7th century, the Frankish king used to 
invest eminent men with the superintendence of the domains and 
fiefs of the crown, and with the command of the royal military 
forces. These men, endowed with great power, were called 
Majores-domus ; one of them had the superintendence in Aus- 
trasia, another in Neustria, and a third in Burgundy. The last 
kings of the Merovingian dynasty being weaklings, and not much 
better than mock -kings, the Majores-domus came soon to be con- 
sidered as the actual rulers. In 687, Pepin of Her stall (the latter 
name was derived from his estate near Liege), Major-domus of 
Austrasia, was invested with the superintendence in the other 
Frankish kingdoms too, and from that time assumed the title of 
" duke and prince of the Franks." He was succeeded in his dig- 
nity by his son Charles Martell, renowned for his brilliant and 
decisive victory over the Moors or Arabs, between Tours and 
Poitiers, in 732. The son and successor of Charles Martell was 
Pepin the Little, who was indeed but a very small man, but had a 
mighty spirit in his little body, and moreover an enormous deal 
of strength. The weakness and inaptitude of the Merovingian 
kings having become now too obvious, the last of them, Childeric 
III , was, in 752, by an assembly of the states of the empire 
held at Soissons, declared to have forfeited his throne, and was 
exiled to a monastery ; while Pepin the Little was elected king- 
of the Franks, and anointed by the bishop Bonifacius. With 
him began the sway of the dynasty of the C arlovingians (which 



28 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Lombards— Visigoths — Moors. 



name was derived from Pepin's son, Charles the Great, or Charle- 
magne). 

9. The Greek emperors exercised their sway in Italy only for 
fourteen years. The Lombards (a Suevian or German tribe, at 
first having their seat near the middle course of the Elbe), who 
had once already been called on for assistance by the imperial 
governor Narses, returned to Italy in 568, headed by their val- 
iant king Alboin, wrested the northern part, since called Lom- 
bardy, from the Greeks, and got possession of most of the other 
parts of the Italian peninsula. They even threatened Rome, but 
pope Stephen III., calling on the Frankish king, Pepin the Little, 
for help, the latter defeated the Lombards, and compelled them to 
cede to the holy seat the maritime country on the Adriatic Sea, 
which they lately had conquered. In this way the pope's temporal 
power wa,s established, and the foundation laid of what is now called 
the States of the Church. This occurred in 755. In 774 new 
differences between the pope and the Lombards brought on tho 
intervention of Charlemagne, who vanquished the Lombards 
completely and embodied their kingdom with that of the Franks. 
Lower Italy (comprising the continental part of the present 
kingdom of Naples) and the Island of Sicily remained under the 
sway of the Greek emperors until 842, when this island and 
Calabria came into the possession of the Arabs. 

10. The Visigoths had since their inroad in Spain (see § 2) 
established their power there permanently, and extended it in 
the course of time over all parts of the peninsula. Their capital 
and royal residence was Toledo since 531. But as soon as the 
wars with other tribes and nations had ceased, there arose civil wars 
and other intestine commotions, which caused one party to call 
on the Moors or Arabs (who then had conquered the whole north- 
ern coast of Africa) for assistance. The latter acted the same 
part as the Saxons and Angles had done in Britain. Scarcely 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 29 

Slaves — Croates — Servians, etc. 

had they set their foot on the Spanish ground, in 711, when they 
attacked the Visigoths and defeated them completely in a battle 
at Xeres de la Frontera, which lasted nine days. The fate of Rod- 
eric, the last king of the Visigoths in Spain, was never known ; 
his horse and weapons were found near the field of battle, but his 
body was nowhere to be seen. Pelagio, a prince of the blood- 
royal, took command of the G-oths who had not been slaiu by the 
Moors, led them into the mountainous region of Asturias, and 
founded there a little kingdom, the boundaries of which his suc- 
cessors enlarged in the course of time. But for the present, and 
for the next centuries, the Moors possessed the greatest part of 
the Pyrenean peninsula. 

11. During the migration of nations, many countries in the 
east of Europe were depopulated, and this circumstance gave oc- 
casion to the Slaves (see Introduction, § 12, #), to move farther 
to the west, and occupy the abandoned seats. The main body 
of the Slaves remained in Russia and Poland, but some tribes 
peopled Bohemia, others settled themselves in the German coun- 
tries bordering on the Baltic Sea ; while lower Hungary and 
Austria were occupied by the Avares (who had their primitive 
seat between the Black and Caspian Seas), Dalmatia, and other 
countries in the vicinity, by the Croates and Servians, and Bul- 
garia by the Bulgarians (a Tartar tribe, who in the 5th century 
had emigrated from their primitive seat between the Volga and 
Ural rivers). About the Magyars, see Introduction, § 12. 

12. The European territory of the Eastern empire, or of the 
Roman emperors residing at Constantinople, had, by all these 
circumstances, been greatly reduced ; nevertheless, it yet ranked 
highest among the Christian kingdoms by its civilization, wealth, 
and flourishing commerce. Constantinople was then the largest 
and handsomest city in Europe, and the imperial court displayed 
much splendor and luxury, though the history of this court pre- 



30 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Scandinavians — Normans — Charlemagne. 



sents a series of cruelties and infamous actions, seldom or never 
heard of in other countries. 

13. The Scandinavian countries, or Sweden, Norway, and Den- 
mark, were, if not first, yet chiefly peopled by the German tribe 
of Goths, who immigrated there about the Christian era. In 
the course of time those countries became, in a certain degree, 
overpopulated, which gave rise to the famous naval expeditions 
of the Normans, who after the 9th century invaded the shores 
of England, Germany, Holland, Belgium, and France, every- 
where plundering and ravaging. They proved themselves to be 
as daring freebooters, as they were gallant warriors, and acted 
an important part in the political affairs of several European 
countries in the west and south. 

14. Charlemagne (see § 8), who was born in 742, reigned 
from the year 768 to 814, and in this whole period he was almost 
continually at war. In 774 he wrested the kingdom, of Italy 
from the Lombards (see § 9), and added its crown to that which 
he wore already as king of the Franks. Meanwhile the long- 
nourished hostile sentiments between the Franks and their next 
neighbors in the north, the Saxons, had finally led to an erup- 
tion, which was followed by a war of more than thirty years. 
Charlemagne was indeed in this war the aggressor ; but beside 
his anxious desire to introduce Christianity among the pagan 
Saxons, he had well-founded political reasons to act as he did. 
For the Saxons had made frequent inroads into his empire, and 
moreover being a very valiant and enterprising people, it was 
to be feared they would sooner or later try to conquer it, or 
at least wrest some provinces from it. Thus the war commenced 
against them in 772, and lasted, though with some intervals, 
until 804, when a final treaty of peace was concluded, according 
to which the Saxons acknowledged the sovereignty of Charle- 
magne, and adopted the Christian faith. In one of those inter- 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTOllY. SI 

Division of the Empire of Charlemagne — Germany. 

vals, in 778, the Moorish governor of Saragossa requested Charle- 
magne to lend him his assistance against the Emir Abderrahman. 
Accordingly, a Frankish army was sent to Spain, and this cam- 
paign terminated in the annexation of all the country north of 
the Ebro to the Frankish empire. This new acquisition was 
called the Spanish mark (margraviate). A war against the 
Danes was in 810 terminated by a treaty of peace, which stipu- 
lated that the Eider river was to be considered as the boundary 
between the Danes and Franks ; and indeed this river has since 
continually been the boundary between Denmark and Germany. 
To secure the boundaries in the east and south-east, Charlemagne 
founded there several margraviates, for instance ; the Avarian 
mark (comprising what is now called the arch-duchy of Austria) 
against the Avares (see §11); Friaul, etc. In the year 800 
when Charlemagne happened to be at Rome, the pope (who for 
many substantial services, was highly indebted to him) placed 
the imperial crown upon his head, and thus, as it were, revived the 
Western Roman Empire. Charles the Great died in the year 
814 at Aix-la-Chapelle, and was succeeded by his son Louis, sur- 
named the Pious, who was in point of mental power almost the 
reverse of his father. Louis the Pious died in 840, and left his 
dominions to his three sons, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, who 
divided them by a treaty, concluded at Verdun in 843, in the 
following manner : 

Louis (since surnamed the German) acquired Germany, which 
since that time has ever been separated from France, and where 
after the death of the last descendant of Louis (which occurred 
in 911) an elective monarchy was established, and so it continued, 
even so late as the year 1806. Louis the German had shortly 
before his death inherited the rights to the imperial crown, as 
well as to Italy, Burgundy, part of Switzerland, to Alsace, Lor- 
raine, etc., and entailed these rights on his descendants and sue- 



32 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



France— Kingdom of Italy — England. 



cessors to the German crown. They were realized for the first 
time by his grandson Arnulph (reigning in the period from 887 
to 899), who not only was crowned as Roman-German emperor, 
but also brought the kingdom of Italy and Burgundy into a po- 
litical connection with Germany. 

Charles (surnamed the Bald) acquired France, which was 
ruled by his descendants until the year 987, when the Capetians 
supplanted the race of the Carlovingians. 

Lolhaire acquired the imperial crown and the kingdom of 
Italy, and besides this a long tract of land situated between 
France and Germany, viz. Provence, Dauphiny, Burgundy, Al- 
sace, Lorraine and the Netherlands. But his race became extinct 
even so early as the year 875 ; and thus the German kings, his 
nearest relations, became the heirs of his rights. 

15. As for England (see § 4), all the seven kingdoms of the 
Saxon Heptarchy were united into one, under the government 
of Egbert, King of Wessex. This occurred in the year 827. 
Egbert was therefore the first King of England — a name de- 
rived from that of Anglia, the home of the Angles, and sub- 
stituted for the former name of Britannia by Egbert. During 
his reign, and for many years afterwards, the Normans (see § 13) 
made frequent incursions into England, and sometimes overran 
the whole country. King Alfred the Great (who reigned from 
the year 871 to 901) opposed them with good success, but a hun- 
dred years after his death the Normans again broke into Eng- 
land, and were now completely victorious, so that in the period 
from 1016 to 1042 three Danish kings governed the country in 
succession (Swen, Canute, and Hardicanute). In the year 1042, 
the Normans or Danes were driven out of England, and another 
Saxon King, Edward II, surnamed the Confessor, was placed 
upon the throne. Meanwhile the Normans had settled in France, 
and acquired there (at the end of the 9th century) a large tract 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 



Norman Conquest of England — Moors in Spain. 



of land, since called Normandy. William duke of Normandy, 
who was related to King Edward, made claim to the English 
throne, and after Edward's death, which occurred in 1066, he in- 
vaded England, at the head of sixty thousand men, defeated his 
rival Harold (son of the mighty Count Godwin ; for Edward had 
left no children) in the battle of Hastings (on the 14th of Oct. 
1066), and became King of England. He was now called Wil- 
liam the Conqueror , and is the ancestor of the still reigning royal 
family of G-reat Britain. 

16. The Moors in Spain (see § 10) were in the beginning ruled 
by governors of the Caliphs then reigning at Damascus (the seat 
of the latter not being transferred to Bagdad until the year 754) ; 
but in 756 the Arabian prince Abderrahman founded an inde- 
pendent empire in Spain, and took his seat in Cordova (north-east, 
and 120 miles distant from Cadiz), which soon rose to be a splen- 
did city, and at one time numbered 1,000,000 inhabitants. The 
Moorish empire was at that time separated from that of the 
Christians by the Duero. Concerning the Christian empire, the 
little kingdom of Asturias, founded by Pelagio (see § 10), was 
since its first enlargement called the Kingdom of Leon. The 
Spanish mark, conquered by Charlemagne (see § 14), having 
meanwhile been divided into two counties, Barcelona and 
Navarre, and the count of Navarre having since assumed the 
royal title, there were now two Christian kingdoms in Spain ; 
which, in the course of time, brought into existence the kingdoms 
of Aragon, Castile, Galicia, the principality of Catalonia, etc. 
Portugal, being first a province of the united kingdoms of Cas- 
tile and Leon, became in 1139 an independent kingdom. The 
power of the Moors in Spain was more and more restricted by 
the conquests of the Christian kings, till in 1492 Granada, the 
last Moorish possession on the Pyrenean peninsula, was conquer- 
ed by the Queen Isabella of Castile, and King Ferdinand, of 

2* 



34 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Ferdinand and Isabella — Society in the Middle Ages. 



Aragon. At this time the kingdom of Aragon comprised not 
only Aragon, but the whole north-east part of Spain, while the 
kingdom of Castile comprised all other parts ; and as Ferdinand 
and Isabella were united by marriage, all Spain came after their 
death under the sway, first of their daughter Johanna (or rather 
their son-in-law Philip), then of their grandson, the celebrated 
King Charles I. (or Charles V. as emperor of Germany), who 
entailed the Spanish crown on his descendants. 

17. This sketch of the political history of Europe will suffice for 
the present ; and deferring the further particulars of it to the his- 
torical introduction of each separate state, we shall now give a 
condensed description of the state of European culture in the mid- 
dle ages. 

Had the time of blooming and vigor of the Roman empire last- 
ed forever, there is no doubt but Roman culture would at last 
have prevailed throughout Europe. But the migration of nations 
(see §. 2), and with it perpetual wars, interfered and destroyed 
almost the last remains of it. Thus a commencement was to be 
made anew. But a quiet and peaceful development being impos- 
sible at that time, matters went on in the following succession : 

1. Improvement of warlike or military conditions. 

2. Agriculture. 

3. Foundation of new towns and cities. 

4. Commercial intercourse and rudiments of industry. 

5. A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity, 
and subsequently the extension of the clerical power. 

6. The foundation of universities and the generalization of 
other schools. 

7. The gradual improvement of sciences and fine arts. 

8. Fresh life and activity in commercial and industrious enter- 
prises, generated by the Crusades. 

9. Origination of free citizens and corporations. 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 



Social Progress in the Middle Ages. 



10. New progress of sciences and fine arts. 

11. The invention of gunpowder and of the art of printing ; the 
Reformation and the discovery of America, and of the passage by 
sea to India ; and the immense social and intellectual revolu- 
tions brought on by these events, whose .consequences are still 
apparent. 

In the period from the latter time of the migration of nations 
until the crusades, Italy (as the former millennial seat of the 
Roman empire), Spain (as the seat of the industrious and intel- 
ligent Moors since the 8th century), and the Eastern empire (as 
retaining the remains of Roman culture) were to be considered 
as illuminated directly, and the other European countries as il- 
luminated indirectly, by the beams of the sun of culture. Mean- 
while the progress of culture went on in the above indicated man- 
ner. Thus we shall begin with the 

[a.) Improvement of warlike or military conditions ; — of course 
only with reference to the Germanic tribes (see §§ 1, 2, 3, etc.), 
as all other European nations (with the exception of the Romans) 
lived at that time in a state of complete barbarity. Among the 
Germanic tribes it was the custom and practice to wage war in 
two different ways: viz., either to call to arms all freebom war- 
riors under the command of dukes elected by each tribe (this way 
w 7 as less frequent, and chiefly used in defensive wars) ; or to 
select warriors of profession out of those freeborn men, who were 
upon terms of a particular political dependence with the com- 
mander-in-chief. With this warfare the feudal system was 
closely connected. As soon as a foreign country was conquered ■> 
either the whole (as in the case of the Saxons in England, and of 
the Lombards in Italy), or some part of it (sometimes one third, 
but most frequently two thirds) was divided between the king (as 
commander-in-chief) and his military retinue ; each member of 
the latter receiving a lot, called Allodium, which as a patrimonial 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Feudal System — Agriculture — Bondage. 



estate was at his free disposition. The king, receiving a far 
greater lot than any member of his retinue, used to confer parts 
of it, by the name of fees (in Latin feuda or beneficia), on single 
members of this retinue in usufruct for lifetime. The feoffees, 
called vassals, were bound to faith and homage towards the 
feoffer, and to warfare in case of war. In this way all allodial 
proprietors became gradually feudal tenants also. The feoffer 
was under the obligation to protect his vassal, and for this reason 
many allodial proprietors, being incompetent to their own pro- 
tection, conferred their estate upon any powerful neighbor, and 
received it back again from him as a fee. At first the fees were 
not transmissible by inheritance, but in the course of time the 
heritable quality was partly conceded, partly usurped ; and since 
that time, only in case of felony the fee was allowed to be with- 
drawn. Considering the peculiar condition of society in the 
middle ages, it cannot be denied that the feudal system was 
quite adapted to it, and afforded many advantages. 

(b.) Agriculture, formerly in a more or less flourishing state 
throughout most of those European countries that were under 
the Roman sway, but since the beginning of the migration of 
nations almost totally neglected (except in the Eastern empire), 
made but poor progress in the period from the year 476 till 752 
(when the sway of the Carlovingians commenced), because the 
freeborn men being for the most time engaged in warfare, gave 
themselves seldom the trouble to cultivate the soil, which thus 
was chiefly tilled by the bondsmen or serfs. Bondage or servitude 
had from the earliest time been in practice not only among the 
Germanes, but also among the Slavonians (see $ 12 of the Intro- 
duction), and has not, in most of the countries where it existed, 
been abolished before the last and the present centuries. It may 
indeed be called a kind of slavery, but in various respects it dif- 
fers from proper slavery, which was in use among the ancient 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 37 

Foundation of Towns and Cities. 

Romans, Greeks, etc., and is still in use amongthe Mohammedans 
and other peoples ! — In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries agriculture 
was in the Christian countries of Europe promoted chiefly by the 
endeavors of the monks ; and since the beginning of the crusades 
(at the end of the 11th century), when many bondsmen entered 
the armies of the cross, in order to partake of their privileges of 
personal freedom, agriculture and other branches of husbandry 
became more and more the occupation of free farmers, and at the 
same time attained a higher degree of importance. In the East- 
ern empire the culture of silk-worms was introduced during the 
reign of Justinian I. (527-565). The Moors in Spain managed 
the cultivation of the soil in an exemplary mariner ; and even 
steep and sandy hills were by their perseverance transformed 
into fertile arable land. The meadows of Andalusia were never 
parched by the scorching sun, as the Moors took care to keep 
them humid by irrigating canals. Along the Guadalquivir river 
were situated more than 12,000 flourishing villages, and the 
township of Seville alone contained not less than 100,000 villages 
and farms. 

(c.) In speaking of the foundation of towns and cities since the 
commencement of European culture in general, we of course have 
only in view those countries which but then emerged from their 
state of barbarity, and where hitherto the people had more or less 
been accustomed to live in huts lying scattered about in the 
woods or open field. This was the custom among the ancient 
Germans (for the towns and cities on the left bank of the Rhine 
had been founded by the Romans), among the Poles, Magyars, 
Britons, and in general among all the northern nations of Eu- 
rope. In the north and north-east of Europe, the foundation of 
towns and cities, in the style of those in the southern countries, 
did not take place before the middle of the 13th century, and the 
few existing ones were not endowed with municipal laws before 



88 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Roeskilde— Moscow — London — Constantinople. 

that time. In Sweden the city of Bjoerkoe, on an island of the 
lake Maelar. (see § 9, of the Introduction), was indeed, even so 
early as in the first half of the 9th century, distinguished by its 
numerous population, its riches and power ; but the country in 
general had but few towns of any importance. Roeskilde, the 
capital of Denmark until the year 1443, was founded at a very 
early period, and had since the 11th century a population of 
100,000 inhabitants, and not less than 27 magnificent churches 
and monasteries ; but this was rather an exception from the rale. 
Moscow in Russia may have been founded in the 9th century, but 
it is more probable that its foundation did not take place before 
the middle of the 12th century. In 1367 the first palace of 
stone was built here. The first foundation of London was laid 
by the Romans even so early as the year 52 ; in the beginning 
of the 7th century it was, says a contemporary, " a commercial 
town frequented by many nations by sea and by land ;" and since 
the 11th century, the commercial intercourse was still more ac- 
tive here ; yet until towards the end of the 12th century most of 
the houses here were built of wood and thatched, till in 1189 
King Richard I. ordered all houses with more than two stories to 
be built of stone, and roofed with tiles or slates. In German]/, 
the lack of cities or fortified towns was first felt when the fierce 
Magyars or Huns (as they commonly were called, and from which 
name originated that of the Hungarians) made their plundering 
incursions at the end of the 9th, and in the beginning of the 
10th century; and not until now most of the principal towns in 
the interior of Germany were founded. Constantinople was at 
that time not only the emporium, but also in other respects the 
most important city of Europe. Besides this capital, the Eastern 
empire had many other fine cities ; while in Italy those which had 
been founded by the ancient Romans, were multiplied by new 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY 39 



Commercial Intercourse — Industry. 



ones, for instance, by Venice. Likewise in Spain and in some 
parts of France, there were many cities of early origin. 

(d.) In the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th 
century, the commercial intercourse as well as the industry, was 
in general very insignificant, and almost entirely confined to Con- 
stantinople, where industry was considerably promoted by the 
luxury of the magnificent imperial court, and an important trade 
was at that time carried on with several maritime countries on 
the Mediterranean Sea. In the next period until the beginning 
of the crusades or of the 12th century, the Moors in Spain ex- 
celled all other nations of Europe in point of manufactures and 
other branches of industry. Their woollen cloth, silk stuffs, em- 
broideries in gold and silver, Morocco-leather, hardware, their ex- 
cellent workmanship in arms, etc. found everywhere in Europe 
as well as in Africa and Asia, a lucrative market. In the art of 
dyeing, the Moors were eminently skilled. Likewise the work- 
ing in the Spanish gold and silver mines was managed by them 
with ability and circumspection, and added greatly to their 
wealth. In other countries of Europe in the latter period, the 
commercial preponderance of Constantinople gradually went over 
to the Italian sea-towns of Venice, Pisa, Genoa and Amalfi (the 
last-named town is situated in the vicinity of Naples). These 
towns had risen to be independent commercial states, while in 
other western countries of Europe (with the exception of the 
Arabian part of Spain) the commercial intercourse was almost 
confined to trade by barter, or provision only for the daily supply. 
But now the circumstances there were more favorable. Indian 
and Levantine goods were sent from Constantinople by way of 
the Danube river up to Ratisbon (on the Danube), which was at 
that time the most considerable and populous city of Germany, and 
mediated the intercourse not only between the eastern and west- 
ern countries, but also between the north-east part of Europe and 



40 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Christianity — Monastic Life. 

Italy. In France the southern cities, above all Marseilles, traded 
with the Levant, while* those of the north carried on commerce 
chiefly with England. Even the Slavonian tribes in the vicinity 
of the Elbe River and on the Baltic Sea, especially the citizens of 
Julin (on an island at the mouth of the Oder River; it was de- 
stroyed in 1170), kept up a commercial intercourse with neigh- 
boring countries. The increasing number of towns and cities, 
the establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver 
mines in the Hartz (see $ 7, k. Introd.) and in other parts of 
Germany were promoting the industry in those quarters. 

(e.) A more general efficiency and propagation of Christianity 
was almost impossible during the troubles and disturbances in 
the period of the migration of nations. Yet a roundabout ground 
of it was laid by the transplantation of monastic life from the 
dioceses of the oriental church to those of the occidental. This 
was effected by St. Benedict of Nursia, who in 529 founded a mon- 
astery on Mount Cassino, near Naples, that gave rise to the es- 
tablishment of monasteries in other countries of Europe. These 
institutions were not only the seminaries for nearly all those 
heroes of the faith, who in the earlier time of the middle ages, as 
missionaries, propagated Christianity among the pagan tribes of 
Europe, frequently at the risk of their lives ; but may likewise 
be considered as the only nurseries and preservers of classical 
literature and of sciences in general in those dark ages. With- 
out the monasteries, even genuine manuscripts of the Holy Bible 
might be very rare. That monks deserved well for their cultiva- 
tion of the soil, has already been mentioned ; and moreover they 
were engaged in handiwork, in the instruction of youth, in writ- 
ing chronicles, in copying classical manuscripts, etc. Before the 
time of Charlemagne, the pope, as the visible head of the occiden- 
tal church, had but little influence or authority in temporal mat- 
ters ; but since he had placed the imperial crown upon the head 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 41 



Papal Power — Instruction of the People. 



of this king (see § 14), he assumed the privilege of crowning all 
his successors, and subsequently (in the next period until the 1 1th 
century) the supreme legislative power in ecclesiastical matters, 
the supreme judicial power in the same matters and in all causes 
concerning the clergy, and the right of pronouncing the interdict 
(a papal prohibition to the clergy to celebrate the holy offices) 
against whole districts and even countries, and the anathema 
against persons, in cases of transgressions against the church. 
But the preponderance of the papal authority dated from the 
time of Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085) and of the crusades 
(from the end of the 11th to that of the 13th century). The 
popes now went so far as to declare that God had given them all 
the kingdoms of heaven and earth ; they actually dethroned kings, 
treated them as their vassals, and continued for more than three 
hundred years to exercise an almost undisputed sway over both 
kings and peoples of the Christian world. It was about the pe- 
riod of the reign of Innocentus, III. (1198—1216) that the power 
of the pope was at its highest pitch. But after Boniface VIII 
(1294-1303) had been deeply humbled, and treated with con- 
tempt by King Philip IV. of France, the papal power went rap- 
idly to decay. 

(f.) It cannot be denied that the Roman Catholic church has 
done far more for promoting knowledge and instruction than the 
oriental church, especially in the middle ages. Yet many kings 
were not behind in their endeavors, among them Charlemagne, 
who established a great number of schools and interested himself 
even personally in the progress of the pupils. In the preceding 
period, the objects of instruction in the higher schools consisted 
of the so-called seven liberal arts, viz. study of the classical liter- 
ature, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and 
music. The best schools of this kind were at that time those of 
Cambridge, York and Canterbury in England, from whence sci- 



42 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Schools — Universities. 

entific knowledge gradually spread over the European continent. 
In the Eastern empire the Roman literature had lost its strength- 
ening freshness by the prevalence of a depraved taste ; all attain- 
ments in literature and science were nearly concentrated in Con- 
stantinople ; yet until the reign of Justinian I. (527-565) there 
was still a renowned academy at Athens. The Moors in Spain, 
so distinguished in other branches of human exertions, excelled 
also in the cultivation of sciences, especially in the period from 
the 8th to the 12th century. Cordova was the seat of literary 
institutions, academies and numerous common schools. The 
academies were celebrated, and much resorted to from other 
countries. Both Christians and Jews attended the instruction 
in matters of philosophy, medicine, mathematical and physical 
sciences. In the last-named period (752-1100) France, Ger- 
many and Switzerland were possessed of excellent cloister, cathe- 
dral and episcopal schools in Paris and Normandy, at Corvey, 
Fuld'a, Paderborn and Hildesheim, and at St. Gall. About the 
same time the first universities of Europe were founded. The 
most celebrated among them were those of Salerno (in the vicin- 
ity of Naples), of Bologna (in the States of the Church), and of 
Paris. The object of instruction in the first was principally med- 
icine, in the second jurisprudence, and in the third theology and 
philosophy. At the medical faculty or seminary of Salerno, 
founded in the beginning of the 12th centuiw, and endowed with 
the privileges of a university in 1150, it was chiefly Arabian pro- 
fessors who directed the instruction. In 1 1 19, or about that 
time, the university of Bologna took its rise ; but its glory dates 
from the professorship of the celebrated legist Irnerius (fll40) ; 
in 1158 it was endowed with the privileges of a university by 
Emperor Frederick I. About the year 1200, when another re- 
nowned professor, named Azzo, illustrated this university, it was 
frequented by 10,000 students. It must be remarked here, that 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 43 

Universities — Literary Productions. 

many of the latter were indeed youth ; yet the greatest part of 
those students consisted of men of rank, or who filled high offices. 
For them was the knowledge of the 'Roman law (which was ex- 
plained here, and which had become the common law in most of 
the European countries) indispensable ; and as at that time the 
art of printing was not yet invented, and thus the study of 
books impossible, it was a matter of course, that they betook 
themselves to universities. The title of Doctor came first in use 
at the Universit}' of Bologna. Never did any university maintain 
its renown so long, nor influence church and state to such a de- 
gree as that of Paris. Though the opinion that its origin might 
be dated from the days of Charlemagne, is untenable, yet it orig- 
inated at a very early period, perhaps in the beginning of the 
10th century. In the 12th century this university numbered 
among its professors several men distinguished for their attain- 
ments in literature and science, of whom Peter Lombardus 
(+1164), a disciple of Abelard, was the most celebrated. His 
" libri sententiarum," comprise a theological system that for cen- 
turies vindicated its authority among the theologians. The uni- 
versities of Oxford and Cambridge are of so early origin too, that 
the period of their foundation cannot be stated with certainty. 
Before the end of the 13th century, there had been founded uni- 
versities at Padua, Naples, Reggio, Rome and Treviso ; at Mont- 
pellier, Orleans and Toulouse ; and at Salamanca in Spain. 

(g.) The literary productions in the western countries of Eu- 
rope during the period from the 5th to the latter half of the 8th 
century, consisted only of philosophical and church historical 
works, and were entirely written in Latin. Beda Venerabilis, 
author of a history of the Christian church in England, intro- 
duced first the Christian chronology into the western countries 
of Europe. In this period too, the first essays in the art of 
painting (wholly neglected since the first period of the Roman 



44 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Literary Productions — Fine Arts — Architecture. 



emperors) were made, and a transition from ancient to modern 
architecture was effected by the Gothic style (invented by the 
Ostrogoths, but in the course of time much improved and brought 
to its high state of grandeur), and likewise by the tasteless Lom- 
bardic style mingled with that of the Byzantines. In the 
Eastern empire the Latin language prevailed until the latter 
half of this period, when it began to be supplanted by a corrupt- 
ed Greek dialect. Literary productions at that time were 
rather insipid, and poetry was almost confined to the epigram. 
The church of St. Sophia, built in Constantinople during the 
reign of Justinian I. (527-563), was considered as a pattern 
of the early Christian architecture, the peculiar properties of 
which were the form of a cross, the cupola and the semicircular 
arch resting on cubical capitals. It was not until the 9th century 
that the arts of painting and sculpture began to be improved in 
the Eastern empire. — In the next period (752-1100) it was 
chiefly the Moors in Spain who excelled in poetry. The ballad 
was devised by them. Their architectonic performances in the 
Arabian style (an improved imitation of the Byzantine style) 
were distinguished for their easy forms and rich ornaments. In 
scientifical matter they chiefly cultivated the mathematical and 
physical sciences. Edrisi ( + 1 180) who made his studies at Cor- 
dova, wrote several geographical works of great value. In the 
other European countries (with the exception of the Eastern em- 
pire) the Latin ceased to be a living language, since in the 9th 
century the Romanic and Germanic languages had been im- 
proved with more success. In the same period (752-1100) sev- 
eral poetical and other works were, for the first time, written in 
German, and the grand cathedrals of Bamberg, Worms, Mentz, 
Spires, etc., built in the mixed Lombardo-Byzantine style. In 
the 1 1th century, the first feudal castles were built ; among them 
the celebrated Wartburg (now belonging to Saxe Weimar), in 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 45 

The Crusades. 

1067. ' About the same time music and painting on glass were 
cultivated successfully. 

(A.) As the Crusades, undertaken since the end of the 11th 
century by European nations for the recovery of the Holy Land, 
were attended by most important consequences with regard to 
the social condition and culture of Europe, we must previously 
give some historical outlines of them. The Holy Land, or Pal- 
estine, had, since the end of the 4th century, formed part of the 
Eastern empire, but in the 7th century been conquered by the 
Arabs. The latter granted free exercise of religion to the Chris- 
tian population, and in general, treated them with equity. In 
968 the sultan of Egypt took possession of Palestine, which 
continued to be under the sway of himself and his successors 
until the year 1078, when the Seldschuks (or Turks, who from other 
Turkish tribes differed only by their particular name, which they 
had derived from that of their former sultan, named Seldschuk) 
subdued the country ; and by them, the Christians, especially the 
pilgrims to Jerusalem, were often treated with cruelty and scorn. 
The pilgrims returned to Europe and gave an account of the 
treatment they received. This excited the indignation of the 
European Christians, and they were easily induced to unite in a 
great effort for taking the Holy Land from the infidel Seldschuks. 
There were in all, seven crusades: the first, in the period from 
the year 1096 to 1100; the second, 1147-1149; the third, 1189 
-1 193 ; the fourth, 1203-1204 ; the fifth, in 1228 ; the sixth, in 
1248; the seventh, in 1270. We shall now show the various 
consequences of the crusades, already alluded to. How they 
exerted influence on the extension of the pa-pal power, see above 
paragraph, marked (e). Yet we must add here that the possession 
of the immense riches of the Roman Catholic clergy, especially 
of the regular clergy, dates from the period of the crusades, they 
being then enabled to purchase at the cheapest prices the estates 



46 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Consequences of the Crusades— Chivalry— Orders of Knighthood. 

of crusaders. To the princes, too, the crusades preseDted many 
opportunities for extending their power ; for instance, by the 
escheating of fiefs, which thus became estates of the crown. The 
consequences, with regard to the nobility, were in substance the 
following : — First, the spirit of chivalry was improved, family- 
names and ensigns armorial came into use among the nobles, and 
the tournaments became now more general and more splendid. 
Then the crusades gave rise to the erection of the following 
religious and military orders : 1. The Knights of St. John, whose 
first origin dates from the year 1048, when some merchants from 
Amalfi (near Naples) erected a monastery and hospital at Jeru- 
salem ; yet their regular organization took place during the first 
crusade. In 1 187 they transferred their seat from Jerusalem 
to Ptolemais or Acre (on the Syrian coast), in 1291 to Cyprus, 
and in 1309 to Rhodes. On the last-named island they main- 
tained themselves for more than two hundred years until the 
year 1522, when the island was conquered by the Turkish sultan 
Soliman II. The king of Spain and German emperor Charles 
Y.j who then was in possession of Malta, ceded in 1530 to the 
knights this island, which in 1798 was conquered by the French, 
but since the year 1800 belongs to Great Britain. 2. The 
knights templars, whose first organization dates from the year 
1118, and who were distinguished for their valor and great ser- 
vices in the Holy Wars. Since the loss of the Holy Land, the 
knights templars transferred their principal seat to France, but 
to their misfortune. For their great wealth excited the avidity of 
King Philip the Fair, who, in 1312, exterminated almost the 
whole order. 3. The Teutonic order, originating in 1190, and its 
members consisting only of German knights. Since the re-con- 
quest of Palestine by the Saracens, the master of the Teutonic 
order transferred his seat from Jerusalem to Venice, thence to 
Marburg (belonging to Hesse Cassel), and filially to Marienbarg 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 47 

Commercial Intercourse. 

(south-east, and 32 miles distant from Dantzick). The knights 
of the Teutonic order subdued, in the period from the year 1230 
to 1283, the pagan tribes of the Prussians proper, and took pos- 
session of the whole country that now comprises the Prussian 
provinces of East and West Prussia. The last master of the 
Teutonic order was the margrave Albert, of the house of Hohen- 
zollern ; he changed his Catholic creed for Protestantism, and in 
1525 transformed his mastership into a duchy. The Teutonic 
order, dissatisfied with this alteration, now left the country, and 
removed their principal seat to Mergentheim (now belonging to 
the German kingdom of Wirtemberg). The dissolution of the 
order took place in 1809. Similar other orders originated chiefly 
in Spain. Concerning the consequences of the crusades with 
regard to European commerce and industry, it may be remarked 
that before that period the commercial train of Europe, in the 
direction from east to west, was to be compared with the moderate 
running of a river, which afterwards rising to a mighty stream and 
dividing into several branches, diffused its contents in every di- 
rection. Italian, French, and Catalonian maritime towns seized 
upon the sea-commerce ; while German, Netherlandish, and 
French traders took possession of the inland commerce. We 
shall first speak of the European sea-commerce, which from the 
remotest ages until the end of the 15th century ever continued 
to be (at least substantially) restricted to the Mediterranean Sea. 
During the crusades Venice, and partly Genoa and Pisa, acquired 
the most substantial monopolies and other commercial advantages 
in all seaports of the Eastern empire, as well as of Syria and 
Palestine. During the fourth crusade (in 1203 and 1204) the 
Venetians conquered most of the shores and islands of the first- 
named empire, and founded settlements there. At the same time 
the navigation on the Black Sea became subject to their sway, 
and thus they not only participated in the commerce between 



48 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Trade of Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Amain" with the East. 

Asia and the interior of Europe, but for a long while superin- 
tended the commercial intercourse with the north of Europe. 
But after the re-establishment of the Byzantinian authority at 
Constantinople in 1261, the Venetians were expelled from this 
capital, and the Genoese succeeded them ; while the Venetians 
became now (by commercial treaties with the Saracens) possessed 
of the highly important Indian trade through Egypt. Since they 
even participated in the caravan trade with the interior of Africa 
and obtained settlements on the coast of the Barbary. About 
the same time the Genoese founded settlements in Crimea and 
on other shores skirting the Black Sea. The exports of Venice 
to Egypt were chiefly olive-oil, cloth, velvet, furs, quicksilver, 
copper, lead, cinnabar, sweet oranges, and other fruits, etc., upon 
the whole at the value of about 300,000 ducats (an immense 
sum at that time) annually. Besides these goods, other ones, at 
the value of about 50,000 ducats, were smuggled in Egypt by 
the ships' crews. Towards the end of the 14th century the Vene- 
tian merchant-vessels amounted to upwards of 3.000 (including 
300 of the burthen of 700 tons each), and were navigated by 25,000 
men. The annual exports and imports of Genoa were likewise 
very considerable. Thus, for instance, in 1201, one cargo, brought 
from the Levant, comprised among other valuable goods 1500 
pounds of gold, silver, and precious stones ; and in J 379, a large 
Genoese vessel brought a cargo of spices, muslin, silk stuffs, gold, 
and silver, at the value of 1,500,000 ducats. A large portion of 
the imported goods was exported to Germany, especially to 
Nuremberg. Bills of exchange came first in use at Genoa in 
this period. Pisa was not behind in commercial and shipping 
enterprises; it kept up a lively intercourse with the Levant, and 
acquired substantial privileges in Constantinople. The mer- 
chants of AmalfL (near Naples) were the first who exported 
European goods to Syria and Egypt. The mariner's compass is 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 49 



Maritime Laws — Inland Commerce. 



said to have been invented at Ainalfi, in 1302, by Flavio Gioja ; 
but, the peculiar use of the loadstone being known already a 
century before, he has perhaps only improved that instrument. 
Ancona traded chiefly with Cyprus; among other goods, it ex- 
ported Florentine and French cloth, soap, and wine, and im- 
ported cotton, spices, sugar, and alum. In the period from the 
12th to the end of the 15th century, Barcelona, the capital of 
Catalonia in Spain, was renowned for its commercial and ship- 
ping enterprises, and rivalled successfully even with Venice and 
Genoa. In France, not only Marseilles, but also Aigues Mortes 
and Mont pettier carried on great business in the last-named 
enterprises. Finally, it may be remarked that in this period 
the maritime laws, if not established for the first time, were im- 
proved and brought into more general practice. 

With regard to the inland commerce, there were in this period 
two principal commercial roach : the one between Constantinople 
and Germany by way of the Danube river, and the other between 
the Italian or French seaports and the staples of the interior of 
Europe. The first of these roads was indeed of great import- 
ance, but in general not so much frequented as the latter, for 
the simple reason of its shorter distance. Besides Ratisbon, 
which continued to be an emporium, Vienna was chiefly engaged 
in the trade through Constantinople. For the Levantic and 
Indian trade through Venice and Genoa, Nuremberg and Augs- 
burg became the great staples of Germany and other European 
countries. Their intercourse with Venice did not commence 
before the 14th century, but it soon yielded immense profits to 
them. The goods received from Venice (and partly from Genoa), 
they exported partly to Erfurt (the staple of the east of Ger- 
many, etc.), partly to Mentz and Cologne (the staples of the 
west and north of Germany, etc.), but chiefly to Bruges, Ant- 
werp, and Brussels, though these Netherlandish emporia received 



50 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Commercial Marts — Manufactures. 

also directly goods from Venice by sea. In France, there were 
in this period no such staples like those of Germany ; yet in 
various other regards Lyons and Avignon were at all events sta- 
ples of great importance. The emporium of Russia during the 
14th and 15th centuries was Novogorod, which at that time had a 
population of 400.000 inhabitants. Next to this city Pskow or 
Pleskow (south-west, and 156 miles distant from St. Petersburg) 
was an important staple of Russia. The emporium of Sweden 
was Wisby, on the island of Gothland, which in the beginning 
of the 12th century sent abroad its merchant vessels even as far 
as to Alexandria in Egypt. The maritime law of Wisby was of 
great authority far and near. The staples of Denmark were 
Roeskilde^ Aalborg, and Aarhuus, and that of Norway was Bergen. 
In England, London continued still to be the only emporium, 
but in the 15th century Bristol also began to rise. Lastly, with 
respect to industry, it was chiefly silk-weaving and dyeing, that 
were, the former art introduced, the latter improved, since the 
crusades. The Normans, settled on the island of Sicily, waged 
war against the Eastern empire, and in 1 148, headed by their 
king, Roger II., they took in Corinth, Athens, and Thebes, where, 
as in Constantinople, silk-manufactures were flourishing. Greek 
silk-weavers were now by them induced to go to Sicily and in- 
struct people there in the mysteries of their art. The latter, 
thus introduced for the first time in Italy, was soon improved 
with great success at Palermo ; thence it was transplanted to 
Lucca, in 1309 to Venice, and since the year 1314 to Florence, 
Milan, Bologna, etc. The art of dyeing was improved chiefly by 
the multiplication of dyeing materials; saffron, alum, and prob- 
ably indigo too, being introduced by the crusaders. Orchilla. as 
dyeing material, was not known in Europe before the 14th cen- 
tury, and first brought from the Orient to Florence in the year 
1300. Sicily, favored by its climate, enjoyed the peculiar 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 51 



Origin of Free Citizenships and Corporations. 



advantage of cultivating the sugar-cane, and introducing the im- 
portant article of this tropical produce into Europe. Before the 
period of the crusades, honey was the only substitute for sugar 
throughout Europe, until the first crusaders became acquainted 
with the sugar-cane in Syria. Already, before the middle of the 
12th century, it was cultivated in Sicily on a large scale ; thence 
it was transplanted to Madeira (discovered in 1419), and finally 
to the West Indies. Even so early as the 14th century the con- 
sumption of sugar in Italy was immense. 

(i.) It is obvious that these various improvements, occasioned 
by the crusades, could not forbear to react favorably upon the 
condition of the citizens in most of the European towns. Many 
communities acquired their independence and privileges by grant- 
ing loans or gratuities to their sovereigns in cases of pecuniary 
embarrassments. The first cities, obtaining substantial privileges, 
were those of Tipper and Central Italy, which availing themselves 
of the opportunity presented by the long-lasting differences be- 
tween the German emperors and the popes, became independent 
in the administration of their local affairs. Their mayors were 
called podestas, and partly appointed by the German emperor (see 
historical introduction of Italy), partly and chiefly elected by the 
citizens. In the beginning the governmental power was exercised 
exclusively by the nobles (or patricians, as they were called in 
most of those cities) ; but subsequently the mechanics laid claim 
to a participation in government, and for the most part effected 
their desire. In Germany, those free cities, whose last remnants 
are Hamburg, Bremen, Lubec, and Frankfort, took existence 
during the reign of emperor Frederic II. (1215-1250), and du- 
ring the interregnum (1250-1273 ; see historical introduction of 
Germany). Although these cities continued to be subjected to 
the emperor, their privileges were very substantial, and comprised, 
among others, the right of immediateness (i. e., they were in- 



52 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 

Municipal Privileges — Luxuries. 

dependent members of the German empire), the right of self- 
government in local affairs, the staple-right, the rights of coinage, 
of holding fairs, of levying customs, etc. Here, as in the Italian 
cities, the governmental power was at first exercised exclusively 
by the patricians, till in the 14th century the mechanics, or rather 
the guilds, obtained the right of participation in government, at 
least in many cities of southern Germany. In France, especially 
in the south of that country, the high nobility and clergy granted 
regales, or other similar privileges, to many cities, partly for 
money, and partly because they considered the flourishing of these 
cities suitable to their own interest. In Aragon (see § 16), since 
the year 1137, comprising Catalonia also, there were likewise 
privileged cities, besides Barcelona ; }^et the governmental power 
here was divided between royal and municipal officers. In the 
north of Europe, only Novogorod and Pleskow in Russia, and 
Wisby in Sweden, enjoyed similar privileges (Novogorod even 
more) as the Italian and German free cities. The increasing 
number and wealth of free citizens influenced greatly on the im- 
provement of manufactures and of industry in general, and the 
reaction proved favorable in almost every branch of human exer- 
tion. The cloth manufactories, for instance, being in this period 
most extensive and flourishing in Italy, Germany, France, Switzer- 
land, Spain, England, and above all in the Netherlands (where 
Louvain, Ghent, Dendermonde, Ypres, Brussels, Bruges, etc., were 
highly distinguished for their cloth manufactures, and those of 
Bruges alone yielded the means of existence to more than 10,000 
families), were promoting in an extraordinary manner the raising 
of sheep, which branch of husbandry was cultivated chiefly in 
England and Spain. The prevailing luxury influenced again on 
the manufactures. Scarlet and citrine were the most fashionable 
colors of dress in the middle ages ; and in the beginning of the 
14th century, even the lower classes of Genoa wore red garments 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 53 

Drinking Propensities and Customs. 

with lemon-colored lining, at least on holydays. Scarlet state- 
dresses were sometimes lined with green. The ladies of Placen- 
tia. and of other Italian cities, used to wear wide and long scarlet 
dresses, either of fine woollen, or of silk and velvet, or of gold- 
brocade. Sleeves and girdles were set with pearls. Besides 
diamond rings on the fingers, the hair was adorned with gold 
chains, pearls, and precious stones. In many cities of Germany, 
Flanders, Brabant, and France, the ladies were not inferior to 
those of Italy in finery. On the other side, the gentlemen were 
not behind-hand in ornament, and even their breeches were em- 
broidered with gold, silver, and pearls. That the delight in the 
pleasures of the table kept pace with this luxury, is a matter of 
course ; but a most striking feature in the customs of the middle 
ages were the so-called draughts of honor, or, in plain words, the 
drinking propensity. In Germany, the Netherlands, and in the 
north of France, beer was the common beverage, in the northern 
countries, mead, and in the southern, wine. Yet, in the first-named 
countries, wine also was drunk in great quantities. In the drink- 
ing-rooms of the cities formal drinking-rules had been established 
by practice. The drinkers sat down round " the abbot and his 
monks," viz. : round the great bumper and the smaller ones, and 
the chairman insisted upon strict observance of the rules. Woe 
to him who was dilatory in pledging! He incurred the risk of 
having the contents of the bumper thrown into his face. Mead 
was a beverage from ancient times in the north of Europe ; it 
was even exported from Germany, through Constantinople, to 
Syria and Palestine, until the end of the 12th century. In 
Meissen, on the Elbe, it was brewed in such quantities, that in 
1015, at winter time, when the river was frozen over, a rather 
great fire was extinguished with mead. The multiplication of 
the branches of industry, and the improvement of the condition 
of mechanics and tradesmen, gave f*ise to the formation of guilds^ 



54 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Guilds — Hanseatic League. 

or corporations of mechanics and tradesmen. They originated 
in the period of the crusades, and soon spread over all countries 
of Europe. In Italy they were most numerous, and Florence, 
for instance, numbered at one time not less than 72 different 
guilds. The guild of the cloth-weavers, belonged to those that 
stood highest in credit. Next to Italy, the guilds were most 
numerous in Germany. In the middle ages, cases of sword-law 
occurred frequently, but never in such degree as since the midst 
of the 13th century. About the same time, numerous pirates 
were roving about the European seas. Thus the communications, 
both by land and by sea, were infested ; and whereas, in Germany, 
the interregnum (1250-1273) prevented the redress by govern- 
ment, or in any other regular way, several commercial towns en- 
tered into a confederacy for mutual defence. This was the origin 
of the renowned Hanseatic League, to which belonged nearly 80 
cities and towns of Germany, Prussia, and the Netherlands, among 
others, the following : Hamburg, Lubec, Bremen, Brunswick, 
Luneburg, Magdeburg, Breslau, Dortmund, Soest, Osnabruck, 
Stralsund, Wismar, Rostock, Stettin, Konigsberg, Elbing, Dant- 
zick, Amsterdam, Arnhem, Dort, Deventer, Groningen, Zutphen, 
Zwoll, Middelburg; moreover, Cracow in Poland, Dorpat in 
Livonia, and Wisby on the Swedish island of Gothland. In the 
course of time, Lubec became the head of the Hanseatic League 
that entertained a large navy. The Guildhall, in London, was 
established, if not directly by this league, yet by a corporation of 
German merchants. Other confederacies in Germany were the 
Rhenish League, which was established at Mentz in 1255, and to 
whom belonged not only Mentz, Worms, Spire, Frankfort on the 
Maine, etc., but also Cologne, Wesel, Munster, and other members 
of the Hanseatic League. To the Swabian League, originating- 
partly in the 13th, but chiefly in the 15th century, belonged 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 55 

Geographical Knowledge— Poetry and the Fine Arts. 



Nuremberg, Augsburg, and other cities of southern Germany 
that traded chiefly with Italy. 

(j.) New scientific progress since the crusades, was chiefly 
made in Geography and other kindred branches of knowledge. 
The geographical conceptions hitherto prevailing in most parts 
of Europe, were in some measure enlarged and corrected by the 
crusades, and moreover by the accounts of several missionaries 
sent to Karakorum (830 miles north-west from Pekin, and 370 
miles south from Irkutsk), once the splendid capital and residence 
of the Mongolian emperors, by the pope, and king Louis IX. of 
France, in 1246, and the following years. Besides these mission- 
aries, a Venetian merchant, named Marco Polo^ visited Mongolia. 
or Tartary, and thence China, Cochinchina, Malacca, Ceylon, 
Persia, and Armenia, in the period from the year 1271 to 1295. 
Although mixed with numerous fables, his accounts are, in sub- 
stance, correct ; yet they did not in general add much to geo- 
graphical knowledge for want of auxiliary knowledge in nautical 
and other mathematical branches. All mathematical acquire- 
ments at that time had been derived from Arabian authors, or 
Arabian translations of Greek authors. This latter fact may 
appear strange ; as of course it might have been much better to 
make use of the Greek original instead of translations. But 
(with the exception of the Eastern empire and Arabian Spain) 
in Europe the study and knowledge of the ancient Greek language 
did not commence before the latter half of the 15th century ; and 
until then no other Bible was used or scarcely known than its 
Latin translation, commonly called Yulgata. The fine arts made, 
in this period, much greater progress than the sciences. Espe- 
cially poetry rose to a high state of improvement, and assumed, 
after the crusades, the character of the romantic. Epic and 
lyrical poetry flourished chiefly in Germany and in France, and 
highly celebrated were the German poets of the 12th and 13th 



50 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Invention'- of Gunpowder — Art of Printing. 

century (they were called Minnesingers, or minstrels of love), and 
at the same period the Troubadours, or poets of Provence, and 
other parts of southern France. Even on the island of Iceland 
(at that time a fertile and well-cultivated country) the spirit of 
poetry was improved with the greatest success. The Scandina- 
vian poets of the middle ages were called Scalds. Painting and 
sculpture were first raised to independent fine arts in the 13th 
century; the former by Cimabue (born in 1240, died in 1300), 
the latter by Nicolo Pisano (the latter surname alludes to Pisa, 
where he lived in the midst of the 13th century). Painting on 
glass and plastic brass founding we're at a high pitch of improve- 
ment in this period ; but above all, architecture, whose admirable 
grandeur in the Germanic, or New Gothic style (an improvement 
of the original Gothic style) dates chiefly from the 13th century. 
The construction of the cathedrals of Paris, Rouen, Rheims, and 
Amiens, of Burgos and Toledo, of Cologne and Magdeburg, and 
of St. Peter in York, and of Westminster Abbey in London, 
commenced in this century, while that of the cathedral of Stras- 
burg commenced in 1018, and of those of Vienna and of Freiburg 
(now belonging to the grand-duchy of Baden) commenced towards 
the midst of the 12th century. Not only churches, but also 
monasteries, or abbeys, palaces, castles, town-halls, bridges, etc., 
were at that time built in the above-named style. 

(k.) Since the days of the crusades, Europe had more and 
more become the focus of universal history, yet it attained its 
permanent ascendency in this respect not before the end of the 
15th century, when not only the use of gunpowder (invented, 
according to common supposition, about the year 1350, by a monk, 
at Freiburg in Baden, named Barthold Schwarz) had become 
more general, but the invention of the art of printing (in 1 440) 
had brought another not less powerful, though moral weapon into 
its hand, and moreover now the discovery of America (in 1492), 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 57 

The Reformation. 

and of the passage by sea to India (1498), opened at once, as it 
were, all temporal treasures to its spirit of enterprise, and ex- 
tended its commerce, hitherto confined to the Mediterranean Sea, 
in a rather short time over the whole earth. While these impor- 
tant discoveries brought on the most 'substantial changes in the 
material condition and circumstances of Europe, not less portentous 
spiritual alterations were effected by the almost simultaneous Refor- 
matio?^ dating from October 31,1517. It is remarkable, and gives 
a new evidence of the defectiveness of human exertions and per- 
formances, that all those inventions, discoveries, and events, good 
as they were in themselves (perhaps with the exception of the in- 
vention of gunpowder), proved to have their wrong side too. So, 
for instance, Christianity is indebted to the art of printing for the 
circulation of the Holy Scriptures among all classes of society, 
and the sciences are indebted to this art for their high state of 
improvement ; but. at the same time, infidelity and revolutionary 
spirit have likewise availed themselves of this powerful lever to 
propagate their mischievous principles, unfortunately with great 
success. The advantages of the discovery of America have been 
immense in almost every respect ; yet it not only proved fatal in 
its consequences to the discoverers themselves, in drying up the 
intrinsical sources of prosperity in Spain ; but it transformed, 
almost throughout Europe, the hitherto more or less prevailing 
meek and quiet spirit, into a turbulent one. While the former 
"is in the sight of God of great price" (1 Pet. iii. 4), the latter 
is of great annoyance to those who are excited by this spirit. 
The benefits of the Reformation are unquestionable ; nevertheless, 
the arch-enemy knew very well how to avail himself even of this 
blessing. He suggested, that the primitive aim of the Reforma- 
tion had been not only the overthrow of superstition, but the 
overthrow of Christianity itself; and hence the whole host of 
English deists, French atheists, and German rationalists, have, 

3* 



58 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Thirty Years' War — Balance of Power. 

under the head of superstition, directed their weapons against 
everlasting divine truths, and united in the attempt to supplant 
the latter by human deceptions, or rather by their own wrong- 
headed fancies. Characteristic in this respect is the fact that at 
the very time when the first French revolution was at its highest 
pitch of excess, a prostitute acted the part of the goddess of 
reason ! 

18. Besides this tendency to infidelity, it was chiefly the improve- 
ment of foreign and domestic 'politics, which marked the prevailing 
spirit of the age in the last three centuries. All the principal 
events of Europe, from the 16th to the end of the 18th century, 
may be traced to this latter head. The German emperor, Charles 
V., was the first European prince who followed a steady line of 
policy ; the next were Philip II. of Spain, and Henry IV. of 
France ; then followed Richelieu, and the Swedish king Gustavus 
Adolphus ; Louis XIV., and William III. (of the house of Orange) ; 
Peter I., Frederic II., and Catharine II. The war of thirty years 
(1618-1648) was, among those of a general character, the only 
one that did not (at least not directly) arise from the principles 
of this policy ; for it was the natural result of a reactionary ten- 
dency, called forth on the part of the Roman Catholics by the Refor- 
mation. But the chief motive of all other wars in the before- 
named period, was more or less the desire of conquest and aggran- 
dizement. Thus the wars of Henry II. of France, of Philip II., of 
Richelieu (or nominally of Louis XIII.), and above all, those of 
Louis XIV., had no other aim. Henry IV. of France, was the 
inventor, and king William III. of England, the" improver of that 
whimsical policy known by the name of European equilibrium. 
A balance was imagined, with Western Europe in the one, and 
Eastern Europe in the other scale, and now it was the rulers' 
problem of constantly equipoising and balancing. Thus the 
reciprocal countries and provinces were to be weighed in a manner 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 59 



French Preponderance — Licentiousness — Infidelity. 



not unlike that of the grocer who is weighing his spices. Only 
to this strange rule of politics European Turkey owes the contin- 
uation of its existence. Henry IV. was, by the stabs of Ravaillac. 
prevented from realizing his dreams of equilibrium ; while William 
III. sacrificed to them the public interest of Holland, his native 
country. Even so late as the year 1790, King Frederic William 
II. of Prussia, was about to wage war against Austria and Russia, 
merely for the sake of the fancied European equilibrium. Before 
the days of Louis XIV. Spain and the German, Empire ranked 
foremost among the European powers, but since then France had 
attained the ascendency, although her political preponderance had 
begun to be lessened by degrees so early as the year 1692, when 
in the battle of La Hogue her navy received the first fatal blow 
from the English. Yet her moral ascendency and influence has 
unfortunately continued to the present day, and generated all 
that corruption and licentiousness in customs and manners by 
which Europe became infected. The abominable public and pri- 
vate behavior of Louis XIV. set a bad example not only to his 
own subjects, but also to other nations ; first to foreign princes, 
then to their subjects. The still more ignominious dissoluteness 
of his successor, Louis XV., pulled down the last barriers of ven- 
eration and shame, the more so as this king stupidly suffered 
Voltaire, and the other French atheists, to undermine both the 
Christian faith and his own throne. Diderot was even allowed 
to declare publicly, that the sovereign happiness of man would 
begin as soon as the last king had been strangled with the entrails 
of the last priest ! German book-learned fancymongers, and Eng- 
lish so-called philosophers, aping the French fashion-leaders, as- 
sisted them faithfully in their endeavors, and even that great 
Prussian, King Frederic II., was in this respect so infatuated 
that in his epistolary correspondence with Voltaire, d'Alembert, 
and others of the same stamp, the letters written by him, as 



60 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Plan of the separate accounts of each country. 

well as those written by his correspondents, closed always with 
the refrain : ecrasez Vinfame I And let it be remembered that 
this blasphemous motto was applied to our Saviour himself! At 
that time, in the higher circles, and partly even among the lower 
classes of society in France, it was the fashion to deny the exist- 
ence of God ; materialism was the watchword and idol of the age ; 
the most insolent and disgusting selfishness went hand in hand 
with these principles, and a French author asserted publicly, that 
egotism was to be considered as the only and genuine motive of 
human actions. " Professing themselves to be wise, they became 
fools." (Rom. i. 22.) The excesses and crimes of the first French 
revolution (1789) were a natural sequence to this state of things. 



Entering now into particulars of the description of Europe, 
we shall describe the different countries in the following order 
of succession: — 

Portugal, Prussia, 

Spain, Austria, 

Italy, Denmark, 

Switzerland, Sweden and Norway, 

France, Russia, 

Great Britain and Ireland, Ionian Islands, 

Belgium and Holland, Greece, 

Germany, Turkey. 

It may, at the first glance, appear somewhat strange that we 
commence with Portugal, one of the less interesting countries of 
Europe. But, on due consideration, it seemed most natural to 
begin at the extreme boundaries, viz. : either on the north-east, 
i. e., with Russia, or on the south-west, i. e., with Portugal. Russia 



SOCIAL AND POLITICAL HISTORY. 61 

Proposed Description of the several Countries. 

*-* ■ — — - 

presents indeed far greater interest than Portugal ; but as the 
description of that country must indispensably digress in many 
instances into Asiatic Russia, and would at the same time imply 
the necessity of giving next after Russia the description of other 
eastern countries (Turkey, etc.), it appeared more suitable to com- 
mence with Portugal. 



PORTUGAL. 

Area : 36,508 square miles. 
Population: 3,725,000 inhabitants. 

The kingdom of Portugal, comprising the western coast of the 
Pyrenean peninsula is upon an average 106 miles in breadth, 
surrounded on the west and south by the Atlantic Ocean, and 
on the other sides by Spain. 

Of the above-stated area continental Portugal comprises 35,358 
square miles, while the remainder is to be assigned to the Azore 
Isles, which, together with the former, constitute one and the 
same political body, and rank among the other Portuguese prov- 
inces. Thus they are not to be considered as African colonies, 
like Cape Yerd Islands, Angola, etc. ; and as they at the same 
time are situated very nearly opposite Lisbon, and little more 
than 800 miles distant from continental Portugal (while the dis- 
tance between them and the next points of Africa amounts to 
more than 920 miles), they are very improperly ranked by most 
geographers as among the African Islands. 

Of the above-stated population, 3,500,000 live in continental 
Portugal, and 250,000 inhabitants on the Azore Isles. The. 
Roman Catholic profession is the religion of the state, though all 
other denominations are tolerated. The archbishop of Lisbon 
bears the title of patriarch since the year 1717; besides him, 
there are 6 bishops in Portugal and its colonies (formerly there 
were 12 archbishops and 14 bishops), and their dioceses comprise 



PORTUGAL. 63 



Climate — Soil — Productions. 



4,086 parishes. Even so late as the year 1821 Portugal still 
numbered 360 monasteries with 5,760 monks, and 126 nunneries 
with 2,725 nuns. But in 1834 all cloisters were abolished. 

The surface of the country is in general mountainous, though 
not in such a prevailing manner as in Spain. The highest 
mountain ranges of Portugal are the Sierra de Estrella, rising to 
7,700 feet in height, and the Sierra Monchique (see Introduction, 
§ 7, c). 

The principal rivers of Portugal are, the Tagus, Douro, Minho, 
and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). Besides them there are 
only coast-rivers, e. g., the Mondego, the Lima, etc. 

The climate is in general mild and salubrious. 

The soil is upon the whole very fertile in the valleys and plains, 
especially in Algarve, and might yield the richest crops of various 
kind, if the people were more diligent and intelligent. Here, as 
in Spain, the possession of rich colonies paralyzed more or less 
the vigor of the national spirit, and while in the 16th century the 
riches of India, and subsequently those of Brazil, directed their 
streams to Portugal, the people sunk by degrees into indolence 
and poverty. Until the 16th century the cultivation of corn was 
the most productive source of wealth to the country ; but later 
it was more and more neglected, and already for many years past 
the corn raised in Portugal is not sufficient for home consumption. 
Wine, sea-salt, and olive oil, are the chief natural products of the 
country. The best wines are those produced in the environs of 
Oporto (universally known by the name of port-wine), and in the 
vicinity of Lisbon and St. Ubes. Algarve yields the best olive 
oil, and the chief place for making sea-salt is St. Ubes. Hemp 
and flax are cultivated in some northern districts. The rearing 
of cattle is far less important than the rearing of mules, and 
horses. Fine sheep are reared, and they produce valuable %oool. 
The rearing of silk-worms is rather considerable. 



64 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Industry — Commerce — Education. 

The industry was hitherto in a backward state as well as the 
agriculture ; yet in recent times several of its branches have been 
improved with much success. To be noticed are: the silk manu- 
factories of Oporto, Braganza, and Campo Grande (near Lisbon), 
the cloth and woollen manufactories of Portalegre, Covilhan, and 
Fundao, the manufactories of calico, gold and silver ware of 
Lisbon and Oporto, the linen manufactories in the provinces of 
Minho, Beira, and Traz os Montes ; and finally the tanneries of 
Lisbon, St. Ubes, Oporto, Coimbra, Beja, etc. 

The commerce of Portugal, once very extensive, especially in 
the 16th century, and even in the last century, is now quite 
limited, and the imports far exceed the exports in value. Since 
the days of Cromwell, and chiefly since the conclusion (in 1703) 
of the so-called Methuen-treaty (derived from the name of the 
English plenipotentiary, named Methuen), the English have not 
only acted the part of masters of the country, but almost exer- 
cised a monopoly on Portugal, into which they import even the 
meanest necessaries of life besides their manufactures. Fortu- 
nately the exports of port- wine to England are very considerable ; 
otherwise the Portuguese would have to pay the whole of the 
English imports in ready money. In 1844, Portugal exported 
33,946 pipes of port-wine, of which 25,492 were exported to 
England, 3,278 to the United States, 1,943 to Brazil, 919 to 
Hamburg, 716 to Calcutta, and Hongkong, 290 to Sweden, Nor- 
way, and Denmark, 225 to Canada, 212 to Halifax, 162 to Hol- 
land, 109 to Newfoundland, 95 to Russia, 67 to Prussia, 6 to 
France, and 432 to the Portuguese colonies. 

The means of education are very deficient, notwithstanding the 
pompous names of the different schools. Besides one university 
at Coimbra (founded in 1297 at Lisbon, but in 1308 transferred 
to Coimbra; in 1841 it numbered 1,300 students), public reports 
of the year 1841 enumerated 17 seminaries, 27 lyceums. 8 gymna- 



PORTUGAL. 65 



Government — Finances. 



siums, 263 progymnasiums,* and 873 common schools ; yet all these 
schools were, in the named year, frequented by no more than 31,280 
pupils. (The common schools of the city of Berlin alone, were 
at the same period frequented by as many pupils.) Moreover, 
the instruction itself is managed in a rather miserable manner. 
It is needless to remark that under these circumstances very few 
of the lower class in Portugal can read and write. 

The government of Portugal is a limited hereditary monarchy, 
the supreme power being vested in a King, or, at present, Queen 
(Donna Maria II. da Gloria, born April 4, 1819, ascending the 
throne in 1834. and married in second marriage to Prince Ferdi- 
nand, of Coburg-Kohary), and a legislative body. 

With respect to the public finances, the official statement for 
the period of 1845-1846 estimated the amount of the revenue at 
10,756,954 millrees (one millree is little more in value than one 
dollar), and that of the expenditure at 10,717,542 millrees. 

* As the above-mentioned terms will frequently occur in this work, it may 
be suitable to give some explanations about them. The higher schools of 
continental Europe have the same object in view, but in general not the same 
organization as those of the United States. Universities have, in Germany, 
Holland, Sweden, Denmark, etc., the signification of high schools, where all 
branches of science are taught, and which for this purpose unite the four fac- 
ulties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and philosophy (including astrono- 
my and the higher branches of mathematics, history,etc). Lyceums and Gym- 
nasiums are those higher schools, where all branches of preparatory knowledge, 
necessary for those who frequent the universities, are taught (for instance, the 
Latin, Greek, and Hebrew, mathematics, etc.). Their pupils are (at least in 
most of the countries of continental Europe) not boarders, but frequent the 
lyceums and gymnasiums only at certain hours of the day and then go home again. 
Seminaries have in Europe almost everywhere the signification of prepara- 
tory schools for future teachers. Progymnasiums are schools where, beside the 
elements of knowledge, the Latin is taught, and which for this reason are as 
frequently called Latin schools. 



66 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Public Debt— Army — Navy. 



Nevertheless in the preceding year, 1844, the actual amount of 
the revenue was 9,843,000, and of the expenditure 11,158,000 
millrees. Thus a deficiency of 1,315,000 millrees became appa- 
rent. At the same period the public debt was 84,130,000 millrees, 
of which amount only 73,957,000 yielded interest. This state 
of things must appear somewhat strange, when we consider that 
in 1834 nearly 500 cloisters were abolished (see ante) and their 
estates confiscated in behalf of commonwealth. The produce of 
the sale must have been very considerable, as most of these con- 
vents were wealthy, and some of them had an annual revenue of 
more than $100,000. Towards the end of the year 1836 the real- 
ization of all these estates had been effected ; nevertheless, one or 
two months afterwards, viz. : on the first of February, 1837, the 
minister of finances declared publicly and officially a deficiency 
to the extent of 5,312,500 millrees! Thus the money got by 
the sale of the monastic estates cannot have been deposited in 
the public treasury, but must in some way or other have gone 
astray. And so it is. The Portuguese people have not received 
a farthing of the money, and their public burdens, instead of 
being alleviated, have on the contrary been aggravated by adding 
new items to the former heavy taxes ; but Don Pedro and his 
English and Portuguese adherents have been enriched by that 
lucrative experiment ; and it is a fact that golden crosses, sacred 
vessels, and many other objects of great value, have clandestinely 
been pilfered and carried away to England. 

The Portuguese army amounts, according to official statement, 
to 25,970, but actually only to about 18,000 men, besides 9,000 
men in the colonies. The navy is at present reduced to 5 frigates, 
4 sloops of war, and several other vessels of smaller size. In 
1783, and still in 1808, the naval force of Portugal consisted of 
10 ships of the line, 18 frigates, etc., all in good order; and in 



PORTUGAL. 67 



Orders of Honor— History of Portugal. 



1825 it numbered at least still 5 ships of the line, while at pres- 
ent there is none more left. 

The Portuguese orders of honor are the following: — 1. The 
order of merit of St. Benedict of Aviz, established in 1162 as a 
religious order of knighthood, but in 1789 transformed by Maria 
I. into a military order of merit. 2. The order of St. Jago from 
the year 1288, transformed by Maria I. into an order of merit. 

3. The order of Christ, derived from the papal order having the 
same name (see introduction, of the States of the Church). 

4. The order of St. John, arisen from that order from the year 
1048, described above (see History of Europe, § 17, h). 5. The 
order of tower and sword, established in 1459, and renewed in 
1808. 6. The order of the immaculate conception of Villa Vicosa, 
established in 1819 by John VI. 

History of Portugal. — Portugal was called Zusitania by the Romans, who 
waged war against this country since the year 148, B. C, but did not conquer 
it completely before the year 19, B. C. Its fate since the migration of nations 
we have learned from the history of Europe (§§ 2, 10, 14, and 16), and we 
shall now enter into further particulars. About the midst of the 1 1th century 
King Ferdinand of Castile wrested the greatest part of Lusitania from the 
Moors. In these wars Count Henry of Burgundy (see History of Burgundy 
under the head of France) rendered such signal services to King Alphonso VI. 
of Castile, that the latter, in reward for them, gave him, in 1093, his daughter 
in marriage and a Lusitanian province in dowry. This province, comprising 
the present provinces of Traz os Montes and Entre Minho e Douro, was styled 
the earldom of Portucalia (derived from Parties Cate, the ancient name of 
Oporto), and thus Count Henry became the first count of Portugal (this latter 
name was derived from Portucalia). Henry's son and successor, Alphonso 
Henriquez, prosecuted the conquests of his father, and having in 1139 in the 
battle at Ourique (at the Algarvian frontier) vanquished five Moorish kings 
(hence the five bucklers in the Portuguese coat of arms), he was proclaimed 
king of Portugal by his troops. Soon after acknowledged and confirmed in 
his new dignity by the pope Alexander HI., he in 1143 summoned the Cortes 
or States of his empire to an assembly at Lamego, and on this occasion it was 



68 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

History of Portugal— Early Voyages and Discoveries. 

when the fundamental laws of Portugal, together with the order of succession, 
were established. King Alphonso IV. (1325-1 357) was renowned for his 
valor, yet he polluted his glory by consenting to the assassination of his 
daughter-in-law, the handsome Inez (Agnes) de Castro, clandestinely married 
to his son Peter I., surnamed the Cruel (on account of the frightful revenge 
he took on the murderers of Inez). Peter the Cruel (died in 1367) was suc- 
ceeded by his eldest son Ferdinand who died in 1383, and with whom the 
so-called genuine Burgundian race became extinct. For the second marriage 
of Peter the Cruel with Inez de Castro was not considered as a legitimate 
one ; and for this reason a Castilian prince claimed the right of succession on 
the Portuguese throne. Yet the Portuguese Cortes, or states, filled with 
hatred against the Castilians, proclaimed, in 1 384, Peter's second son John 
king of Portugal. John I. being the son of Inez de Castro, he and his suc- 
cessors were comprehended under the appellation of the bastard Burgundian 
race. Nevertheless to the kings of this race the Portuguese owe the ages of 
their highest renown. For at the beginning of the next or 15th century those 
famous voyages of discovery commenced which ended in unlocking to the 
Portuguese the treasures of India and Brazil, and ranked them, at least for a 
long while, among the first nations of the world. They were superintended 
by Don Henry, son of King John I., who personally interested himself in 
these enterprises. The first vessels he, in 1416, sent out for this purpose 
sailed close by the north-western coast of Africa, and did not venture to 
double Cape Bojador ; in 1418 the island of Porto Santo (near Madeira), iu 
1419 that of Madeira, and in 1432 the Azore Isles, were discovered and set- 
tled. In the last-named year Cape Bojador was at length doubled, and later 
Cape Blanco, Cape Verd, Cape Verd Islands, and Guinea discovered. King 
John II. was of a very active and enterprising character too ; he frequently 
sent vessels to the "West- African shores, and thus in 1486 Cape of Good Hope 
was discovered by Barthol. Diaz. On the 9th of July, 1497, Vasco de Gama 
sailed from Lisbon ; he doubled the last-named cape on the 20th of Novem- 
ber, and arrived at the port of Calicut. on the 19th of May, 1498. Thus the 
maritime way to India was opened to the enterprising spirit of the civilized 
world, six years after the discovery of America. King Emanuel of Portugal, 
the successor of John II. since the year 1495, hastened to avail himself of the 
important discovery made by Vasco de Gama (who returned to Lisbon, August 
29, 1499), and sent a fleet of 13 vessels to India in 1500. On this occasion 
Brazil was discovered. But we must now return to the political history of 



PORTUGAL. 



• History — Spanish Rule — House of Braganza. 



Portugal. King Emanuel died 1521, and was succeeded by John III., who 
died in 1557, and was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian. Unfortunately 
King Sebastian was at the period of the regal vacancy only three years old, 
and his education, as well as the regency during his minority, was intrusted 
to the care of the Jesuits, who inspired him with a fanatic spirit to such a 
degree that it became his most ardent desire to wage war against the infidels. 
Guided by this spirit and turning a deaf ear to the warnings of his counsel- 
lors and even of the king of Spain, he in 1578 ventured an expedition against 
the Moors of Morocco, and on the 4th of August, in a bloody battle at Alcassar, 
not only his army was totally routed, but he himself disappeared in a myste- 
rious manner forever. His only legitimate successor to the crown was the 
old cardinal Henry, third son of King Emanuel, but his reign was of short 
duration; for he died in 1580. Amongst the pretenders to the throne who 
now came forth with their claims, the most powerful was King Philip II. 
of Spain, whose mother had been the eldest daughter of King Emanuel. 
Philip, countenancing his claims by an army of 24,000 men, attained his aim 
and thus Portugal was, in the period from the year 1580 to 1640, under the 
sivay of Spain. Yet the national hatred between the Portuguese and the 
Spaniards did not subside ; and Philip's next nearest successor, Philip IV., 
being a weak and indolent king, the Portuguese seized the first opportunity 
of casting off the odious Spanish yoke, and proclaimed the duke of Braganza 
king of Portugal (December 1, 1 640). The duke of Braganza was the de- 
scendant of a natural son of King John I. (see above), and mounted the throne 
as King John IV. Since that time the house of Braganza has continued to 
reign over the kingdom of Portugal. John IV. died in 1656, and his succes- 
sors were the following : Alphonso VI. (1656-1667), Peter II. (1667-1706), 
John V. (1706-1750), Joseph I. (1750-1777), Maria I. (1777-1816), and John 
VI. (1816-1826). The reign of the rather imbecile King Joseph I. was sig- 
nalized by the despotic proceeding of his minister, the marquis of Pombal 
who. being a mimic and enthusiastic admirer of the so-called French philoso- 
phers (see History of Europe towards the end), intended to civilize, or rather 
to force the Portuguese people into his Utopian system at any price. Pre- 
possessed as he was with his insensate ideas and dreams, he treated every 
one, who seemed to stand in his way, with the utmost recklessness and 
tyranny ; and after his degradation (which took place at the death of King 
Joseph), the astonishing discovery was made that several rooms of his palace 
were filled with letters of petition, claims, etc., unopened! Prince John 



70 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

History of Portugal — Brazil— Contest of Pedro with Mguel. 

(subsequently King John VI.) was in 1792 declared Prince Regent in conse- 
quence of his mother's insanity. He did not meddle at all with the French 
revolution and the subsequent political affairs of Europe ; yet being compelled 
by the English to disregard the continental system established by Napoleon, 
the latter sent, towards the end of October, 1807, an army to invade Portugal. 
In these circumstances the Prince Regent followed the advice of the English, 
and embarked with the royal family for Brazil, the chief Portuguese colony. 
Here he resided until the year 1821, when he returned to Portugal, leaving 
his eldest son Don Pedro behind. In the following year (1822) Don Pedro 
declared himself emperor of Brazil, which country has since continued to be 
an independent empire ; and by this declaration he actually renounced his 
hereditary right of succession to the Portuguese crown, according to the clear 
terms of the order of succession established in 1641 by the Cortes of Lamego 
(as the legitimate representatives of the Portuguese people were called). 
Thus, when John VI. died in 1826, his legitimate successor was his second 
son, Don Miguel, who indeed was in 1828 proclaimed king by the Cortes 
with the agreement of the majority of the Portuguese people. But as Don 
Miguel considered both the English monopoly (see above) and a constitution 
of modern pattern as incompatible with the interest and welfare of the Por- 
tuguese people, he aroused on the one side the jealousy of the British gov- 
ernment, and on the other side the rage of the liberal party in France and other 
countries. Meanwhile Don Pedro had in 1831 been compelled by the Brazil- 
ians to abdicate, and was driven away. He went to Paris and lived there in 
retirement, until English stock-jobbers, headed by Lord Palmerston, induced 
him to venture an expedition against his brother. The former provided him 
money, and the latter with adventurers of every kind. It would be endless 
to relate all the tricks, machinations, briberies, etc., employed for the purpose 
of attaining the aim. In short, Don Pedro at last succeeded, and in 1834 his 
daughter Donna Maria II. (see above) mounted the throne. In the same year 
died Don Pedro (on the 24th of September), having previously taken care to 
provide for himself and his good friends by confiscating the estates of the con- 
vents (see above). We are well aware that this statement of the modern 
part of Portuguese history differs from the misrepresentations circulated about 
Portugal in these last twenty or twenty- five years. But as it is the duty of 
every historian to adhere strictly to historical truth, we have not a moment 
hesitated to give the facts as they actually have been, and not as they should 
have been, according to feverish dreams, commonly called the spirit of the age. 



PORTUGAL. 71 



Geographical Description — Estremadura. 



Portugal (exclusive of the islands) has from old been divided 
into 6 provinces, of which the most southerly is styled the king- 
dom of Algarve. In 1835, of the two provinces of Beira and 
Entre Minho e Douro four provinces were formed, and the whole 
of the provinces subdivided into 17 districts. But as this altera- 
tion is not an essential one, we shall, for the sake of simplifica- 
tion, retain the former division. 

1. The province of Estremadura (subdivided into the 3 districts of Lis- 
bon, Leiria, and Santarem), at the mouth and on both sides of the Tagus, 
containing : Lisbon (Portuguese Lisboa), the capital of Portugal and royal 
residence, on the right bank of the Tagus, with 280,000 inhabitants, 44 parish- 
churches (among them the remarkable cathedral), and numerous other 
churches and chapels, many charitable institutions, fine public and private 
buildings, a royal academy of sciences, a royal library with 85,000 volumes, 
3 observatories, etc., and the royal palaces of Ajuda, Bemposta, and Necessi- 
dades. Lisbon is a place of considerable commerce, and has one of the finest 
harbors in the world. A magnificent aqueduct, built in 174 3 entirely of 
marble, supplies the city with fresh water. Lisbon has frequently suffered 
by earthquakes; the most formidable of them were those of 1356, 1597, and 
especially of 1755 (Nov. 1), when one half of the city was destroyed, and 
more than 30,000 of the inhabitants perished. Upon the whole, the city is 
ill-built, and numerous dogs are running about in the dirty streets. Lisbon, 
wrested from the Moors in 1147, has since the days of John I., been royal 
residence. JBelem, though a town by itself, is considered as forming a part of 
Lisbon ; it is noted for its royal castle, and a magnificent pile, formerly an 
abbey of the order of St. Jerome, the church of which contains the royal 
family vault. Another royal castle is at Queluz. About 14 miles to the 
north-west of Lisbon is situated the town of Cintra, with 4,000 inhabitants, 
and the remarkable so-called cork-cloister, the interior walls of which are 
covered with cork in order to keep off humidity. Quite near lies the village 
of Vitnieira, noted for the first important battle between the English and 
the French in 1808. The royal palace of Mafra, built in the period from 
1717-1731, contains 870 apartments, with 5,200 windows, and bears in many 
points resemblance to the famous palace of the Escurial in Spain. Torres 
Vedras, a city with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for the strong lines of fortifica- 



72 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Geographical Description — Beira — Douro. 

tions which Lord Wellington established here in 1810. About 55 miles to 
the north of Lisbon are situated the stately building of the former monaste- 
ries of Alcobaca (founded in 1148), and Batalha (founded in 1386), whose 
monks were altogether nobles and possessed of immense riches. Santarem, 
a town on the right bank of the Tagus, 46 miles above Lisbon, with 8,000, 
and Abrantes, 37 miles farther up the river, with considerable trade, and 5,000 
inhabitants. St. Ubes, or Setubal, a sea- town at 18 miles distance from Lis- 
bon, has 15,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-works. Other cities and 
towns in the province of Estremadura are : Leiria (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Pombal (with 4,000 inhabitants), Obidos (with 5,500 inhabitants), Ourem 
(with 4,500 inhabitants), Thomar (with 3,800 inhabitants), Almada (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Cezimbra (with 4,500 inhabitants), etc. 

2. The province of Beira, between the Douro and Tagus rivers, and subdi- 
vided into the districts of Coimbra, Aveiro, Lamego. and Guarda (belonging 
to Upper Beira), and of Castello Branco (or Lower Beira); containing : Co- 
imbra, capital of the province, on the Mondego, north-north-east, and 110 
miles distant from Lisbon, and southward and 69 miles distant from Oporto, 
with the only university of the country (see above), a remarkable cathedral, 
considerable inland commerce, and 15,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, 
Coimbra was for years the royal residence, and in a garden on the opposite 
side of the Mondego the unfortunate Inez de Castro was murdered in 1350 
(see History of Portugal). Aveiro, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
Vouga river, with 4,500 inhabitants. Vizeu, or Viseu, a town situated south- 
east, and 50 miles distant from Oporto, with great fairs, and 9,000 inhabitants. 
Lamego, a city eastward and 46 miles distant from Oporto, with 9,000 inhabi- 
tants, cultivating much vine. At Lamego the Cortes or states of Portugal framed 
the fundamental laws of the kingdom (see History of Portugal). Other cities 
and towns in the province of Beira are : Esqueira (formerly noted for its 
oldest and wealthiest Benedictine convent of the country), Figueira do Mon- 
dego (with 6,000 inhabitants), Pinhel (with 3,000 inhabitants), Almeida 
(strongly fortified, with 3,000 inhabitants), Covilhao (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Castellobranco (with 6,500 inhabitants), Ovar (with 11,000 inhabitants), etc. 

3. The province of Entre Minho e Douro, on the west bordered by the 
Atlantic Ocean, on the north by the Spanish province of Galicia, and on the 
other sides by Beira and Traz os Montes ; it is the best cultivated, most indus- 
trious, and most populous province (subdivided into the 3 districts of Oporto, 
Braga, and Viana), and contains : Oporto, or Porto, the capital of the prov- 



PORTUGAL. ^73 



Geographical Description — Traz os Montes — Algarve. 



ince, on the right bank of the Douro, is not only the second city, but the sec- 
ond emporium of the kingdom, long since famous for its considerable exports 
of port-wine (see the particulars above), and has moreover numerous manufac- 
tures of various descriptions, many fine buildings, 90 churches, 40 hospitals, 
etc., and S0,000 inhabitants. Braga, a city situated north-north-east, and 37 
miles distant from Oporto, with a great and remarkable cathedral, and 15,000 
inhabitants. The Suevian kings, shortly after they had conquered the coun- 
try (see History of Europe, § 3), took their seat at Braga. Other cities 'and 
towns of this province are : Viang, (with 8,000 inhabitants), Guimar&es (with 
6,000 inhabitants), Amarante (with 4,000 inhabitants), Ponte de Lima (with 
2,500 inhabitants), Barcellos (with 5,000 inhabitants), Villa do Conde (with 
3,000 inhabitants), etc. 

4. The province of Traz os Montes (subdivided into the 2 districts of Bra- 
ganza and Villarcal), on the east side of the preceding j>rovince, containing : 
Braganza, the capital of the province, and the ancestral seat of the royal 
family (see History of Portugal), not far off the Spanish frontier, north-east- 
ward, and 184 miles distant, from Lisbon, with 5,000 inhabitants. Peso da 
Regoa, a little town, but noted for its considerable depot of port-wine and its 
famous wine-fairs in February. Other towns in this province are : Villareal 
(with 4,000 inhabitants). Chaves (with 5,500 inhabitants), Torre de Moncorvo 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Miranda de Douro (with 1,600 inhabitants), Mirau- 
della (with 1,800 inhabitants,) etc. 

5. The province of Alemtejo, on the south side of the Tagus (divided into 
the 3 districts of Evora, Beja, and Portalegre), contains : Evora, the capital 
of the province, 74 miles south-east from Lisbon, with many Roman antiqui- 
ties, and 9,100 inhabitants, cultivating much vine. Beja, a town with Roman 
antiquities, and 5,000 mhabitants. Elvas, a strongly fortified city near the 
Spanish frontier, with a remarkable aqueduct built by the ancient Romans, 
and 10,000 inhabitants. Villa Vioosa, a fortified town, with a royal palace, 
and 3,000 inhabitants. Ourique, a town near the frontier of Algarve, south- 
eastward, and 100 miles distant from Lisbon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted 
for the defeat of the Moors byAlphonso I., in 1139 (see History of Portugal). 
Other towns of tliis province are : Portalegre (with 6,400 inhabitants), Esire- 
moz, (with 5,000 inhabitants), Moura (with 6,000 mhabitants), Serpa (with 
5,000 inhabitants), Campo Mayor (with 4,500 inhabitants), Sines (with 1,200 
inhabitants), etc. 

6. The province (or kingdom) of Algarve, the most southerly province of 

4 



74 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Azores. 



Portugal (with an area of 2,151 square miles, and a population of 136,000 in- 
habitants), comprising only the district of Faro, and containing : Lagos, the 
ancient capital of Algarve, on a bay of the Atlantic Ocean, with 9,000 inhab- 
itants. Tavira, the modern capital of Algarve, near the mouth of the Gua- 
diana Fiver, with 9,000 inhabitants. Near Cape St. Vincent (noted for a 
naval victory of the English in 1797) is situated ihe little town of Sagres, 
with the ruins of an old castle, the former seat of Don Henry, when he super- 
intended the famous voyages of discovery (see History of Portugal). Other 
towns of Algarve are : Faro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Monchique (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Silves (with 3,000 inhabitants), Villareal de San Antonio (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Albufeira (with 1,S00 inhabitants), etc. 

The Azores, or Western Isles, constitute, as has already been 
stated, together with continental Portugal, one and the same 
political body, and rank among the other Portuguese provinces 
as well as, for instance, the Balearic Isles rank among the Spanish 
provinces. It is not improbable that the existence of the Azores 
Isles was known to the Phoenicians, or at least to the Cartha- 
ginians ; yet to Europe they were unknown until the year 1432, 
when they were discovered by the Portuguese (see History of 
Portugal). In 1449 the first Europeans settled here. The 
climate of the Azores, situated between the parallels of 40° and 
37 of N. lat., and between 25° and 31° long, west from Green- 
wich, is peerless mild, and healthful ; and, besides grain and wine, 
oranges, lemons, and other similar fruits, thriving marvellously 
here, are the chief staples of the isles ; which latter yield to the 
government an annual revenue of about $30,000, while the ex- 
penditure amounts to little more than $10,000. The Azores, 
having together an area of 1,150 square miles, and a population 
of 250,000 inhabitants, comprise 9 islands, which are the follow- 
ing :— 

1. San Miguel, or St. Michael (area : 341 square miles ; population : 100,000 
inhabitants), productive, of grain and fruits. Its capital is Punta Delgade, 



PORTUGAL. 75 



Colonies. 



■which is considered as the capital of" the whole group too, and has 20,000 
inhabitants. Another important staple-town is Ribeira Grande, with 12,000 
inhabitants. The romantic valley of Furnas is noted for its hot and cold 
mineral springs. 2. Terceira (area : 224 square miles; population: 40,000 
inhabitants), with excellent pastures and numerous herds of cattle ; containing 
Angra, fortified town and seat of the governor of the Azores, with 15,000 
inhabitants. Praya, a town with 4,000 inhabitants. 3. Pico (area: 287 
square miles ; population : 30,000 inhabitants), with many vineyards and a 
vulcan 6,500 feet high ; containing the towns of Lages (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Magdalena and St. Roca. 4. San Jorge, or St. George (area: 10b' square 
miles ; population : 20,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry and vines, 
containing the towns of Velas (with 4,000 inhabitants), Catheta and Topo. 
5. Fatal (area: 53 square miles ; population: 24,000 inhabitants), noted for 
its delightful climate and tropic fruits. Horta is an important commercial 
town and sea-port, with 10,000 inhabitants. 6. Sta. Maria (area: 43 square 
miles ; population : 8,000 inhabitants), productive of grain and wine. Its 
chief town Porto has 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Flores (area : 43 square miles ; 
population : 10,000 inhabitants), the most charming island of the whole group ; 
productive of grain and with numerous herds of cattle. Its chief town, Santa 
Cruz, has 3,000 inhabitants. 8. Graciosa (area : 32 square miles ; population . 
12,000 inhabitants), noted for its husbandry, and productive of barley and 
wine. Its chief town bears, like that of the preceding island, the name of 
Santa Cruz, and has likewise 3,000 inhabitants. 9. Corvo (area: 21 square 
miles; population: 1,000 inhabitants), the smallest and most northerly island. 

Since the loss of Brazil (see History of Portugal), the Portu- 
guese Colonies are reduced to the following : — 

1. In Africa: settlements and possessions in Lower Guinea 
and Eastern Africa, the Madeira and Cape Verd Islands, and two 
islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 

2. In Asia : the cities and townships of Goa and Dm in Hin- 
dostan, Macao in China, and part of the island of Timor in the 
Indian Archipelago. 



SPAIN. 

Area: 179,921 square miles. 
Population : 12,000,000 inhabitants. 

The kingdom of Spain comprises nearly four fifths of the 
Pyrenean peninsula, separated from France by the Pyrenees. 

The statements about the actual amount of the population dif- 
fer materially, even in the so called official reports ; for want of a 
regular census of the people. Yet the estimation of 12,000,000 
can, in all probability, not much fall short of the actual number 
of inhabitants. Besides the Spaniards proper, or Castilians (as 
they, in Spain, are called by way of eminence), there are 500 ? 000 
Basques (see Introduction, § 12) in the Basque provinces and 
Navarre, about 60,000 Modejares, or descendants of the Moors, 
and nearly 45,000 Gipsies The Roman Catholic is the estab- 
lished church ; yet all other denominations are at present not 
only tolerated but enjoy almost the same political privileges as 
the Catholics. At least the recent endeavors of protestant mis- 
sionaries to propagate the sound doctrines of the gospel among 
the Spanish people, have met with far less obstacles than could 
have been expected, considering the catholic zealotism pre- 
vailing here formerly. In 1830 the catholic clergy of Spain 
numbered 8 archbishops (the archbishop of Toledo ranks fore- 
most as primate), 77 bishops, 2,393 canons, 1,869 prebendaries, 
16,481 curates, 4,929 vicars, 17,411 beneficiaries, 27,757 seculars 
in orders, 15,015 sacristans, and 3,927 servitors. In the begin- 



SPAIN. 77 

Geographical Features. 



ning of the year 1835, there were still 1,940 monasteries with 
30.906 monks, and a proportional number of nunneries with 
about 24,000 nuns. But in the same year 884 of these cloisters 
were abolished, and the sale of their estates had yielded (accord- 
ing to official reports in June, 1835) a sum of 16,693,260 reals, 
which was designed for the alleviation of the public charges. 
We shall soon see, under the head of Spanish finances, whether 
this intention was realized or not. 

Spain is thoroughly mountainous ; in regard to its chief moun- 
tain range, the Sierra Nevada, and the other ranges, see Introduc- 
tion, §7. c] and about the Spanish part of the Pyrenees, see & 7, b. 

The rivers peculiar to Spain are the Ebro, Guadalaviar, Xucar, 
Segura, and Guadalquivir, and those in common with Portugal : 
the Tagus, Duero, Minho, and Guadiana (see Introduction, § 10). 
There is not any remarkable lake to be found throughout Spain, 
the Albufera, near the city of Valencia, being rather a lagoon 
than a lake. The Imperial canal (along the right bank of the 
Ebro), and the canal of Castile, scarcely deserve to be mentioned 
as canals. 

The climate is generally mild and pleasant, except in some 
tracts along the northern coast. The provinces of Valencia and 
Murcia enjoy the charms of an almost perennial spring, while in 
Granada and Andalusia the sugar-cane and other tropical pro- 
ductions thrive. Noxious winds are the cold and rouo-h Galles;o 
from the north, and the scorching and enfeebling Solano from 
Africa ; yet they commonly do not last long. 

The soil is generally very fertile except in some tracts of the 
Sierra Morena, in Estremadura and Asturias, producing in 
abundance, in most parts of Andalusia, and in the Mediterranean 
provinces, the vine, the olive, and southern fruits (among them 
the delicious pomegranate). 

The natural riches of the country consist chiefly of salt (rock- 



78 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Natural Products of Spain. 

salt in Catalonia ; spring-salt in Valencia ; sea-salt in Valencia, 
Sevilla, and on the Balearic Isles), olives, and other fruits of 
southern Europe, wines (the choicest sorts are those from Malaga, 
Xeres, and Alicante), silk (in the southern provinces), horses (the 
finest breed in Andalusia, and next in Asturias), mules (which in 
Spain generally are preferred to the horses), and sheep, for which 
latter Spain has been renowned since the middle ages. Besides 
the merinos, there are two other less valuable breeds, called 
Churros and Metis. During summer the sheep feed on the ele- 
vated table -lands of Castile and Leon, and are driven in winter 
to the low plains of Estremadura, and the adjoining provinces. 
Yet since the last civil war the flocks have greatly diminished in 
number ; and moreover, the Spanish merinos have long since dis- 
continued to outdo those of Germany and other countries. From 
the remotest ages until the beginning of the 16th century, Spain 
was renowned for the richness of her gold and silver mines, that 
were worked successfully by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, 
Moors, and finally by the Spaniards, but were closed since the 
discovery of the exceedingly rich mines of Mexico and Peru. 
In the most recent time they have been re-opened and worked 
again so successfully, especially in Upper Andalusia, that in 1843 
they yielded 229,090 marks of silver. For the rest, the Spanish 
mines yield excellent copper (yet only 300 quintals in 1843), great 
quantities of lead (next to England, Spain is said to possess the 
richest lead-mines in Europe), and quicksilver (at Almaden in the 
Castilian districts of La Mancha ; the annual produce is com- 
puted at 20,000 quintals) ; moreover, iron (chiefly in the Basque 
provinces ; the annual produce is on the increase), cobalt, alum, 
etc. Agriculture, once so flourishing in the days of the Moorish 
sway (see History of Europe, § 17, b), is long since in a backward 
state ; chiefly wheat is raised. 

With regard to other branches of industry, there are indeed 



SPAIN. 79 

Industry — Commerce. 



woollen, silk, cotton, and various other manufactories, still to be 
found in Spain : jet being unable to rival with those of Great 
Britain, and the English having availed themselves of their 
political influence, acquired during the last civil war, for the 
purpose of exercising a kind of monopoly in Spain, the Spanish 
manufactories are far from being in a prospering state. Since the 
expulsion of the Moors (the last remnants of them were driven 
away in 1609, and by this fanatic and insensate proceeding Spain 
lost 800,000 of its most diligent and most industrious inhabi- 
tants) Spain has ceased to be a manufacturing country. Only 
the woollen manufactories of Castile, the damask and silk manu- 
factories of Andalusia, the manufactories of arms in the north- 
western, and the paper manufactories in the eastern provinces, 
were prospering in the 17th century, while the cotton manufacto- 
ries of Catalonia rose in the 18th century. Nevertheless the 
woollen and silk looms did not exceed the number of 10,000 
throughout Spain, and in 1768 there were in the whole country 
not more than 2,200,000 operatives, mechanics, husbandmen, and 
others depending for subsistence on handiwork. Since the 
beginning of the present century, Spain has been in an almost 
uninterrupted state of war, political convulsions, and internal 
dilacerations, which has proved fatal to most of the existing 
manufactures, and even to the commerce. The chief articles of 
export are : wines, fruits of southern Europe, salt, olive oil, corks, 
quicksilver, and a rather inconsiderable quantity of wool (scarcely 
one tenth of the quantity which was formerly exported). Of 
2.830 vessels that in 1844 entered the port of Cadiz, 2,060 were 
Spanish coasters, while of the remainder 480 were English 
vessels, 75 from the United States, 6 from Hamburg, 4 from 
Bremen, 4 from Prussia, etc. Now let us see of what consist 
the articles of import. Besides colonial produces and spices, they 
consist chiefly of cloth, calicos, silks, linen, hardware, copper and 



80 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 



Education in Spain. 



pewter utensils, glasswares, furniture, toys and trinkets, fancy 
articles, timber, corn, flax, hemp, dried and salt fish, salted beef, 
butter, cheese, poultry, and hogs. Now we ask, what conception 
can be formed of the actual state of industry in a country where 
kitchen and other domestic utensils, and even victuals, must be 
imported ? 

The means of education are in Spain in the same backward 
state as in Portugal. According to the assertion of a member 
of the Cortes in 1839, all Spain numbers not far above 900 schools 
of every description. At this ratio, 13,333 Spaniards must resort 
to one single school ! Nominally, there are still 8 universities : at 
Salamanca (founded in 1222, and in 1845 frequented by 302 
students), at Valladolid (founded in 1346, and in 1841 with 
1,300 students), at Valencia (founded in 1401, and in 1841 with 
1,600 students), at Saragossa (founded in 1474, and in 1841 with 
1,100 students), at Seville (founded in 1504, and in 1845 with 
800 students), at Granada (founded in 1531, and in 1845 with 
810 students), at St. Jago (founded in 1532, and in 1845 with 
1,030 students), and at Oviedo (founded in 1580, and in 1845 
numbering 450 students). Yet by all the distractions and revo- 
lutions, brought on by the last civil war, they have been deprived 
of most of their revenues, and many of their best teachers and 
professors. The universities at Huesca (founded in 1354), at 
Alcala (founded in 1499), at Toledo (founded in 1499), at Ori- 
huela (founded in 1555), at Cervera (founded in 1717), and at 
Palma (founded in 1827), have been transformed into secondary 
schools. Of the first-named universities, only a few are endowed 
with the privilege of instruction in all branches of science (see 
note, or explanatory annotation, under the head of Portugal). 
In 1832, there were still 56 colleges and seminaries, numbering 
altogether 3,810 pupils, and moreover, 774 Latin schools (see the 



SPAIN. 81 

Government — Finances. 



just-mentioned note) ; yet they likewise are at present in a mis- 
erable condition. 

Spain is a kingdom, and its government a limited hereditary 
monarchy, the supreme power being vested in a King, or Queen 
(at present Isabella II., born in 1830, and at full age in 1843), 
and a legislative body. Since the end of the 15th century, the 
kings of Spain bear the predicate of " Catholic Majesty," in re- 
membrance of the zeal for the catholic creed evinced by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella in subduing the Moors (see History of Europe, 
§ 16). 

There is scarcely any kingdom or state to be found in the 
whole world, where the public finances are in such decayed circum- 
stances as in Spain. Every year brings a more or less consider- 
able deficit, which in 1841 amounted to 174,421,846 veals. Ac- 
cording to an official statement of the year 1845, its amount 
would have been no more than 45,112,665 reals, the expendi- 
ture being rated at 1,250,635,353, and the revenue at 1,205,- 
522 688 reals. Yet in reality the deficit amounted to more than 
double that named sum, the revenue being designedly estimated 
too high, while the expenditure had by far been exceeded. The 
amount of the public debt does not fall short of the immense 
sum of 20,000,000,000 reals (say in words : tioenty thousand mil- 
lions), besides about twenty millions of recently contracted debts, 
partly not consolidated and partly without paying interest. Con- 
sidering that the sale of the estates of convents (see above) has 
yielded large sums, and that in 1843 the Spanish silver mines 
shall have yielded 229,090 marks of silver, it must at the first 
sight appear strange, that the Spanish finances should be in such 
miserable circumstances. Yet sifting the question to the bottom, 
the riddle is soon solved. The leaders of the Spanish revolution 
have been in the skill of making money quite as experienced and 
assiduous as the leaders of the Portuguese revolution. Thus, 

4* 



82 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Ministerial Corruption. 



for instance, the Spanish minister of finances, Mr. Mendizabal, 
had been for years but a poor Jewish pedlar, yet by his shrewdness 
he insinuated himself into the favor of the Queen Regent, Chris- 
tiana, who appointed him Minister of Finances. This office fur- 
nished ample opportunities for him to fill his pockets, as well as 
those of his adherents and of his benefactress. He sold the 
estates of convents, a great deal of church property, sacred 
vessels, and utensils ; nay, even church-bells ; and according to 
official returns from the month of June, 1835, the sum received 
out of the sale of 559 estates of convents, amounted to 16,693,- 
260 reals, and according to official returns from the same month, 
1840, the sum received out of the sale of 31,433 estates of con- 
vents and churches, amounted to 1,245,549,569 reals. Now it 
is a fact that the Spanish people have not since been released frona 
a single item of their taxes, which number not less than 94 of 
various descriptions : but, on the contraiw. they have at present to 
pay more taxes than ever, while the ci-devant poor pedlar, by his 
industry in financial affairs, has amassed a fortune to the amount 
of at least $3,000,000 1 If Mr. Mendizabal should be asked to give 
an account of his stewardship, and to restore all property illegally 
acquired, he would indeed be reduced to very low circumstances, 
and that deservedly. For he has evidently despoiled the public 
treasure of the Spanish nation, and to these spoiliations alone 
does he owe his wealth. His predecessors as well as his succes- 
sors in that lucrative office have practised the same arts, and in 
this way acquired immense riches, while the Spanish nation has 
been burdened with taxes at the ratio of more than 120 reals 
per head. 

The Spanish army, notwithstanding the unsettled state of the 
political institutions of Spain in general, is in good order, for 
the plain reason of being the principal support of the present 
rulers. It numbers nearly 100,000 men, and is arranged in 31 



SPAIN. 83 

Army— Navy — Orders of Honor. 



regiments and 3 battalions of foot, 18 regiments of cavahy, and 
about 12,600 artillerists, etc. The Spanish navy is scarcely 
worthy to be mentioned. In 1802 it numbered not less than 68 
ships of the line, 40 frigates, etc. ; but in 1834 it was reduced to 
2 ships of the line, 4 frigates, and 18 smaller men of war, and at 
present most of them have become disqualified for service. This 
being the state of facts, the once so important and renowned 
navy-departments (as they were styled) of Ferrol, Cadiz, and 
Carthagena have been abolished, and reduced to one navy station 
at Cadiz. 

The Spanish orders of honor are the following : 1. The order of 
the golden fleece, instituted in 1430 by Philip the Bountiful, duke 
of Burgundy.* 2. The order of Maria Louisa, instituted by the 
Queen Maria Louise (+ 1819) only for ladies. 3. The order of 
Charles III., instituted by this king in 1771. 4. The military 
order of St. Ferdinand, instituted by Ferdinand VII. in 1815. 
5. The military order of St. Hermenegild, instituted by Ferdinand 
VII., in 1815. 6. The so-called Navy-order for distinguished 
seamen, instituted in 1816 by the same king. 7, The order of 
St. Isabella, from the year 1815. 8. The military order of Maria 
Louisa Isabella, instituted in 1833 by Ferdinand VII. Besides 
these there are still to be mentioned the following religious orders 
of knighthood: the orders of Calatrava (instituted in 1158), of 
St. J ago de Composlella (instituted in 1 170), of Alcantara (insti- 
tuted in 1177). and of Montesa (instituted in 1319). 

* The present kingdom of Belgium and Holland constituted the ancient 
duchy of Burgundy, whose only heiress, Mary, was married to Prince Maxi- 
milian of Austria, the grandfather of King Charles I. of Spain. Thus since 
the beginning of the 16th century the duchy of Burgundy was one of the 
constituent parts of the Spanish kingdom until the year 1714, when the 
remaining Burgundian provinces were ceded to Austria. For this reasor 
originally Burgundian order of the golden fleece has become an Austr 
well as a Spanish order. 



84 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



History of Spain. 



History. — The aborigines of Spain (which, in the Old Testament, e. g., Ezek. 
xxvii. 12, is called Tar slash), in as far as they are noticed by history, were 
the Iberians and the Celts (see Introduction, § 12), both descendants of 
Japheth, and immigrated here at an unknown period. The former prevailed 
in the eastern and southern, and the latter in the western and northern part 
of the country. The Celts having in the course of time been intermingled 
with the Iberians, were since called Celtiberians. But these people lost their 
political independence at a very early period, when the Phoenicians came 
hither, settled here (they founded, for instance, Cadiz), reaped great profit from 
the rich gold and silver mines (see above), and forced the aborigines to work 
them. Next to the Phoenicians came the Carthaginians, who treated the 
aborigines like savages and slaves, as also the Romans did, who since the 
year 206, before the Christian era, became gradually possessed of the Cartha- 
ginian settlements in Spain, though they did not finally conquer all Spain 
anterior to the year 25, B. C. The whole Pyrenean peninsula became a 
Roman province, with Roman language, and Roman customs and manners. 
Before the time of the Emperor Augustus, the peninsula was divided into 
Hispania citerior, or Tarraconensis (all the country between the Pyrenees and 
the Ebro River), and Hispania ulterior, or Lusitania (Portugal), and Baetica 
(all parts of Spain situated to the south of the Ebro River). At the time of 
Augustus, the province of Tarraconensis comprised the whole northern and 
north-western part of the peninsula, and Baetica comprised the south-eastern 
part, or Andalusia and Murcia. Lusitania comprised all Portugal with the 
exception of the provinces on the north side of the Douro. At the time of 
Emperor Constantine, the extreme north-western part of Tarraconensis was 
called Gallaecia (Galicia), and the extreme south-eastern part of Baetica was 
called Carthaginiensis (Murcia). Since the beginning of the migration of 
nations, Germanic tribes immigrated and settled in the Pyrenean peninsula 
(see History of Europe, §§ 2 and 3); at first (in 409 and the following years) 
the Alans, Sueves, and Vandals. The Alans settled chiefly in Lusitania and 
Carthaginiensis, the Sueves in Gallaecia, Baetica, etc., and the Vandals first in 
the north and subsequently in Baetica (hence its name Vandalitia, or, at 
present, Andalusia). Yet in 428 the Vandals emigrated to Africa and con- 
quered its northern part, at present called Barbary. In 414 the Visigoths 
invaded Spain, subdued the Alans and Sueves together with the last remnants 
of the Romans, and were in the 6th century masters of the whole peninsula. 
About the invasion of the Moors, the gradual foundation of Christian king- 



SPAIN. 85 

History of Spain— House of Hapsburgh — of Bourbon. 

donis, etc., see History of Europe, §§ 10, 14, and 16, where we left Spain 
under the sway of King Charles I., with whom began the reign of the house 
of Hapsburg in Spain. Charles I., who ascended the Spanish throne in 1516, 
resigned in 1556, and was succeeded by his son Philip II., who was the most 
powerful king in Europe at that period. He was the ruler not only of Spain, 
but likewise of the Netherlands, of Naples, of the islands of Sicily and Sar- 
dinia, of the duchy of Milan, of the Canarian and Philippine Islands, and of 
the immense colonies in America and partly in Africa. Since the year 1580 
he became moreover possessed of Portugal and its colonies (see History of 
Portugal). Yet Spain itself derived no real benefit either from her rich 
American colonies (for instead of staying at home to cultivate the soil, the 
inhabitants crossed the ocean in search of gold and silver), nor from the power 
of her king, who, by his perpetual wars, burdened Spain with a heavy public 
debt. Philip II. died in 1598, and was succeeded by his son Philip III. 
(1598-1621). Then succeeded Philip IV. (1621-1665), and Charles II. (1665 
-1100). "With Charles II. the male line of the house of Hapsburg, in Spain, 
became extinct, and now the female line was to succeed. The chief pretenders 
to the throne were the French prince Philip of Anjou (great-grandson of 
Philip IV".), and the Austrian Archduke Charles (subsequently emperor of 
Germany), great-grandson of Philip HI., both by their grandmothers. As 
the parties did not come to an accommodation, a war ensued, known by the 
name of the Spanish war of succession, winch lasted from the year 1701 to 
1714. England and Holland partook in it by the instigation of William III., 
prepossessed by his fancies of European equilibrium (see History of Europe, 
§ 18), and filled with personal hatred against Louis XIV., the grandfather of 
prince Philip. The German empire and the duke of Savoy partook likewise in 
this war. At last, in the treaties of peace concluded in 1713 at Utrecht, and in 
1714 at Rastadt, matters were settled thus: the prince of Anjou, or Philip V., 
was acknowledged as king of Spain and both Indies (such was the title since the 
possession of the colonies in America, etc.). Charles, or the house of Austria, 
acquired the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy with the excep- 
tion of the island of Sardinia, which was ceded to the duke of Savoy, henceforth 
entitled king of Sardinia. England became possessed of Gibraltar and of the 
island of Minorca (the latter until the year 1755), and Holland acquired — noth- 
ing, in reward for all its sacrifices made to the fancies and immoderate ambition 
of William III. With Philip V. (1701-1746) the house of Bourbon ascended 
the throne of Spain. In 1713 he convocated the Spanish cortes, or states 



8G EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



History of Spain — lis Provinces. 



(the legitimate representatives of the Spanish nation), chiefly for the purpose 
to fix the order of succession permanently. In agreement with the king this 
legislative body laid down as a rule, that only the male descendants of the 
reigning family should ascend the Spanish throne ; and thus the so-called Salic 
law (which excludes all females from the throne) became a fundamental law 
of the kingdom. The successors of Philip V. were : Ferdinand VI. (1746 
-1759), Charles III. (1759-1788), Charles IV. (1788-1808). In 1808 Napo- 
leon enticed both Charles IV. and his eldest son (subsequently King Ferdinand 
VII.) to renounce their rights to the Spanish crown in favor of the French 
emperor, who now appointed his brother Joseph king of Spain. Yet Great 
Britain intervened, and the ensuing peninsular war ended in the restoration 
of the Bourbons in Spain, whither Ferdinand VII. (his father having resigned) 
returned in 1814. During his reign, Spain lost her colonies on the American 
continent ; a far greater evil was, however, the kings weakness in listening to 
female intrigues and excluding his brother Charles, the legitimate heir of the 
throne, from the succession, in favor of his daughter Isabella. This act, as 
arbitrary as illegal, being in contradiction with the clear terms of the funda- 
mental law (see above), would indeed have been of little consequence but for 
the interposition of the French revolution of 1830, and the busy intermeddling 
of Louis Philipe and Lord Palmerston (the British secretary of state for foreign 
affairs), who nourished in Spain the flames of civil war for more than six 
years, and supported, by the whole weight of their power and influence, the 
pretensions of the Queen Regent Maria Christiana (since the year 1833, when 
Ferdinand VII. died) and her infant daughter. How matters went on during 
this period, is manifested by the facts above -stated under the head of finances, 
means of education, navy, etc. 

In 1833 Spain was divided into 48 departments, and their 
names were derived from their capitals. Yet since the middle 
ages Spain has been divided into 17 provinces, styled (with two 
single exceptions) kingdoms and principalities ; and as their 
names continually occur in history and other reading, we shall 
retain them in the following topographical descriptions ; denoting 
only the capitals of departments with this sign: -}-• It may 
still be remarked that the 1 1 provinces, beginning with New Cas- 
tile and ending with Murcia, are called the dominions of the 



SPAIN". 87 

Geography — Statistics. 



crown of Castile, and the remainder the dominions of the crown 
of Aragon (see History of Europe, § 16). 

1. The kingdom of New Castile, near the centre of the peninsula, and sepa- 
rated from the Mediterranean Sea by Valencia and Andalusia. It was 
wrested in 1085 from the Moors by Ferdinand surnamed the Holy, and con- 
tains the following cities and towns : -\- Madrid, the capital of all Spain, and 
(since the year 1560) royal residence, on the Manzanares, a branch of the 
Tagus, south-westward and 240 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), is 
situated on a sandy and sterile table-land, and numbers 9,000 houses, and 
according to the census of 1847, about 20*7,000 (exactly, 206,714) inhabitants. 
The royal castle is an extremely large and very magnificent building. There 
are many other noble edifices, besides 77 churches. The royal library num- 
bers 250,000 volumes. Among the beautiful walks of the city the most 
frequented are the celebrated " Prado" and the " Paseo de las deiicias." At 
the Prado is situated the royal palace Buen Ret'iro (built during the reign of 
Philip IV.), with extensive gardens. About 7 miles distant from Madrid is 
situated the royal castle of pleasure el Pardo (built in the 16th century) ; and 
between 4 and 5 miles distant from the capital is another castle, called Villa 
viciosa, where Ferdinand VII. died in 1833. Alcala de Henares, a town on 
the Henares River, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of 
Cervantes, the celebrated Spanish poet. The former university of Alcala 
(see above) was next to that of Salamanca the most renowned in Spain- 
-j- Toledo, a city on the Tagus, south-south-west and 27 miles distant from 
Madrid, with silk and sword-blade manufactories, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
In the middle ages Toledo was the largest city in the Christian part of Spain 
and in the 14th century it numbered 200,000 inhabitants. The magnificent 
cathedral was during several centuries a Moorish mosque. The archbishop 
of Toledo had formerly an annual revenue of 300,000 ducats. Araxjuez, a 
town on the Tagus, southward and 27 miles distant from Madrid, with 4,000 
inhabitants, and with a splendid royal castle of pleasure (founded by Philip 
II.),where the court uses to reside in the season between Easter and Whitsuntide. 
In the vicinity of Aranjuez is situated the town of Ocana (with 12,000 inhabi- 
tants) noted for the victory of the French over the Spaniards in 1809. Tala- 
vera de la Reyna, a town on the Tagus, south-westward and 64 miles distant 
from Madrid, with 8,000 inhabitants. It was formerly renowned for its silk 
manufactories, and is remarkable for Wellington's victory over the French on 



88 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Statistics, etc. — Old Castile. 



the 27th and 28th of March, 1809. -f- Guadalaxara, a town on the Henares, 
north-westward and 87 miles distant from Madrid, with cloth manufactories, 
and 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Siguenza (with 
4,000 inhabitants), and Brihuega (with 2,000 inhabitants). -+- Cuen£a, a town 
on the Xucar, south-south-east and 83 miles distant from Madrid, with 9,000 
inhabitants. Molina and Pequena, towns with respectively 5,000 and 6,000 
inhabitants. The southern part of New Castile is called La Mancha, on the 
south bordered by Andalusia, and on the west by Estremadura. It contains : 
-j- Ciudad Real, capital of La Mancha, near the Guadiana, southward and 
92 miles distant from Madrid, with the most renowned mule marts in Spain, 
and 8,000 inhabitants. Almaden, a town near the frontier of Andalusia, 
with 10,000 inhabitants, and a mining academy, is noted for its rich quicksil- 
ver mines (see above). Other towns of La Mancha are : Valdepe7ias (with 
8,000 inhabitants), Ahnagro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Alcaraz (with 3,500 
inhabitants), Calatrava and Manzanares. 

2. The kingdom of Old Castile, on the north side of New Castile, extend- 
ing northward to the Bay of Biscay. It was originally a country under the 
sway of the kings of Leon, until in 1016 it was raised to the rank of a king- 
dom.. It contains: -j- Burgos, fortified capital of Old Castile, on the Arlan- 
zon River, northward and 138 miles distant from Madrid, with a magnificent 
Gothic cathedral (containing the sepulchres of many Spanish kings), and 
12,000 inhabitants. At Burgos are still the remnants of the house in which 
the famous Spanish warrior, Ruy Dias de Vivar, surnamed the Cid, was born 
in 1026. He died in 1099, and was buried in the neighboring monastery of 
San Pedro de Gardena. Other towns in this district are : Aranda de Duero 
and Laredo. -{- Santander, a fortified maritime town on the Bay of Biscay, 
westward and 115 miles distant from Bayonne (in France), with a good har- 
bor, rather active commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other, but smaller 
neighboring seaports are : Santana and Santillana. The town of Espi.ioso, 
de los Monteros (with 2,000 inhabitants) is remarkable for the victory of the 
French over the British and Spaniards, on the 12th of November, 1808. 
Briviesca, a fortified town with 2,500 inhabitants. Near Pancorvo is an im- 
portant mountain pass on the high-road between Burgos and Vittoria. -J- Lo- 
grono, a fortified town on the Ebro, eastward and 70 miles distant from 
Burgos, with fairs, and 8,000 inhabitants. -\- Calahorra, a town on the table- 
land, called Rioja, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted as the birth-place of 
the ancient Roman author Quintilianus. Medina Celi, a town with 1,200 in- 



SPAIN. 89 

Statistics, etc. — Leon. 



habitants. -\- Soria, a town on the Duero,. south-eastward and 78 miles dis 
tant from Burgos, with considerable trade in wool, and 6,000 inhabitants 
Here or close by stood the ancient town of Numantia. Osma, a town near 
the Duero, with 4,000 inhabitants, -j- Segovia, a town on the Erasma River, 
southward and 92 miles distant from Burgos, with a remarkable old castle, 
once the seat of Gothic and Moorish kings, 22 churches, and 13,000 inhabi- 
tants. Between Segovia and Madrid is situated the town of San lldefonso, 
with 4,300 inhabitants, and the royal castle La Granja, built in 1716 by the 
model of the palace of Versailles. In a wilderness of the Guadarrama 
Mountains, 23 miles west-north-west of Madrid, is situated the town (with 
2,000 inhabitants) and celebrated palace of Escurial, built in the years 
1563-1584, at an expense of 5,000,000 ducats, by order of Philip II., in re- 
membrance of his victory over the French at St. Quentin in 1557. The edi- 
fice, half palace, half monastery, is 740 feet long, 5S0 feet wide and 60 feet 
high, and has 5,000 windows. Chinchon, a town with 2,000 inhabitants. 
-(- Avila, a town on the Adaja River, 55 miles west-north-west of Madrid, 
with a remarkable Gothic cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. Until the year 
1808 was here a university, founded in 1482. Other towns of this district 
are : Piedrahita and Arevalo (with 4,500 inhabitants). 

8. The kingdom of Leon, between Old Castile and Portugal, and separated 
from the Bay of Biscay by Asturias. About its history, see History of 
Europe, § 16. It contains : -4-Leon, capital of Leon, 170 miles north-north- 
west of Madrid, with an ancient Gothic cathedral considered as the finest in 
all Spain, 7 other churches, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- 
trict are : Astorga (with 4,000 inhabitants), Sahagun (with a formerly cele- 
brated Benedictine abbey, and 4,000 inhabitants), and Berabibre (with 1,600 
inhabitants). -J- Palencia, a town on the Carrion River, south-westward and 
41 miles distant from Burgos, with a beautiful cathedral, and 11,000 inhabi- 
tants. Torquemada and Saldana, towns with respectively 2,300 and 4,000 
inhabitants. -f~ Valladolid, a town on the Pisuerga, 100 miles north-north- 
west of Madrid, with a royal castle, in which Philip II. and several of his 
ancestors were born, a magnificent cathedral, a university (see above), and 
21,000 inhabitants. At Valladolid Columbus died in 1506, and at that period 
its population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- 
trict are : Medina del Rio seco (with 8,000 inhabitants, and noted for the 
battle on the 14th of August, 1808), Tudela (with 2,000 inhabitants, and noted 
for the battle on the 22d of November, 1808), Tordesillas (with 4,000 inhabi- 



90 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Btatistics, etc. — Asturias — Galicia. 



tants). and Simaneas (with 1,200 inhabitants). -J-Zamora, a fortified town on 
the Duero, and near the frontier of Portugal, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
Ferrnoselle and Toro, towns on the Duero, with respectively 3,000 and 8,000 
inhabitants. -f- Salamanca, a town on the Tormes (with an ancient Roman 
bridge), north-westward and 115 miles distant from Madrid, has since the 
middle ages been celebrated for its university (see ante), contains a re- 
markable cathedral, 24 other churches, and numerous magniiicent public edi- 
fices in general, but at present only 15,000 inhabitants. Battle on the 21st 
of July, 1812. Ciudad Rodrigo, a fortified town near the frontier of Portu- 
gal, with 5,000 inhabitants. Wellington's victory in 1812. Other towns of 
this district are ; Ledesma (with 2,000), Bejar (with 5,000), and Alba de Tor- 
mes (with 4,000 inhabitants). 

4. The principality of Asturias, along the Bay of Biscay, between Old 
Castile and Galicia, and on the south bordered by Leon. (About its history 
see History of Europe, § 16.) The crown -princes of Spain are, by way 
of eminence, titled princes of Asturias. This province contains : -j- Oviedo, 
the capital of Asturias, half way betweeu Bilbao and Coruna, with a univer- 
sity (see above), 5 churches (one of which is remarkable for its high steeple), 
and 10,000 inhabitants. Gijon, a maritime town, 18 miles north-east of Oviedo, 
with 6,000 inhabitants. Gijon was the primitive seat of Pelayo (see History 
of Europe, § 10), whose successors were called kings of Gijon, until Alphonso 
the Chaste assumed the title of king of Oviedo. Other towns of Asturias 
are : Villa viciosa, Cudillero, Aviles, Mures, JVavia, and Cangas de Onis. 

5. The kingdom of Galicia, forming the extreme north- western part both 
of Spain and of the peninsula. It was at an early period wrested from the 
Moors, and in 1060 raised to the rank of a kingdom by Ferdinand, king of 
Castile and Leon. It contains : -f- Corunna, fortified capital of Galicia and 
maritime town, northward and 156 miles distant from Oporto, with a 
very spacious harbor, packet lines to the "West Indies and Falmouth, various 
manufactories, commerce, and 23,000 inhabitants. North-eastward and 23 
miles distant from Corunna, is situated the fortified town of Ferrol (with 
13,000 inhabitants), formerly the principal station of the Spanish navy. St. 
Jago de Compostella, a town southward and 32 miles distant from Corunna, 
with 28,000 inhabitants, a university, numerous linen and other manufactories, 
and a very large cathedral, to which since the 9th century innumerable pil- 
grims have resorted, as containing the bones of St. James the Less according 
to general belief. Betanzos, a maritime town, with 2,000 inhabitants. 



SPAIN. 91 

Statistics, e(c. — Estremadura — Andalusia. 



-j- Lugo, a town near the head of the Minho River, with a remarkable cathe- 
dral, and 12,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Mondouedo 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), Ribadeo (with 2,000 inhabitants), Viverro (with 
1,800 inhabitants), and Redondda. -j-Orense, a town on the Minho, with a 
remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants, -4- Pontevedra, a maritime 
town, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Tuy (with 
6,000 inhabitants), and Vigo (with active commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants). 

6. The province of Estremadura, between New Castile and Portugal, bor- 
dered on the south by Andalusia. It was conquered in 713 by the Moors, 
and wrested from them in the 11th and 13th century. It contains: -{-Bada- 
joz, strongly fortified capital of Estremadura, near the frontier of Portugal, 
eastward and 138 miles distant from Lisbon, and south-westward and 170 miles 
distant from Madrid, with 13,000 inhabitants. Olivenca, a fortified town quite 
near the frontier of Portugal, to which kingdom it belonged until the year 1801, 
when it was ceded to Spain ; it numbers 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this district are : Xeres de los Cavalier os (with 5,000 inhabitants), Zafra (with 
10,000 inhabitants), Llerena (with 7,500 inhabitants), and Merida (with 9,000 
inhabitants). -J-Caceres, a town on the river of the same name, with 10,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Truxillo (native place of Pizarro, 
with 4,000 inhabitants), Coria (with 4,500 inhabitants), Alcantara (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Almaraz (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Plasencia (115 miles west- 
south-west of Madrid, with 7,000 inhabitants). Eastward and 23 miles distant 
from the last-named town, is the delightful valley of la Vera de Plasencia, with 
the famous convent of San Geronimo de Juste (founded hi 1410), where King 
Charles I. died in 1558. 

7, 8, and 9. Andalusia, comprising the southern part of Spain, and con- 
taining the following three provinces, styled kingdoms, and wrested from the 
Moors chiefly during the 13th century: — a. The kingdom of Seville, contain- 
ing : -f~ Seville, the capital of this province, as well as in some respects of 
Andalusia too, on the Guadalquivir, 46 miles north-north-east of Cadiz, is 16 
miles in circuit, and has 13,500 houses, but at present only 91,000 inhabitants, 
while under the sway of the Moors it numbered 500,000 inhabitants. Seville 
abounds in magnificent ancient buildings and edifices, and among them are the 
splendid cathedral, the steeple named Giralda (364 feet in height), an ancient 
Roman aqueduct, an ancient palace of the Moorish kings, etc. Other cities 
and towns of this district are : San Lucar, surnamed de Barrameda (seaport 
of Seville, with considerable commerce and 20,000 inhabitants), Utrera (with 



92 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Statistic?, etc. — Seville — Cordova. 



11,000 inhabitants), Carmona (with 13,000 inhabitants), Ossuna (with 15,000 
inhabitants), and Ecija (with 35,000 inhabitants). -\- Huelva, a maritime 
town, 55 miles west-south-west of Sevilla, with 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near 
Huelva is situated the little town and seaport of Palos, from which Columbus 
sailed on his first voyage to America. Other towns of this district are : Niebla 
(with 9,000 inhabitants), Moguer (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Ayamonte 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), -j- Cadiz, a strongly fortified city and chief seaport 
of Spam, on the Isle of Leon, with 70,000 inhabitants. Cadiz is not only one 
of the oldest towns of Europe (see History of Spain), but since the years 
1717 and 1726, the centre of the rich trade with America and India (until 
that period, Seville had been the centre). So late as in the year 1803, the 
imports of Cadiz were $61,000,000 in value. On the other or eastern end of 
the named isle, is situated the town of Isla de Leon, or San Fernando, with 
15,000 inhabitants, and in its vicinity the village of Las Cabezas de San Juan, 
where, on the 1st of January, 1820, the military revolution, contrived by 
Riego, took place. On the continental part of this district are situated the 
following towns : Puerto de Santa Maria (with 20,000 inhabitants), Puerto 
Real (with 7,000 inhabitants), Medina Sidonia (with 10,000 inhabitants), 
Chielana (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Coriil (with 1,500 inhabitants). Off 
Cape Trafalgar (23 miles south-east of Cadiz) the British gamed the great 
naval victory on the 21st of October, 1805, at which the renowned admiral 
Lord Nelson was killed. Between this cape and Gibraltar are situated the 
towns of Algeziras (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarifa (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
and San Roque (with 3,000 inhabitants). Xeres de la Frontera, a city 
situated north-eastward, and 14 miles from Cadiz, is noted for its excellent 
wines, and has 60,000 inhabitants. Near this city it was where, in 711, the 
Visigoths were defeated by the Moors in a battle that lasted nine days. 
Arcos de la Frontera, a town 14 miles north-east of Xeres de la Frontera, 
12,000 inhabitants. Zaliara, a small town at the head of the Gaudaleta River, 
and situated on a rock, with houses cut out in the rock. b. The kingdom of 
Cordova, containing : -\- Cordova, capital of this province, and once the 
splendid residence of the Moorish caliphs (see History of Europe, §§16 and 
17), at which period its population amounted to about 1,000,000 inhabitants, 
while at present it numbers only 60,000. The city is situated on the right 
bank of the Guadalquivir, north-eastward and 120 miles distant from Cadiz, 
and contains an exceedingly large and splendid cathedral (once a Moorish 
mosque), and, moreover, an ancient Moorish palace of great extent. Cordova 



SPAIN. 93 

Statistics, etc. — Gibraltar — Granada. 

was captured by the Christians in 1236. Other towns of this province are: 
Lucena (with 12,000 inhabitants), Montilla (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bitjalance 
(with 9,000 inhabitants), Baena (with 4,800 inhabitants), Castro del Rio (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Fuente Ovejuna (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Priego (with 
5,000 inhabitants), c. The kingdom of Jaen, containing : -J- Jaen, capital of 
this province, in a delightful country, southward and 196 miles distant from 
Madrid, with a remarkable cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Jaen surren- 
dered to the Christians in 1245. Other towns of this province are: Andujar 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), Baeza (with 12,000 inhabitants), Ubeda (with 16,000 
inhabitants), Alcala la Real (with 9,000 inhabitants), Marios (with 14,000 
inhabitants), Alcaudete (with 4,000 inhabitants), Linares (with 5,600 inhabi- 
tants), and Baylen (with 2,500 inhabitants). Near the last-named town, the 
French general Dupont fell into a narrow pass and saw himself obliged to 
surrender, with 8,000 men, to the Spaniards, in 1808. Carolina is the chief 
town of the German colonies in the Sierra Morena, founded in 1761 by the 
Spanish minister Olavides, and has 2,500 inhabitants, chiefly Germans. 

Gibraltar, at the southern extremity of Spain, is the strongest fortified 
town in the world, with a garrison of 3.000 men, and 17,000 inhabitants. 
This place was captured by the British in 1704, who have held it ever since. 

10. The kingdom of Granada, frequently also called Upper Andalusia, on 
the west and north bordered by Andalusia, and on the south by the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. It was conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1492 (see 
History of Europe, § 16), and contains: -j- Granada, capital of this province, 
and, until the year 1492, the residence of the last Moorish king in Spain, on the 
Xenil River and at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, north-eastward and 46 miles 
distant from Malaga, with 80,000 inhabitants, a university, a splendid cathedral 
(containing the sepulchres of Ferdinand and Isabella), 22 other churches, some 
manufactories, and highly remarkable edifices built by the Moors. Among 
the latter ranks first the Alhambra, the fortified castle of the ancient Moorish 
kings. Another Moorish palace is called Generalife. Other towns of this 
district are : Alliama (with 6.500 inhabitants), Guadix (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
Motril (with 12,000 inhabitants), Loxa (with 14,000 inhabitants), Baza (with 
12,000 inhabitants), and Uxijar, the chief town of the so-called Alpujarras, 
with important lead mines, -j- Malaga, a maritime town, north-eastward and 
69 miles distant from Gibraltar, is famous for its wines and fruits, and contains 
52,000 inhabitants, who carry on a very active commerce. Other towns of 
this district are : Velez Malaga (with 14,000 inhabitants), Ronda (with 18,000 



94 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Statistics, etc. — Murcia, Aragon, Catalonia. 

inhabitants), Antequera (with 20,000 inhabitants), and Marbella (with 4,300 
inhabitants). -4-Almeria, a maritime town, eastward and 110 miles distant 
from Malaga, with 20,000 inhabitants. In the 14th century, Almeria was the 
emporium of the kingdom of Granada. Velez el Btcbio, a town with 12,000 
inhabitants. Cuevas, a small town. 

11. The kingdom of Murcia, between Andalusia and Valencia, containing: 
-[-Murcia, capital Of this province, on the Segura, south-eastward and 221 
miles distant from Madrid, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, important silk 
trade, and 36,000 inhabitants. Carthagena, a fortified maritime town, and 
formerly a station of the Spanish navy, with one of the best harbors in the 
Mediterranean and 37,000 inhabitants. Carthagena was founded by the Car- 
thaginians about 230 years before the Christian era. Loroa, a town in a 
most fertile country, 42 miles Avest-north-west of Carthagena, with copper and 
lead mines, and 25,000 inhabitants, -j- Albacete, a town near the frontier of 
New Castile, Avith important markets for cattle, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this district are: Chinchilla (with 11,000 inhabitants), Villena (with 
9,000 inhabitants), and Almansa (noted for the victory gained by the Span. 
iards over the English, Dutch, and Portuguese, in 1707). 

12. The kingdom of Aragon, betAveen Catalonia and both Castiles, bordered 
on the north by the Pyrenees (about its history, see History of Europe, § 16), 
containing : ~\- Saragossa, strongly fortified capital of Aragon, on the Ebro, 
north-eastward and 184 miles distant from Madrid, Avith a university, 18 
churches, thriving commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. Famous siege by the 
French in 1808 and 1809. Other towns of this district are: Borja (-with 
3,200 inhabitants), Tarrazona (with 10,000 inhabitants), Calatayud (Avith 9,000 
inhabitants), Daroca (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Frag a (Avith 3,000 inhabi- 
tants). -J-Teruel, a town on the Guaclalaviar, southward and 83 miles 
distant from Saragossa, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district 
are : AlcaTiiz (with 5,000 inhabitants), Albarracin (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Cantavieja (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Montalban. -j- Huesca, a town on 
the Isuela, 37 miles north-north-east of Saragossa, with a secondary school, 
formerly a university (see above), and 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this district are : Jaca (Avith 3,000 inhabitants), Mequinenza (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Monzon (Avith 3,200 inhabitants), Barbastro (with 6,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Ainsa. 

13. The principality of Catalonia, comprising the extreme north-eastern 
part of Spain. (About its history and important commerce in the middle 



SPAIN. - 95 

Statistics, etc.— Catalonia — Valencia. 

ages, see History of Europe, §§16 and IT.) It contains: -["Barcelona, 
fortified capital of Catalonia, the principal manufacturing town in Spain, and 
rivalling Cadiz in commerce, on the coast of the Mediterranean, about 200 
miles south-west of Marseilles (in France), has (including the suburb of Bar- 
celonettd) a population of about 150,000 inhabitants, numerous magnificent 
public edifices, 82 churches, etc. Northward and 20 miles distant from Bar- 
celona is Montserrat, a single mountain 3,937 feet high, was before the last 
civil war famous for its hermits and the number of pilgrims who visited it. 
Other towns of this district are : Manresa (with 9,000 inhabitants), Martorell 
(with 2,500 inhabitants), Mataro (with 13,000 inhabitants), Igualada (with 
12,000 inhabitants), Vique or Vich (with 15,000 inhabitants), Tarrasa (with 
4,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca de Panades (with 6,000 inhabitants). 
-j- Tarragona, a maritime town, 46 miles west-south-west of Barcelona, wixh 
a remarkable cathedral, many Roman antiquities, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this district are : Reus (with 25,000 inhabitants, and the sea- 
port of Salou), Vails (with 9,000 inhabitants), Tortosa (strongly fortified, and 
with 16,000 inhabitants), and Villanueva (with 9,000 inhabitants). Alfaques 
or San Carlo is a sea-port. -\- Lerida, a fortified town on the Segre, and near 
the frontier of Aragon, westward and 73 miles distant from Barcelona, with 
13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Balaguer (with 4,000 
inhabitants), Cardona (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cervera (with 5,000 inhabi- 
tants), Sohona (with 3,000 inhabitants), Urgel or Seu d" Urgel (with 3,200 
inhabitants), Puycerda or Puigcerda (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Campredon 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), -j- G-erona, a fortified town on the Ter, 55 miles 
north-north-east of Barcelona, with a beautiful cathedral, and 6,000 inhabi- 
tants. Figueras, a town at the foot of the Pyrenees, with 5,000 inhabitants, 
and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, called San Fernando. 
Other towns of this district are : Rosas (with 2,000 inhabitants), Arens de 
Mar (with 4,000 inhabitants), Castello de Ampurias (now only with 1,500, 
but during the sway of the Romans with 100,000 inhabitants), Cadaques 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), and Hostalrieh (with 3,000 inhabitants). About the 
little republic of Andorra, see under the head of France. 

14. The kingdoin of Valencia, between New Castile and the Mediterra- 
nean Sea, on the south bordered by Murcia, and on the north by Aragon and 
Catalonia. Since the year 788 a Moorish kingdom, it was conquered in 1238 
by the Christian king of Aragon. The Valencians are distinguished by their 
industry and diligence, and for this reason Valencia is the best cultivated 



96 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Statistics, etc. — Balearic Islands 



province of Spain. It contains : 4- Valencia, the capital of this province, on 
the Guadalaviar and quite near its mouth, south-eastward and 193 miles 
distant from Madrid, with a university and numerous other literary institu- 
tions, important book-trade and silk manufactories, a magnificent cathedral 
and 72 other churches, and 66,000 inhabitants. Its seaport is called Gran. 
Northward and 32 miles distant from Valencia is situated Murviedro, a town 
with 6,000 inhabitants, and in ancient ages famous by the name of Sagunt. 
Other towns of this district are: Liria (with 12,000 inhabitants), San Felipe 
(with 15,000 inhabitants, founded by Philip V. in place of the town of Xativa, 
which in 1714 was demolished), Carcarente (with 6,000 inhabitants), and 
Alcira (with 9,000 inhabitants), -f- Castellon de la Plana, a maritime 
town, 55 miles north-north-east of Valencia, with 15,000 inhabitants. Near 
the coast are the uninhabited isles of Colwnbretes. Other towns of this district 
are : Peniscola (with 2,500 inhabitants), Vinaroz (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
Segorbe (with 6,000 inhabitants), Oervera and Morella. -f- Alicante, a mari- 
time town, southward and 83 miles distant from Valencia, with important 
wine-trade and salt-works, and 25,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
district are : Orihuela (with 26,000 inhabitants), Elche (with 20,000 inhabi- 
tants), Ahoy (with 18,000 inhabitants), Gandia (with 6,000- inhabitants), 
Denia (with 2,000 inhabitants), Guardamar (with 2,000 inhabitants), and 
Benidorme (with 2,500 inhabitants). 

15. The kingdom of Majorca, or the Balearic Islands, in the Mediterra- 
nean Sea, opposite to the coast of Valencia. The Carthaginians were for a long 
time possessed of these islands, which subsequently were conquered by the 
Romans. In 429 A. D. the Vandals settled here, and since the year 798 
the Moors took possession of the islands, which were wrested from them in 
the years 1229-1254 by King James I. of Aragon. There are altogether 4 
islands, and two of them (Majorca and Minorca) are emphatically named Ba- 
learic, while the two other (Ivica and Formentera) are called the Pithyttsian 
Islands. The island of Majorca (area : 1,342 square miles ; population : 200,000 
inhabitants) contains: -J- Palma, fortified capital, with a secondary school, for- 
merly a university, a remarkable cathedral, and 34,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of the island are: Alcudia (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Soller (with 
5,600 inhabitants). The island of Minorca (area : 256 square miles ; popu- 
lation : 50,000 inhabitants), belonging to the British in the period from the 
year 1708 to 1755 (see History of Spain), contains: Mahon, or Port Mahon 
capital of the island, with one of the finest harbors in the Mediterranean, and 



SPAIN. 97 

Statistic- - , etc. — Navarre — Basque Provinces. 



6,000 inhabitants. The former capital of this island was Cuidadela, with 
2,500 inhabitants. Besides Majorca and Minorca, the Balearic Islands com 
prise the Isles of Cabrera (a kind of convict colony), Foradada, Pantaleic, 
Dragonera, and Colomba. Of the Pithyusian Islajids, that of Ivica has an 
area of 192 square miles, and a population of 20,000 inhabitants, while the 
other named Formentera, is 43 square miles in extent, and numbers 2,000 
inhabitants. 

16. The kingdom of Navarre, between Aragon and the Basque provinces, 
on the north separated from France by the Pyrenees. About its early his- 
tory, see History of Europe, § 16 ; and it is only to be added here, that in 
1234 the kingdom of Navarre was inherited by the Count Theobald of Cham- 
pagne, who entailed it upon his French descendants, until in 1512 King Fer- 
dinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. It contains : 
-f- Pampeluna, fortified capital of Navarre, 20*7 miles north-north-east of Mad- 
rid, with 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Estella (with 
5,000 inhabitants), Viana (with 3,500 inhabitants), Tudela (with 8,000 inhab- 
tants), Olite (with 1,200 inhabitants), Tafalla (with 2,000 inhabitants), and 
Sanguesa (with 2,500 inhabitants). The valley of Roncevalles in the Pyrenees, 
28 miles north-east of Pampeluna, is noted for the attack on the Frankish 
warriors of Charlemagne in 800, and the glorious death of Roland. 

17. The Basque Provinces, along the Bay of Biscay, and on the other sides 
surrounded by Navarre and Old Castile. They entered into a political con- 
nection with the kingdom of Castile by the treaties of the year 1202, with the 
reservation of particular privileges. There are three of them, viz. : — a. Biscay, 
containing : -j- Bilbao, fortified capital of Biscay, on the Ybaizabal, 7 miles 
distant from its mouth, 73 miles west-south-west of Bayonne (in France), with 
export of wool, and 15,000 inhabitants. Bilbao's seaport is called Portugalete. 
Near the little town of Sorromastro, or Somorrostro, are important iron mines. 
Other towns of Biscay are : Orduna (with 4,000 inhabitants), Durango (with 
2,800 inhabitants), and Bermeo (with 1,500 inhabitants), b. Guipuzcoa, con 
taining : -j- San Sebastian, strongly fortified capital of Guipuzcoa, on the Bay 
of Biscay, 27 miles west-south-west of Bayonne (in France), with iron trade, 
and 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Guipuzcoa are : Los Passages (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Fuenterabia (with 1,800 inhabitants), Iran (with 1,100 
inhabitants), Ghietaria (with 500 inhabitants), Plasencia (with 1,300 inhabi- 
tants), Bergara (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mondragon (with 2,500 inhabitants), 
Tolosa (with 4,200 inhabitants), Alegria, and Azpeytia. The chief town of a 



98 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Spanish Colonies. 

little district called Encartationes, is Onate (with hardware manufactories, 
and 4,000 inhabitants), whose former university is at present united with that 
of Valladolid. c. Alava, containing : Vittoria, capital of Alava, southward 
and 28 miles distant from Bilboa, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
sword-blades. Battle on the 21st of June, 1813. Other towns of Alava are : 
Scdvatierra (with 1,200 inhabitants), Aiiana, and Banos de Ebro. 

The Spanish Colonies, at present reduced to an area of 
110,760 square miles (with about 4,500,000 inhabitants), are the 
following :— 

1. In Africa: the so called Presidios, or four fortified towns 
on the northern coast of Africa, opposite the province of Granada 
(Ceuta, Penon de Velez, Alhucemas, and Melilla) ; the Canary 
Islands, and two islands in the Gulf of Guinea. 

2. In America : the West Indian islands of Cuba and Porto 
Rico. 

3. In Asia : the greatest part of the Philippine Islands. 

4. In Polynesia : the Ladrone, or Marianne Islands. 

In the period from the year 1580 to 1640. when the immense 
Spanish dominions on the American continent and the Portu- 
guese colonies were united, the total extent of the Spanish pos- 
sessions amounted to 9,239,855 square miles. 



ITALY. 

Area: 119,706 square miles. 
Population : 24,573,100 inhabitants. 

Italy forms a great peninsula on the south of Europe, extend- 
ing into the Mediterranean Sea. It is fancied to have the shape 
of a hoot, the island of Sicily hying at the toe. 

Of the above-stated area and population, the Italian continent 
and its smaller isles comprise 99,652 square miles, and 21,785,100 
inhabitants, while the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Malta, 
comprise 20,054 square miles, and 2,788,000 inhabitants. In a 
political sense, the island of Corsica forms a constituent part of 
France, and thus it can only in a geographical sense be considered 
as belonging to Italy. Its area (3,791 square miles) is for this 
reason added to that of the French continent. 

Of those Alps (see Introduction, § 7) which separate Italy 
from other countries, the Maritime and the Cottian Alps form 
the boundary towards France, the Pennine and the Lepontic Alps 
towards Switzerland, and the Rhaetic Alps towards Germany; 
while the Gray Alps belong exclusively to Italy. About the 
Apennines, see Introduction, § 7. 

About the rivers and lakes of Italy, see Introduction, §§ 9 and 
10; the seas , gulfs, and straits, washing the shores of Italy, are 
noted under § 8. 

The climate is generally mild and delightful ; and even in the 
northern parts of Italy, the short winter is of great mildness. 



100 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Italian Scenery — Productions— Manufactures. 



Besides this, Italy is noted for the beauty, diversity, and romantic 
character of its scenery. Nevertheless, the country has in this 
respect its unfavorable side as well as other countries. Thus, for 
instance, the south wind proves often to be exceedingly hot and 
enfeebling, and is in this case called Sirocco ; and the coast 
between Leghorn and Naples (likewise the country near the 
mouths of the Po) suffers much from malaria, or the bad air of 
the marshes. 

With respect to natural productions, Italy is very poor in min- 
erals, especially in metals, with the exception of iron (its annual 
produce is about 150,000 quintals), and some lead (2,000 quintals). 
Yet Italy is noted for its excellent marble of Carrara (in the 
duchy of Modena), and the island of Sicily abounds in sulphur. 
Moreover, great quantities of lava and pumice are exported from 
Naples. Chief products of the vegetable kingdom are : rice (in 
Lombardy), maize and wheat (chiefly in Upper Italy and Tuscany), 
wine (in all parts of the country ; yet the best sorts are those 
known by the name of Lachrymae Christi, Monte Pulciano, Monte 
Fiascone, Vino Santo, etc.), olive oil, and fruits of southern 
Europe. Naples has the finest breed of horses ; in many of the 
mountainous parts of Italy are mules, and in the States of the 
Church and Tuscany, buffaloes are reared. But, in general, the 
rearing of cattle and sheep is of no great importance. As nox- 
ious animals, maybe mentioned, vipers, tarantulas, and scorpions; 
while, the silk-worm, kept in great number throughout Italy, is 
of substantial benefit to the country. Agriculture flourishes in 
Lombardy and Tuscany. 

During the middle ages, Italy excelled in various manufactures, 
which are still important, though not so much so as formerly. 
The kingdom of Lombardy and Venice ranks first in manufac- 
tures, and those of other Italian countries are at least not in a 
backward state. Thus may be mentioned the manufacture of 



ITALY. 101 

Italian Commerce — Education— Religion. 



silks at Turin, Genoa, Lucca, Naples, Palermo, Ancona, Florence, 
and Bologna ; of leather gloves at Naples, Genoa, Rome, and Lucca ; 
of paper at Lucca, Genoa, Turin, Pescia, etc. ; of pergamen at 
Rome, in Piedmont, etc. ; of artificial fioicers at Genoa, Turin, 
Bologna, Rome, etc. ; of straw hats, in Tuscany ; and of catguts 
for musical instruments, at Rome, Naples, etc. 

The Italian commerce is very considerable, though chiefly re- 
stricted to the intercourse with the Levant. The principal sea- 
ports and first commercial cities of Italy, are Leghorn and Genoa ; 
next to them are to be mentioned, Ancona, Naples, Messina, Venice, 
Civita Yecchia, Gallipoli, etc. The most important inland trade is 
carried on by Milan, Turin, Verona, Alessandria, Florence, Rome, 
Lucca, Modena, and Parma. The chief articles of export are 
silk, olive oil, oranges and other fruits, and marble; while tropical 
produce, corn, British, French, and German manufactures, fancy 
articles, etc., are chiefly imported. 

In the means of education, Lombardy and Venice, Tuscany and 
Parma, surpass by far the other Italian countries, where the lower 
classes are, for the most part, ignorant, and averse to improve- 
ment. Nevertheless there are throughout Italy learned men to 
be found, who are distinguished for their attainments in literature 
and science. In music, and perhaps even in sculpture, the Italians 
excel most of the other European nations. 

The Roman Catholic is the established religion in all the 
Italian states ; although others are at present, and some have 
long been, tolerated. The Waldenses, in Piedmont, who have 
almost the same religious faith as the Moravian brethren, do, 
since the year 1848, enjoy the same political privileges as 
their catholic fellow-citizens ; while the Armenians, Greeks, Mo- 
hammedans, and Jews, in the commercial cities, have free exercise 
of religion. During- the wars and differences between the Em- 
peror Charles V. and the Pope, in the 16th century, the Refor- 



102 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

History of Italy. 

mation made such progress in Italy, that but for the subsequent 
rigorous and bloody proceeding of the inquisition, perhaps the 
majority of the Italians would have embraced the Protestant 
faith. 

History of Italy. — The aborigines of Italy, in as far as history has noticed 
them were the Umbrians, Siculians, Sabines, Volsci, Ausonians, Samnites, 
etc. At a very early period foreign immigrants joined them, for instance, 
Jllyrians, Pelasgians, Celtes, and Venetes ; and from their mixture arose vari- 
ous other people, as the Etruscans, Latins, Campanians, etc. In the period 
between the years 1000 and 700 B. C, many of the ancient Greeks settled in 
the southern parts of the Italian peninsula, and founded there the cities of Ta- 
rant, Sybaris, Croton, Brundusium, Naples, Reggio, etc. After that time the 
south of Italy was called Great-Greece. Anterior to the first settlement of 
the Greeks, Aeneas, a Trojan prince, shall have immigrated into Latium with 
many of his fugitive countrymen, and their descendants founded Rome in 
754 A. C. In the beginning the Romans were ruled by kings in the following 
succession: Romulus (754-715), Numa Pompilius (715-672), Tullus Hostilius 
(612-640), Ancus Martius (640-616), Tarquinius Priscus (616-578), Servius 
Tuilius (578-534), and Tarquinius Superbus (534-510). The monarchic form 
of government having been abolished in 510 B. C, Rome became a republic 
with aristocratic forms of government, which lasted until the year 45 B. C, 
when Julius Caesar was appointed dictator for lifetime and assumed the title 
of imperator. The first actual Roman emperor was Octavius or Augustus, 
who after a reign of 44 years died in 14 A. D. ; and the last Roman emperor 
was Romulus Augustulus, who in 476 A. D. was dethroned by Odoacer, the 
leader of a Germanic tribe called the Heruli. About the subsequent politi- 
cal fate of Italy, see History of Europe, §§ 6, 7, 9, and 14. Since the con- 
quest of the Lombardian kingdom of Italy by ' Charlemagne, the greatest 
part of Italy was under the sway of the Frankish, and since the end of the 
9th century under that of the German kings and emperors (see History of 
Europe, § 14 at its end). But as soon as the latter began to yield to the 
pretensions of the popes, many parts of the country became independent, as 
republics or as duchies, etc., while in Lower Italy the Normans founded the 
kingdom of Naples. In the last three ^lturies most of the Italian states 
were the subject of a quarrel between Austria, France, and Spain, and the 
wars subsequent to the first French revolution brought on new political 



ITALY. 103 

Divisions of Italy — Sardinia. 

changes there. But we must defer the further particulars to the history of 
each separate Italian state. 

Italy comprises the following states : — 

In Upper Italy: 

1. The Kingdom of Sardinia. 

2. The Kingdom of Lombard]/ and Venice. 

3. The Duchy of Parma. 

4. The Duchy of Modena. 

In Central Italy : 

5. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany 

6. The States of the Church. 

7. The Republic of San Marino. 

In Lower Italy : 

8. The Kingdom of Naples* 



I. THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. 

Area : 29,245 square miles. 
Population : 5,292,000 inhabitants. 

Until the peace of Utrecht (in 1713) this state was known by 
the name of the duchy of Savoy. Since that time and at present 
it embraces the western section of Upper Italy, together with 
the large island of Sardinia. 

* Besides these states, the geographical description of Italy must necessa- 
rily embrace that of the really Italian island of Alalia also. 



104 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sardinia: Geographical Description. 



According to the census of 1844, the population of the whole 
kingdom amounted to 5,108,601 inhabitants; but since it has 
increased to the above-stated number. With the exception of 
about 22,000 Waldenses (see above) and of 8,000 Jews, all inhab- 
itants are Catholics, under the church authority of 7 archbishops 
and 34 bishops. There are still 334 monasteries and 95 nunne- 
ries in this kingdom. 

The north-west part of continental Sardinia comprises the 
highest branches and summits of the Alps (see above, and Intro- 
duction, § 7), while the Ligurian Apennines run through its 
southern part. 

The chief river is the Po ; and one of its tributaries, the Ticino 
(see Introduction, § 10), forms the boundary on the side of Lom- 
bardy and Venice. 

Of the continental provinces. Savoy is thoroughly mountainous, 
and for this reason not much adapted to agriculture. Piedmont 
and the adjacent districts are for the most part level, and at the 
same time fertile and well cultivated. Genoa and Nice, sheltered 
by the Apennines against the cold northerly winds, are noted for 
the mildness of the climate, and abound in fruits of southern 
Europe. Although in Savoy the rearing of cattle, and in Pied- 
mont, etc., the agriculture is in a high state of prosperity, yet 
the chief staple of the kingdom is only silk. Other articles of 
export are rice, olive-oil, cattle, and hemp. About the manufac- 
tures, see above. 

There are 4 universities in the kingdom, viz. : at Turin (founded 
in 1412, and in 1842 frequented by 1,250 students), at Genoa 
(founded in 1812, and in 1842 with 6J0 students), at Cagliari 
(founded in 1720, renewed in 1764, and frequented in 1842 by 
499 students), and at Sassari (founded in 1766, and in 1842 with 
240 students). Besides these there are 85 colleges and 39 semi- 
naries. The common schools are still in a backward state. 



ITALY. 105 

Sardinia: Government, etc. — History. 

Until the beginning of the last revolution in Italy the power 
of the king (at present Victor Emanuel, born 1820, March 14) 
in most of the provinces was absolute ; and in Genoa and the 
island of Sardinia more or less limited. 

The annual revenue of the state is upon an average 79,000,000 
lire (or francs), and the expenditure about 77,500,000 lire. The 
public debt amounts to nearly 150,000,000 lire, about $30,000,000. 

The army numbers on the peace footing 34,500, and on the 
war footing 135,300 men. The navy numbers 5 large frig- 
ates, 2 sloops of war, 2 brigs, 4 schooners, 12 gun-boats, and 3 
steamers. 

The orders of honor of Sardinia are the following: 1. The 
order of St. Annunciata, in one class, instituted in 1362, and re- 
newed in 1518 and 1720. 2. The order of St. Mauritius and 
Lazarus, in 3 classes, instituted in 1434, and altered in 1527. 

3. The military order of Savoy, in 4 classes, instituted in 1815. 

4. The order of merit, from the year 1831. 5. The order or cross 
of loyalty, instituted in 1814. The royal title is: " King of 
Sardinia, Cyprus, and Jerusalem, Duke of Savoy, Genoa, etc., 
Prince of Piedmont, Margrave of Italy," etc. 

History. — The ancestral seat of the Sardinian monarchs is Savoy, which 
since the year 879 formed part of the kingdom of Arelat (see under France), 
and whose governor, Berold or Beroald, made himself independent in 1016, 
and was the first count of Savoy. His descendants acquired in the course of 
time, partly by marriage, partly by purchase, Piedmont, Asti, and Nice. In 
1416 Count Amadeus VIII. was by the German emperor Sigismund raised to 
the rank of a duke of Savoy. In 1438 the heiress of the kingdom of Cyprus 
(established at the end of the 12th century) bequeathed that island to her 
nephew, Charles I. duke of Savoy, hence the claims of this house upon the 
above-stated title. In the history of Spain it has already been stated that 
the duke of Savoy (at that period Victor Amadeus II., whose great-grand- 
mother was the daughter of King Philip II. of Spain) partook in the mar of 
succession. As confederate of Austria in this war, he acquired the duchy of 

5* 



106 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sardinia: Geographical Division — Piedmont. 

Mont f err at and part of the duchy of Milan, and by the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713, the island of Sicily, which he however in 1720 ceded to Austria, that 
indemnified him by the island of Sardinia. Since that time the dukes of 
Savoy transformed this title into that of kings of Sardinia. In 1792 the 
French invaded the continental part of the kingdom, and incorporated first 
Savoy and Nice, and subsequently all Sardinian provinces on the continent, 
with France. Thus the whole kingdom was reduced to the island of Sar- 
dinia; but in 1814 the king was not only reinstated into the possession of his 
dominions, but amply indemnified by the annexation of the former republic 
of Genoa. In 1831 the elder branch of the house of Savoy became extinct, 
and Charles Albert of the collateral line of Savoy- Carignan (whose ancestor 
was a younger son of the above-named Duke Emanuel) ascended the throne. 
But the reverses he met with in the war against Austria in 1849, induced 
him to abdicate, and he was succeeded by his eldest son, the now reigning 
king Victor Emanuel. 

The whole kingdom is divided into 10 counties, or general 
intendancies, as they are styled (of Turin. Cuneo, Alessandria, 
Aosta, Novara, Savoy, Nice, G-enoa, Cagliari, and Sassari), which 
are subdivided into 48 districts. But in the following topog- 
raphy, we shall retain the historical division into the provinces 
of Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, etc., as these names are more in 
use. Although Savoy is the ancestral seat, we must begin with 
Piedmont, as containing the metropolis and royal residence. 

1. The 'principality of Piedmont, of which the counts of Savoy became 
possessed in the 11th and 12th century, contains: Turin, the capital of the 
kingdom and royal residence, on the Po, 73 miles west-south-west of Milan, 
and north-westward and 70 miles distant from Genoa, is the most regularly 
built of all th€ Italian cities, and adorned with numerous magnificent public 
edifices and palaces, and has 135,000 inhabitants. It contains 110 churches 
and chapels, a university (see p. 104), and many other literary institutions, 
and is noted for its manufactures of silk. In the beautiful environs of Turin, 
are the royal country-seats and palaces of Stupinigi (built in 1740, and one 
of the most splendid palaces in Europe), of Monca/icri, or Montecalieri (near 



ITALY. 107 

Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. 

the town of the same name, with 7,000 inhabitants), of La Veneria (near the 
town of the same name, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a fine royal stud), and of 
Rivoli (near the town of the same name, with 6,000 inhabitants). La Superga 
is a magnificent church and convent, built in the years 1715-1731. Carigstan, 
or Carignano, a town on the Po, southward and 11 miles distant from Turin, 
is the ancestral seat of the reigning royal family, and has 8,500 inhabitants. 
Chieei, a town in the vicinity of Turin, has 14,000 inhabitants, and was in the 
middle ages a republic by the name of Cairo. Other towns of this district 
are: Carmagnola (with 12,000 inhabitants), Chivasso (with 7,000 inhabitants), 
Cirie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Caselle (with 4,500 inhabitants), San Maurizio 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), Lanzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Viu (with 4,600 
inhabitants), V.sseglio (with 2,000 inhabitants), Rivarolo (with 6,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Rivara (with 1,700 inhabitants). Susa, in the middle ages, chief 
town of a margraviate of the same name, on the Dora Riparia, westward 
and 30 miles distant from Turin, with 3,500 inhabitants, and the remarkable 
remains of the strong fortress of Brunetta, demolished in 1797. Other towns 
of this district are : Exilles (with 1,500 inhabitants), San Ambrogio (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Giaveno (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Avigliana (with 
3,000 inhabitants). Pinerolo, or Pignerol, a town on the Clusone, south- 
westward and 25 miles distant from Turin, with a beautiful cathedral, and 
14,000 inhabitants. Pinerolo, Fenestrelle (with 4,000 inhabitants), Oulx (with 
1,000 inhabitants), and Cesana (with 1,000 inhabitants), together with the 
valley of Clusone. belonged to France in the period from the year 1631 to 1713. 
Other towns of this district are: Cavoux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Cumiana 
(with 3,500 inhabitants), Vigone (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Villafranca di 
Piemonte (with 8,000 inhabitants). The valleys of Lucerna, Peroso, and San 
Mariino, are the seat of the above-mentioned "Waldenses, with 13 churches. 
Saluzzo, formerly the chief town of a margraviate of the same name, on the 
Po, 32 miles south-south-west of Turin, with an old castle (once the residence 
of the renowned margraves of Saluzzo), a splendid cathedral, and 15,00" 
inhabitants. Quite near is situated the magnificent abbey of Staffarda 
(founded in 1135 by Manfredo I, margrave of Saluzzo, and built in the Gothic 
style). Victory gained by the French marshal Catinat,in 1690. Other towns 
of this district are : Savigliano (with 1 6,500 inhabitants), Racconigi (with 
10,500 inhabitants), and Barge (with 7,000 inhabitants). Cuneo, or Coni, a* 
town at the junction of the Gesso and the Hura, 92 miles south-south-west of 
Turin, with 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Busca (with 



108 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sardinia: Statistics of Piedmont. 

8,000 inhabitants), Dronero (with 7,000 inhabitants), Fossano (with 13,000 
inhabitants), Vinadeo (with 2,600 inhabitants), Demonte (with 7,000 inhabi- 
tants), Chiusa or La Chiusa (with 6,500 inhabitants), Valdieri (with 2,000 
inhabitants), and Boves (with 8,000 inhabitants). Mondovi, a town on the 
Ellero, southward and 46 miles distant from Turin, with 16,500 inhabitants. 
Victory gained by Napoleon Bonaparte, on the 22d of April, 1796. A short time 
before, Bonaparte had gained another victory at Milleshno (a town, eastward 
and 18 miles distant from Mondovi, with 1,300 inhabitants). Other towns of 
this district are: Ceva (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bene (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
and Cherasco (with 12,500 inhabitants). Alba, a town on the Tanaro, south- 
eastward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 
8,000 inhabitants. Bra, a town on the Hura, with 12,000 inhabitants. 
Govone, a town on the Tanaro, with 2,500 inhabitants. Polenzo, a village 
with a Gothic castle and beautiful park. Another village with an ancient 
castle, is Barolo. Asti, once the chief town of the county of Asti, of which the 
dukes of Savoy became possessed in 1531, with a magnificent Gothic cathe- 
dral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Cocconato and San Damiano, towns with 
respectively 3,500 and 7,000 inhabitants. Ivrea, a town on the Doria Baltea, 
northward and 32 miles distant from Turin, with a remarkable cathedral, and 
8,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Locana (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), Aglie (with 4,000 inhabitants), Cuorgne (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Ponte (with 2,500 inhabitants), Castellamonte (with 6,000 inhabitants), Borgo- 
masino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Caluso (with 5,500 inhabitants), and San 
Giorgio (with 4,000 inhabitants). Vercelli, once the chief town of a Lord- 
ship belonging to the famous barons of Visconti, and since the year 1427 
belonging to the house of Savoy (the Dukes Amadeus IX. and Charles III. 
resided here towards the end of the 15th, and in the beginning of the 16th 
century), is situated on the Sesia, 39 miles east-north-east of Turin, and con- 
tains many remarkable Gothic edifices, and 19,500 inhabitants. Other towns 
of this district are : Santhia, or St. Ya (with 3,500 inhabitants), Crescentino 
(with 4,400 inhabitants), and Trino (with 7,000 inhabitants). Biella, a town 
41 miles north-north-east of Turin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this district are : Oropa (with 1,200 inhabitants), Andorno (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Occhieppo superiore (with 1,700 inhabitants), Croce llosso (with 1,600 
inhabitants), and Pollove (with 1,500 inhabitants). Masserano, a little prin- 
cipality belonging to the barons of Ferreri, under the sovereignty of Sardinia. 
Aosta, a town, at the foot of Mount St. Bernard, 50 miles north-north-west 



ITALY. 109 

Sardinia: Statistics of Savoy. 



of Turin, with 7,000 inhabitants. St. Vincenzo, a town, with mineral springs, 
and 2,000 inhabitants. Chattillon, a town, with iron works, and 1,500 inhabi- 
tants. Coraiaggiore (in French, Courmayeur), a village between the Ber- 
nardins, with frequented mineral springs, and 1,200 inhabitants. Bardo, or 
Bard, a fortress between Aosto and Ivrea, dominating the road over the Great 
St. Bernard, and therefore presenting the last serious obstacle to Bonaparte, 
when in 1800 he crossed the Alps with his army. 

2. The duchy of Savoy, between Piedmont and France, on the north bor- 
dered by the lake of Geneva (its population was 606,396 inhabitants, accord- 
ing to the census of 1844; about its history, see p. 105) ; containing: Cham- 
ber y, capital of Savoy, at 9 miles distance from the French frontier, 46 miles 
south-south-west of Geneva and 83 miles west-north-west of Turin, with an 
ancient castle once the residence of the dukes of Savoy, active trade with 
Lyons, and 18,500 inhabitants. Not far off is situated, in a delightful valley, 
the town of Aix, noted (even from the days of the Romans) for its mineral 
springs, and with 3,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : Alta 
Comba, in French Haute Cmnbe (with a renowned abbey from the year 1125, 
and with 1.600 inhabitants), Echelles (with 1,200 inhabitants), Mommeliano, 
in French Montmelian (with 1,300 inhabitants), Rumilly (with 4,500 inhabi- 
tants), St. Pierre d'Albigny (with 4,000 inhabitants), Yenne (with 3,500 in- 
habitants), Aillon (with 3,000 inhabitants), A rvillers (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
Ugine (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Aigues belles (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
The small towns of Conjlans and Hbpital, on the Isere, are at present united 
by the name of Albertville, and have together 3,500 inhabitants. Pont 
Beauvoisin, a town on the Isere, with 1,500 inhabitants, belongs with its 
western half to France, and with its eastern to Savoy. Thonon, formerly 
the capital of the ancient duchy of Ciablese or Chablais, on the lake of Ge- 
neva, north-eastward and 21 miles distant from Geneva, with 4,200 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns of this district are : Evian (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. 
Jean d'Aulps (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Abondance (with 1,800 inhabi- 
tants). Annecy, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Genevese, or 
Genevois (of which the dukes of Savoy became possessed, in 1401), on the 
lake of Annecy, southward and 21 miles distant from Geneva, with 9,000 
inhabitants. Faverges, a town, with an important silk manufactory, and 3,000 
inhabitants. Bonneville, formerly the capital of the ancient Lordship of 
Faucigny, or Fossigny, at the confluence of the Bonne and Arve, south-east- 
ward and 14 miles distant from Geneva, with 1,300 inhabitants. Oluse, or 



110 EUKOPK, FAST AND PRESENT. 

Sardinia: Statistics of Nice — Monaco — Montferrat. 

Chises, a town on the Arve, with 2,000 inhabitants. Sallanche, or Sallenche, 
a town on the Arve, with 1,800 inhabitants. Chammmy, a village situated in 
the romantic valley of the same name, with 1,100 inhabitants. Tanninges, 
a town with 3,000 inhabitants. St. Gervais, or San Gervasio, a village at 
the foot of Mont Blanc, with mineral springs, and 2,000 inhabitants. 
Montiers, or Monstiers, surnamed en Tarentaise, a town on the Isere, 30 
miles east-south-east of Chambery, with 2,800 inhabitants. Aime, a town 
with 900 inhabitants. San Giovanni, or St Jean de Maurienne, a town 28 
miles south-east of Chambery, with frequented mineral springs, and 3,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this district are: Lans-le-Bourg (with 1,500 
inhabitants), Modane (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Termignon (with 1,800 
inhabitants). 

3. The county of Nice (area : 1,448 square miles ; population : 247,483 in- 
habitants, according to the census of 1844), along the coast and on the French 
border, once belonging to Provence, but since the year 1388, to the house of 
Savoy. It contains : Nice, a maritime town and the capital of the county, 
much frequented by the English, Germans, and others, on account of its salu- 
brious air, with 37,000 inhabitants. Other towns of the county are : Villafranca 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), Sospello (with 9,000 inhabitants), Turbia (with 800 
inhabitants), Tenda (with 3,000 inhabitants), Briga (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
and Oncglia (with 5,000 inhabitants). 

The principality of Monaco (area: 53 square miles; population: 7,000 
inhabitants), surrounded by the county of Nice, is independent in its local 
affairs, but in other respects under the protection and supremacy of Sardinia. 
It yields an annual revenue of 100,000 francs to the prince of Monaco (at 
present Florestan I., belonging to the family of Grimaldi), and contains the 
following towns : Monaco (the capital, with 1,200 inhabitants), Mentone (with 
3,000 inhabitants), and Rocca bruna. 

4. The duchy of Montferrat (area : 1,065 square miles ; population : 170,000 
inhabitants), situated between Turin and Genoa. Montferrat was originally a 
margraviate, and in 890 it was ruled by the margrave William, whose male 
line became extinct in 1305. The heiress of the margraviate, Iolantha, was 
married, in 1330, with a prince of Savoy, and by the right of succession, the 
house of Savoy became possessed of the margraviate, or duchy, in the years 1627 
and 1703. It contains: Casale, capital of Montferrat, on the Po, eastward 
and 37 miles distant from Turin, with several remarkable palaces, and a 
cathedral, and 20,000 inhabitants. Acqui, a town on the Bormida, with 8,500 



ITALY. Ill 

Sardinia: Statistics of Duchy of Milan, etc. 

inhabitants. The little town of Cucarro is considered as the actual birth-place 
of Columbus, who, according to recent investigators, was born here in 1442 ; 
while others are of the opinion that he was born in Cogoleto (see under duchy 
of Genoa). Nizza delta Paglia, a toAvn on the Belbo, with 5,000 inhabitants. 

5. The Sardinian portion of the duchy of Milan (see history of this duchy 
in the description of the Austrian empire), containing : Alessandria, sur- 
named della Paglia, a city on the Tanaro, eastward and 46 miles distant from 
Turin, and northward and 42 miles distant from Genoa, with several literary 
institutions, frequented fairs, and 46,000 inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated 
the village of Marengo, noted for the battle of the 14th of June, 1800. 
Bosco, a great village, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a magnificent abbey, 
founded in the 16th century. Valenza, a town on the Po, with 7,000 inhab- 
itants. Lumello (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mortara (with 4,200 inhabi- 
tants), and Vigevano (with 12,000 inhabitants). Novara, a town on the 
Agogna, north-eastward and 55 miles" distant from Turin, with a magnificent 
cathedral, several literary institutions and societies, and 15,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this district are : Oleggio (with 7,000 inhabitants). Borgomanero 
(with 7,000 inhabitants), Maggiora (with 2,000 inhabitants), Borgosesia (with 
3,000 inhabitants), and Varallo (with 3,000 inhabitants). Near the village of 
Alagna, at the foot of Mount Rosa, are important copper mines. On the 
Lake Maggiore is situated the town of Arona, with 65,000 inhabitants, noted 
for a colossal statue of Charles Borromeo, born in 1538 at Arona, and distin- 
guished for his works of Clu-istian charity. He was cardinal and archbishop 
of Milan, where he died in 1584. Near Arona, and in the Lake Maggiore, 
are the Borromean Isles {Isola del Pescatori, Isola bella, and Isola madre), 
with beautiful gardens, belonging to the family of Borromeo. Pallanza (with 
1,600 inhabitants), Intra (with 6,000 inhabitants), and CanobUo (with 2,000 
inhabitants), towns on the Lake Maggiore. Other towns of this district are : 
Pomodossola, or Domo d'Ossola (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Vogogna (with 
1,500 inhabitants). Tortona, a town on the Scrivia, eastward and 9 miles 
distant from Alessandria, with 9,000 inhabitants. Serravalle, a town, with 
2,400 inhabitants. Bobbio, a town on the Trebbia, and near the frontier of 
the duchy of Parma, with 5,000 inhabitants. Voghera, a town 18 miles 
east-north-east of Alessandria, with 12,000 inhabitants. 

6. The former republic (at present styled duchy) of Genoa (area : 2,343 
square miles; population, according to the census of 1844: 7 05,7 OS inhabi- 
tants). The city of Genoa was already in the days of the ancient Romans 



112 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sardinia: Duchy of Genoa — History and Statistics. 

noted for its extensive commerce. In the period of the migration of nations 
it came under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and since changed hands, until in 
the middle ages it threw off obedience to the German emperors, and became 
independent, with republican forms of government like those of Venice. So 
early as the year 806 it had conquered the island of Corsica, which it kept 
first until the 11th, and then, since the year 1284, until the latter half of the 
18th century, when the island was ceded to France. About the highly-im- 
portant and extensive commerce of Genoa in the middle ages, see History 
of Europe, §11. Since the year 1464, Genoa, with its territory, was consid- 
ered as part of the duchy of Milan. It was conquered by King Francis I. of 
France, and again by Charles V. emperor of Germany. At last, in 1528, it re- 
acquired its independence, which it maintained until the wars brought on by 
the French revolution. In 1797, it was transformed into a Ligurian Republic ; 
in 1805, incorporated into the French empire; and in 1815, into the kingdom 
of Sardinia. The duchy of Genoa contains the following cities and towns : 
Genoa, fortified capital of the duchy and chief seaport of Sardinia, on the 
Gulf of Genoa, with 120,000 inhabitants. It is built on the declivity of a 
mountain which half encircles its harbor, and is surnamed the Superb on 
account of its numerous and magnificent palaces and other edifices, among 
which are more than 100 churches. Besides a university (see p. 104), there 
are many other scientific and literary institutions. (About the birth-place of 
Columbus, see Cucarro, p. Ill, and Cogoleto, p. 113.) The shore to the right 
and to the left of the city, is covered with numerous and splendid villas. As 
Genoa's suburb is considered the neighboring town of San Piar d' Arena, or 
San Pietro d' 'Arena, with many villas and magnificent palaces, and 7,000 
inhabitants. WesUvard and 23 miles distant from Genoa, is situated the 
village of Montenotte, noted for the victory gained by Bonaparte on the 14th 
of April, 1196. Other remarkable villages in the vicinity of Genoa are : 
Arenzano, San Cipriano, La Foce, and Sori. Voltri, a maritime town, with 
docks, paper manufactories, and 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this dis- 
trict are : Cornigliano (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sestri di Ponente (with 6,000 
inhabitants), Pra, or Pria (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pegli (with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), Camogli (with 5,000 inhabitants), Nervi, Torriglia, and Mele. Novi, a 
town at the foot of the Apennines, 23 miles north-north-east of Genoa, with 
many palace-like houses and villas of the Genoese, and 10,800 inhabitants. 
Savon a, a maritime town, 20 miles west-south-west of Genoa, with 17,000 
inhabitants. Pope Pius VII. lived here forcedly, in the years 1809-1812. 



ITALY. 113 

Sardinia : Statistics — Island of Sardinia. 

Cogoleto, a village on the Gulf of Genoa, with 1,000 inhabitants, is considered 
as the birth-place of Columbus, according to the prevailing opinion, while 
others consider Cucarro (see p. Ill) as his birth-place. Other towns of this 
district are: Vado (with 2,000 inhabitants), A Ibizola (with 1,300 inhabitants), 
Varazze (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Noli (with 2,000 inhabitants). Albenga, 
a maritime town, south-westward and 32 miles from Savona, with 4,000 inhab- 
itants. Other towns of this district are : Alassio (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Langueglia, or Laigueglia (with 2,200 inhabitants), Loano (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Finale (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Varigotti (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
Porto Mauritio, or Porto San Maurizio, a maritime town, south-westward 
and 37 miles distant from Savona, with 5,700 inhabitants. San Remo, a 
maritime town, nor th-east ward and 28 miles distant from Nice, with 12,000 
inhabitants. It is said, in praise of this town, that within the memory of 
man, a murder has never happened there. Another maritime town is Venti- 
miglia, or Vintiviiglia, with 5,500 inhabitants. Chiavari, a maritime town, 
eastward and 23 miles distant from Genoa, with 11,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this district are : Rapallo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Lavagna (with 
2,500 inhabitants), Sestri di Levante (with 2,000 inhabitants), Borzonasca 
(with 5,000 inhabitants), and Varene (with 6,000 inhabitants). Spezia, or 
Spezzia, a maritime town on the Gulf of Spezia, between Genoa and Leghorn, 
with a fine harbor, and 10,000 inhabitants. In and near the Gulf of Spezia, 
are situated the small isles of Palmaria, Tino (with a light -house), and Tinello. 
Of greater extent is the idand of Capraja, between Corsica and Leghorn, 
with 3,660 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844. In the district of 
Spezia, are still the following towns to be mentioned : Portovenere (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Lerici (with 4,700 inhabitants), Levanto (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Sarzana (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Monterosso (with 1,000 inhabitants). 

7. The island of Sardinia (area: 9,287 square miles; population: 598,000 
inhabitants), next to Sicily the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, situ- 
ated in the latitude of Naples. The soil of the low country is generally 
very fertile in grain, of which great quantities are exported, chiefly to 
Algiers. The rearing of cattle is also very considerable. In the mountainous 
districts lives the mufflon, bearing a great resemblance to the Rocky Mountain 
sheep. The aborigines of the island of Sardinia were Iberians (see Introduc- 
tion, § 12), and in the course of time, Greek and Carthaginian immigrants 
settled here. The Romans conquered the island in 238 B. C, and in 720 A.D., 
it came under the sway of the Arabs, in 1050 under that of the Pisans. 



114 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Island of Sardinia — Statistics. 

In 1324 the king of Aragon became possessed of it, and since that period the 
island continued to be under Spanish sovereignty, until in 1714 it was ceded 
to Austria, and in 1720 ceded to the duke of Savoy, in exchange for Sicily 
(see ante). With regard to the administration, the island is divided into 
two divisions, or provinces, which are subdivided into eleven districts ; and it 
contains : Caguari, fortified capital of the island, on the gulf of the same 
name, with a university (see above), 38 churches, 20 convents, ship docks, 
active commerce, salt works, and 30,000 inhabitants. Quarto, a town, with 
5,800 inhabitants. Here, and in the neighborhood, the female sex is distin- 
guished for its beauty. Busachi, chief town of a district, with 1,800 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns of this district are : Oristano (with 6,000 inhabitants), and 
Ales (with 1,000 inhabitants), while Cobras (with 8,500 inhabitants), Paulila- 
tino (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sorgono (with 1,300 inhabitants), and Aritzu, are 
more or less remarkable villages. The district of Iglesias contains the fol- 
lowing towns : Iglesias (chief town, with a fine cathedral, and 8,500 inhabi- 
tants), Villacidro (with 5,800 inhabitants), Giispini (with lead mines, and 
3,000 inhabitants), and Carloforte (on the isle of San Pietro, near the south- 
west coast, with 2,300 inhabitants). Isili, chief town of a district, with 2,200 
inhabitants. Nurri and Sardara, villages, with respectively 2,000 and 1,700 
mhabitants. Lanusei, chief town of the district of Ogliastra, with 1,100 in- 
habitants. Tortoli and Bavi, towns, with respectively 1,300 and 1,200 inhab- 
itants. Nuoro, chief town of a district, with 8,600 inhabitants. Orosei, 
Fonni, and Posada, towns, with respectively 2,000, 2,800, and 2,500 inhabi- 
tants. Montesanto, Orgosola, and Siniscola, are mountain villages, whose 
inhabitants are notorious for their wild manners. Dorgali, a village, with 
2,900 inhabitants, and noted for its manufactory of arms. The fair sex of the 
village of Benetutti are distinguished for their beauty. Sassari, the second 
city on the island, near its northern coast, with 25 churches, 13 convents, a 
university (see above), and 23,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this district 
are : Osilo (with 4,800 inhabitants), Sorso (with 4,300 inhabitants), Castel 
Sardo (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Porto Torres (with 800 inhabitants). 
Alghieri, or Alghcro, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cuglieri (with 8,900 
inhabitants), and Bosa (with a magnificent cathedral, and 6,000 inhabitants), 
towns. Ozieri (with 8,000 inhabitants), Oschiri (with 2,000 inhabitants), and 
Pattada (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. Tempio, chief town of the district 
of Gallura, with 9,500 inhabitants. To this district belong, moreover, the 
town of Terranova (with 1,600 inhabitants), and the isles of Tavolara or 
Buewa, Maddalcna. and Caprera. 



ITALY 115 

Duchy of Parma. 



II.— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. 

Area: 17,594 square miles. 
Population: 5,068,000 inhabitants. 

This kingdom will be described together with the Austrian 
empire. 



Ill— THE DUCHY OF PARMA. 

Area: 2,2*79 square miles. 
Population: 4*79,900 inhabitants. 



It is situated between the duchy of Modena and the conti- 
nental part of Sardinia, and on the north separated from Lom- 
bard y by the Po. 

The soil is generally very fertile, and agriculture in a rather 
high state of improvement. Yet the commerce and manufactures 
are of no great importance. 

The clergy are charged with the care of the schools. Most of 
the teachers are monks, and the schools for girls are under the 
direction of nuns. There was a university in the capital, founded 
in 1422, but it was abolished in 1832 and transformed into two 
higher special schools. The higher catholic clergy consist of 7 
bishops. There are still 21 convents in the country. 

The public revenue was of late about 7,200,000 lire (or francs), 
and the expenditure little more than 6,000,000 lire. The public 
debt amounted to 7,600,000 lire, or $1,428,800, in 1840. The 
military numbers about 800 men. There is an order of honor, 



116 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Duchy of Parma. 

called the Constantinian order of St. George, originally instituted 
by the Greek emperor Isaac, in 1190, and in 1699 sold to the 
Duke Francis I. of Parma. In 1815, it was renewed by the late 
Duchess Maria Louisa. 

History. — The country embraces 3 duchies, viz. : of Parma, Piacenza, and 
Guastalla, of which the two first-named were always united, while G-uastalla 
was not added to them until the year 1748. The cities of Parma and Pia- 
cenza shared the fate of Upper and Middle Italy after the fall of the Western 
Empire, until in 1183 they succeeded in becoming independent, with repub- 
lican forms of government. Yet in the next century they were unable to 
maintain their independence, and they were ruled alternately by the Visconti, 
Este, Sforzas, and other dynasties, until in 1514 the apostolical see became 
possessed of them. Pope Paul III. raised Parma and Piacenza to the rank 
of duchies, and invested with them his natural son, Peter Aloys Parne.se 
(father of the great warrior, Alexander of Farnese), in 1543. In 1731 the 
male line of the house of Farnese became extinct. Philip V. of Spain was 
married to a princess of Parma, and for this reason his son, Don Carlos 
became possessed of the duchies, which since (with the exception of a short 
interval) were ruled by Spanish Princes. First in 1802, and formally in 
1805, the duchies of Parma and Piacenza were incorporated into the French 
empire ; while the prince Borghese, Napoleon's brother-in-law, was invested 
with the duchy of Guastalla. In 1815, according to the determination of 
the congress of Vienna, the former empress of France, Maria Louisa, became 
possessed of these three duchies for lifetime. She died on the 18th of Decem- 
ber, 1847, and the duchies now devolved upon the legitimate heir, the Spanish 
prince, Charles, until then (since the year 1824) duke of Lucca, which latter 
duchy is since annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany. 

The whole country is divided into the 5 districts of Parma, 
Piacenza, Borgo Sandonnino, Borgo Taro, and Guastalla. Yet 
in the description we shall retain the historical division of the 
duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla. 

(a.) The duchy of Parma, embracing the eastern half of the state, and con- 
taining: Parma, the metropolis and ducal residence, north-westward and 



ITALY. 117 

Duchy of Parma : Duchy of Modena. 

31 miles distant from Modena, and northward and 92 miles distant from 
Leghorn, with an extensive ducal castle, several remarkable churches, many 
literary institutions, and 41,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this duchy are: 
Colorno (with 1,800 inhabitants), Fornovo (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Sala 
(with an ancient ducal castle). The ducal park at the village of Castelguelfo 
is one of the finest in Italy. 

(b.) The duchy of Piacenza, embracing the western half of the state, and 
containing : Piacenza (in French, Plaisauce), the capital of this duchy, on 
the right bank of the Po, north-westward and 36 miles distant from Farma, 
with a beautiful cathedral and 30,000 inhabitants. Austria exercises the 
stipulated right of garrisoning the citadel of Piacenza. In the vicinity is the 
field of battle on the Trebia, where in 217 B. C, Hannibal defeated the 
Romans. Other towns of this duchy are : Borgo Sandonnino (with 4,000 
inhabitants), and Borgo Taro (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Fiorenznola (with 
3,300 inhabitants). 

(c.) The dicchy of Guastalla (area : 85 square miles; population: 33,500 
inhabitants), about 18 miles north-east of the city of Parma. Its ancient 
dukes belonged to the house of Mantua, and became extinct in 1746. The 
duchy as an imperial fee escheated now to the German emperor, who in 
1748 ceded it to the Spanish prince Don Carlos (see above). It contains : 
Guastalla, capital of this duchy, on the Po, with a magnificent cathedral, and 
6,000 inhabitants. Besides this are to be remarked the villages of Baccanello, 
San Giorgio, San Rocco, and Brocada. 



IV.— THE DUCHY OF MODENA. 

Area : 2,109 square miles. 
Population : 490,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated between Parma and the northern extremity of 
the popedom, has a fertile soil, and is noted for its fine Carrara 
marble. The manufacturing industry is of no great importance. 



118 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Duchy of Modana. 



There was in the capital a university, which, however, in 1832, 
was transformed into three higher schools. The higher catholic 
clergy consist of 6 bishops. There are still 14 monasteries 
and 9 nunneries in the country. 

The public revenue was of late about $540,000, and the public 
debt amounted only to $252,000. The army, on the peace foot- 
ing, numbers 1,860 men. 

History. — Modena became in the middle ages a fee of the German empire, 
and in the 14th century the renowned house of Este -was invested with it. 
This house, whose ancestral seat of the same name is situated in the kingdom 
of Lombardy Venice, belonged to the most ancient families of Italy, and its 
ancestor was the margrave Albert of Este, who lived about the year 960, 
and was possessed of great estates in Lombardy. His great-grandson, 
Albert Azzo II., went to Germany and inherited there, by his wife, the large 
possessions of the Guelphs ; while the collateral degrees of kindred remained 
in Italy. To these belonged margrave Borso, who in 1452, was raised to the 
rank of a duke of Modena and Reggio. In 1806 the male line of the house 
of Este became extinct, and the heiress of the duchy being married to the 
Austrian archduke Ferdinand, the reigning dynasty was henceforth called 
Austria-Este. His grandson Francis V. (born in 1819) is the reigning duke 
since 1846. 

The whole duchy is divided into the six provinces of Modena, 
Reggio, Garfagna, Massa-Carrara, Lunigiana, and Frignano. Yet 
we shall, in the topography, follow the historical division into the 
duchies and principalities of Modena, Reggio, Correggio, Miran- 
dola, Novellara, and Massa-Carrara. 

Modena, capital of the whole country and residence of the duke, on a canal 
that unites the Panaro with the Secchia, south-eastward and 32 miles distant 
from Parma, and 60 miles north-north-west of Florence, with a magnificent 
palace of the duke, numerous churches (the high steeple of the cathedral is 
known by the name of Guirlandina), and 28,000 inhabitants (inclusive 1,500 
Jews). Other towns of this district are : Sassuolo (with 3,000 inhabitants), 



ITALY. 119 

Duchy of Modena. 



Finale (with 6,500 inhabitants), Frignano (with 2,000 inhabitants), Pavullo 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), and Acquaria (with hot springs). Castelnuovo di 
Garfagna, a town on the Serchio, with 3,000 inhabitants, was formerly the 
capital of the Lordship of Garfagna, which previously was annexed to 
Bologna. Carpi, a town situated northward and 9 miles distant from Modena, 
has 5,000 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of the principality of Carpi, 
that in 1530 was ceded to Modena by the house of Pico, for the sum of 100,000 
ducats. Reggio, the capital of the ancient duchy of Reggio, which has always 
been united with the duchy of Modena, is situated between the cities of 
Modena and Parma, and has 23 churches, several convents, and 19,000 inhab- 
itants. The renowned poet Ariosto, was born here in 1474. In the vicinity 
of this cijy, are to be found the ruins of the ancient castle of Canossa, where 
the German emperor Henry IV. humbled himself before the Pope Gregory 
VII., in 1077. Brescello, a fortified town on the Po, with 2,000 inhabitants. 
The province of Lunigiana contains the towns of Aulla (with 1,800 inhabi- 
tants), and Fosdinovo (with 2,000 inhabitants). Correggio, ancient capital 
of a principality of the same name, which in 1635 was annexed to Modena, 
near the Po, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,000 inhabitants. The great 
painter Antonio Allegzi, generally known by the name of Correggio, was born 
here. Mirandola, ancient capital of a duchy of the same name, which in 
1711 was annexed to Modena, on the Burana, with 5,500 inhabitants. Con- 
cordia, a town on the Secchia, with 3,500 inhabitants. Novellara, ancient 
capital of a principality of the same name, with which the duke of Modena 
was invested in 1737, 20 miles north-north-west of Modena, with 5,000 inhab- 
itants. The duchy of Massa- Carrara, bordering on the sea, and having an 
area of 95 square miles, with more than 30,000 inhabitants, was annexed to 
the duchy of Modena in 1741, by marriage of its heiress with the hereditary 
prince of Modena. It contains : Mass&, a city on the Frigido, and near the 
western coast of the Italian peninsula, with 10,000 inhabitants, and active 
commerce in olive oil and marble. In its vicinity is situated the town of 
Carrara, with 8,500 inhabitants, an academy of sculptors, and numerous 
workshops, where more than 400 artists are engaged in sculptural works. 
About 100 vessels are annually employed in exporting the marble of Carrara. 
Lavenza, a maritime town, with 1,300 inhabitants. 



120 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. 



V.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TUSCANY. 

Area : 8,844 square miles. 
Population: 1,752,000 inhabitants. 

This state, comprising the north-western part of Middle Italy, 
consists, since the year 1847, of Tuscany Proper (8,418 square 
miles, and 1,570,000 inhabitants), and the Duchy of Lucca (426 
square miles, and 182,000 inhabitants), which latter, according 
to the determinations of the congress at Vienna in 1815, was 
annexed to the grand-duchy as soon as the duchess of Parma 
died, and the duke of Lucca became her successor (compare the 
History of Parma). 

The Etruscan Apennines extend across the north-eastern part 
of the country. The principal river of Tuscany is the Arno, 
while the Tiber has its sources here. Besides these, the Ombrone 
in Tuscany, and the Serchio in Lucca, may be mentioned. 

The soil is for the greatest part very fertile, although marshy 
at the mouth of the Arno, and along the coast, down to the 
frontier of the States of the Church. These marshes are known 
by the name of the Maremma. 

Agriculture flourishes in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca, 
and has attained here a high state of improvement. Besides the 
silk manufactures at Florence, Tuscany is renowned for its fine 
straw hats, and in the valley of the Arno thousands of country 
girls are engaged in plaiting straw. The manufactures in Lucca 
are various, and embrace chiefly silk, cotton, and woollen goods. 
"With regard to the commerce, Leghorn may be considered as the 
chief seaport of the Italian peninsula, and besides this, the 
inland trade of Florence is also very important. 

With regard to the means of education, there are 3 universi- 



ITALY. 121 

Tuscany: Education — Revenue — Army, etc. 



ties in Tuscany, viz. : at Pisa (founded in 1338, and in 1841 
frequented by 580 students), at Siena (founded in 1351, and in 
1841 with 257 students), and at Florence (founded in 1438, and 
in 1841 with 218 students). Moreover, there are 4 colleges for 
the sons of nobles, 16 gymnasiums, and 16 seminaries (see the ex- 
planatory note at the introduction to Portugal). The common 
schools are numerous in Tuscany proper, as well as in Lucca. 

At the head of the Catholic clergy are 4 archbishops (one of 
them in Lucca) and 16 bishops. In 1840 Tuscany numbered 
still 133 monasteries (with 2,540 monks) and 69 nunneries (with 
3,907 nuns). In the duchy of Lucca the number of convents 
amounted to 23. 

Until the last revolutions in Italy, which commenced in 1847, 
the Tuscan government was absolute, but is now limited. 

The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for the 
last year has been about $5,000,000 annually. In 1836 the 
revenue of Tuscany was exactly 25.104,898 lire, and the expen- 
diture only 23,078,029 lire (or francs). Since 1829, Tuscany is 
without any public debt. In the duchy of Lucca, whose public 
debt amounted to about 500,000 lire, the public revenue was of 
late 3.700,000 lire (or francs), and the expenditure somewhat 
less. 

The Tuscan army numbers on the peace footing 5,500 men. 
(The military of Lucca consisted of 700 men.) There are also 
some vessels of war, consisting of 4 schooners (one of them be- 
longed to the duchy of Lucca) and some gun-boats. 

The Tuscanese orders of honor are the following : — 1. The 
order of St. Stephen, instituted in 1562, and renewed in 1817, 
in 4 classes. 2. The order of St. Joseph, instituted in 1807, at 
Wurtzburg (see below), and renewed in 1817 for Tuscany, in 3 
classes. 3. The order of the white cross, instituted in 1814. (The 
duke of Lucca had instituted the order of St. Louis, in 3 classes.) 



122 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Tuscany: History. 



History.— The present grand-duchy of Tuscany comprises for the greatest 
part the ancient Etruria, or the land of the Etruscans, which in 2S4 A. C. was 
conquered by the Romans, and, after the fall of the Western Empire, came 
under the sway first of the Lombards, and then of the Franks. Charlemagne 
appointed margraves as governors of Tuscia (as the country now was named), 
who in the course of time became independent, but without being able to 
retain the whole of the country. For Florence, Pisa, Siena, etc., became free 
cities or republics in the 13th century. (See History of Europe, § 17, d, h, 
and i.) Pisa was for a long time the most powerful among them, but was 
subdued, first in 1407, then in 1509 by Florence, that in 1286 had purchased 
its independence from the emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg at the sum of 
600,000 gold florins. Among the eminent families of Florence were the 
Medici, renowned for their attainments and riches, who became at last (espe- 
cially since the year 1434) the rulers of the republic. To Alexander of 
Medici was the ducal title conferred by the emperor Charles V. in 1531, and 
to his son and successor Cosimo I. the title of a grand-duke by the pope in 
1569. In 1554 Spain had taken possession of the republic of Siena, which 
for the greatest part was ceded to Cosmo I. in 1557. In this way the former 
republic of Florence was enlarged to a grand-duchy of Tuscany. With John 
Gaston the race of the Medici became extinct in 1737. and now, according to 
former stipulations, the duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine (married to the 
renowned Maria Theresa, heiress of Austria) ascended the throne. He was 
subsequently elected emperor of Germany, and died in 1765. His successor 
in Tuscany was first his son Leopold, and then (in 1790) his grandson Ferdi- 
nand HI. In the treaty of peace concluded at Luueville in 1801, it was 
stipulated that the hereditary prince of Parma should become possessed of 
Tuscany by the name of a kingdom of Etruria, in return for which the grand- 
duke Ferdinand III. was indemnified first by the archbishopric of Salzburg, 
and in 1805 by the grand-duchy of Wurtzburg (see introduction to Germany). 
Tuscany, or Etruria (as it was then called), was in 1807 annexed to the 
French empire, of which it formed a constituent until 1814, when Ferdinand 
III. was reinstated. He died in 1824, and was succeeded by his son, the still 
reigning grand-duke Leopold II. (born in 1797). In 1849 he was obliged to 
leave the country on account of a revolution which had the tendency to 
transform the grand-duchy into a republic. But an Austrian army entered 
the country and defeated the republicans, whereupon the grand-duke returned 



ITALY. 123 

'uscaiiy: Geographical Divisions. 



to Florence. About the annexation of the duchy of Lucca, see above, and 
the History of Parma. 

Tuscany proper is divided into the 5 compartimenti or prov- 
inces of Florence, Pisa, Siena, Arezzo, and Grossetto, which are 
subdivided into Territorii comunitativi, or townships. Part of the 
compartimenti of Pisa and Grossetto consists of the Stato degli 
JPresidii) or the former territory of the ancient republic of Siena, 
which not before the year 1815 was annexed to the grand-duchy. 
For this reason we shall first give the topography of Tuscany 
proper, and then describe the Stato degli Presidii, and finally 
the duchy of Lucca. 

1. Tuscany proper contains : Florence, the capital of the grand-duchy 
and residence of the grand-duke, on the Arno, westward and 115 miles dis- 
tant from Ancona, and 50 east-north-east of Leghorn, with 105,000 inhabi- 
tants. Florence, one of the finest cities of Europe, is noted for its churches, 
palaces, galleries, and libraries. The most magnificent among the 172 
churches is the cathedral, which was reared in the period from the year 1294 
to 1448, and whose beautiful cupola rises to the height of 400 feet. The 
palace Pitti, the usual residence of the grand-dukes, contains 900 apartments. 
Another palace, reared by Cosmo I., contains, besides the so-called Maglia- 
beccbian library, the celebrated Florentine gallery of sculpture, paintings, and 
other works of art. In the vicinity of the city are situated the beautiful Villa 
Demidof (belonging to the Russian count Demidof ), and the grand-ducal 
mansions of Poggio Imperiale, Poggio a Cajano, Pratolino, and Castello. On 
the Stella, 23 miles north-west of Florence, is situated the city of Pistoja, 
with 28 churches (among them, a magnificent cathedral), a manufactory of 
organs, various other manufactories, and 12,000 inhabitants. The villages of 
Brozzi and Signa, are noted for their straw hats, which are plaited here in 
great quantities. Fiesole, a town in the vicinity of Florence, is remarkable 
for the remains of cyclopic walls and other ancient buildings. Other towns 
of the compartimento of Florence are : Prato (with 11,000 inhabitants), Peseta 
(with 11,000 inhabitants), Volterra (with 6,000 inhabitants), San Miniato (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Figline (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Modigliano (with 
2,300 inhabitants). The town of Certaldo is remarkable as the birth-place of 



124 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Tuscany Statistics. 



the poet Boccacio. Arezzo, capital of the compartimento of the same name, 
south-eastward and 37 miles distant from Florence, with a magnificent cathe- 
dral, and 9,500 inhabitants). The town of Montepulciano, with 3,000 inhab- 
itants, is noted for its wines. The town of Chiusi, which now has only 1,600 
inhabitants, was in the days of old, or about 500 years before Christ, the 
residence of Porsenna, and then named Glusvum. Stia, a town near the 
Arno, with cloth manufactories and 1,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is 
situated the celebrated abbey of Camaldoli, originated in 1012. Other towns 
in this compartimento are : Cortona (with 3,500 inhabitants), BorgoSan Sepolcro 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), Anghiari (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Bibbiena (the 
wealthiest town in the district of Casentino). Siena, the capital of the com- 
partimento of the same name, situated in a picturesque country, southward 
and 30 miles distant from Florence, with a splendid cathedral ranking next to 
that of Milan, numerous palaces, a university and several other literary insti- 
tutions, silk and other manufactories, and 24,000 inhabitants. In the middle 
ages, when Siena was a republic (see above), the population of the city 
amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Pienza, a town formerly called Cordgnano, 
has 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this compartimento are : Colle (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Montalcino (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Radicofani (with 
1,000 inhabitants). Near the last-named town are the renowned watering- 
places of San Filippo and San Casciano. Grossetto, fortified town and 
capital of the compartimento of the same name, southward and 70 miles 
distant from Florence, in a marshy and very unwholesome country, near the 
coast, with salt works, and 3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
(besides those that belong to the Stato degli Presidii) are : Soana, or Sovania 
(remarkable as the birth-place of Pope Gregory VII.), Massa di Maremma. 
(with 1,800 inhabitants), and Pitigliano (with 2,600 inhabitants). The com- 
partimento of Pisa contains : Pisa, a city on the Arno, about 4 miles distant 
from its mouth, and 12 miles north-north-east from Leghorn, had in the middle 
ages, when it was a powerful republic (see above), a population of 150,000, 
but has at present only 22,000 inhabitants. Yet it is still a most remarkable 
city, not only for its celebrated university, one of the best in Italy, but for its 
edifices and buildings. There are nearly 80 churches, among them the highly- 
interesting cathedral founded in 1063, richly decorated in the interior, and 
containing the tomb of the German emperor, Henry VII. (who died here in 
1313). Near the back part of the cathedral is the remarkable Campanile, or 
leaning tower, 168 feet high, and inclining 14 feet from the perpendicular. It 



ITALY. 125 

Tuscany : Ftatis-lic^. 

was reared in 1174. On the other side is -the Campo Santo, or church-yard, 
with fine paintings in fresco on the walls, with which it is surrounded. In 
the neighborhood of Pisa are mineral baths, which are much frequented. 
The grand-ducal farm of San Rossore, in the vicinity of Pisa, is noted for its 
studs and a herd of camels that have been kept here since the year 1622. 
Leghorn (in Italian, Livorno), the chief seaport of Tuscany, and the first 
commercial city in Italy, 50 miles west-south-west of Florence, with two 
harbors, ship docks, numerous manufactories, and 88,000 inhabitants, among 
whom are nearly 25,000 Jews, who have here one of the most splendid syna- 
gogues in Europe. In the vicinity is the picturesque mountain Montenero 
(or Mojite Negro), with a rich convent and numerous mansions. Barga, a 
town with 2,000 inhabitants, is situated in the district called Garfagna 
Grandueale. Pivizzano, a town with a Benedictine nunnery, and 2,500 
inhabitants, is situated in the district called Lunigiana. Pontremoli, a town 
on the Magra, with a fine cathedral, a strong citadel, and 6,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns are : Castellina Marittima (with 1,000 inhabitants), Castelnuovo 
(with 1,000 inhabitants), Serravezza (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pietrasanta 
(with 3,000 inhabitants). Near the coast, and at no great distance from 
Leghorn, are situated the isles of Pianosa (to which Agrippa Posthumus, 
grandson of the Roman emperor Augustus, was exiled), Gianuti, Giglio 
(with 1,300 inhabitants), Monte Cristo, Palmajola (between Elba and the 
continent), Gorgona (right against Leghorn), and Meloria. 

2. The Stato degli Presidii (area: 298 square miles) is a territory that once 
belonged to the ancient republic of Siena, and which, together with the city 
itself, was conquered by Spain in 1554. When, in 1557, the city of Siena 
was ceded to Tuscany by Philip II. of Spain, he kept its territory, which since 
formed a constituent part of the kingdom of Naples (then under Spanish 
sway). In 1801, Naples ceded it (or the Stato degli Presidii) to France, 
which kept the island of Elba for itself, while the principality of Piombino 
was given to Felix Bacchiochi, the brother-in-law of Napoleon, and the re- 
maining part of the Stato degli Presidii annexed to Tuscany. According to 
the stipulations of the congress of Vienna, in 1815, the whole was annexed to 
the grand-duchy. The Stato degli Presidii comprise the following towns on 
the continent: Orbitello, about 13 miles distant from the frontier of the 
States of the Church, with 2,000 inhabitants, Ercole and San Stefano (little 
seaports) ; Piombino, a maritime town, and capital of the ancient principality 
of Piombino (whose princes of the houses of Appiani, Ludovici, and Buon- 



126 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Tuscany : Duchy of Lucca— Statistics. 



campagni, were under the sovereignty first of the German emperor, then of 
Spain, Naples, etc.), with 1,000 inhabitants, Caldano, Scarlino, and Lilt; and, 
moreover, the island of Elba (area : 32 square miles, with important iron 
mines, and the towns of Porto Ferrajo, with 2,000 inhabitants, and Porto 
Longone, with 1,000 inhabitants). In 1814, the sovereignty of this island 
was given to Napoleon in exchange for the imperial crown of France. He 
remained here until March, 1815. 

3. The duchy of Lucca (area : 426 square miles; population: 182,000 in- 
habitants), of which the statistical and geographical particulars have already 
been given above. It comprises the north-western extremity of the grand- 
duchy of Tuscany. Lucca became in the middle ages a fee of the German 
empire, and was ruled under this sovereignty by various families. But in 
1370 it purchased its independence from the emperor Charles IV., and since 
it was a republic, first with a democratic, but since the years 1430 and 1556 
with an aristocratic constitution. Lucca continued to be a republic until the 
year 1805, when Napoleon appointed his brother-in-law, Bacchiochi, prince of 
Piombino, hereditary president of Lucca, and thus transformed the republic 
into a kind of monarchy. In 1815 it was transformed into a duchy, and the 
widow of, the hereditary prince of Parma (see History of Tuscany) invested 
with it. She died in 1824, and was succeeded by her son, the now (since 
1847) reigning duke of Parma (see History of Parma). Since the end of the 
year 1847 the duchy of Lucca is annexed to the grand-duchy of Tuscany (see 
above). It contains the following places : Lucca, the capital and former resi- 
dence of the duke, near the Serchio, 12 miles north-north-east of Pisa, with 
an extensive and richly-decorated ducal palace, 22 churches (among them a 
Gothic cathedral reared in the 11th century), various manufactories, and 
25,000 inhabitants. The famous mineral baths of Lucca are in the neighbor- 
ing towns of Bagni, Bagno alia Villa, and Ponte a Seraglio. Other towns 
of the duchy are : Caponnori (with 3,000 inhabitants), Borgo (with 2,000 in- 
habitants), Camajore (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Viareggio (a maritime 
town, with 6,500 inhabitants). 



ITALY. 121 

States of the Church 



VI— THE STATES OF THE CHURCH 

Area: 17,280 square miles. 
Population : 2,910,000 inhabitants. 

The territory forming the States of the Church, or the Pope- 
dom, occupies the centre of Italy, extending from the western 
coast of the peninsula to its eastern coast, and northward up to 
the mouths of the Po. The chief river of the Popedom is the 
Tiber. In the vicinity of Rimini, between Ancona and Ravenna, 
is the little river of Luso, or Uso, emptying into the Adriatic 
Sea. It is the same rivulet which anciently was so renowned by 
the name of Rubicon. About the mountains of the States of 
the Church, see Introduction, § 7, d. Near the mouths of the Po, 
and along the high road between Rome and Naples, are extensive 
marshes exhaling bad air ; they are known by the names of Valli 
di Comacchio and Pontine marshes. 

The soil is generally good and fertile, but only in some parts 
of the country the agriculture is conducted with skill and dili- 
gence. The annual produce in grains is on an average computed 
at about 615,500 quarters of wheat, 295,600 quarters of maize, 
20,000 quarters of oats, and 11,200 quarters of barley. Suffi- 
cient corn for home consumption is seldom raised throughout the 
country. The produce of the richest lands is only to the advan- 
tage of the clergy and nobility, while by far the most of the pub- 
lic charges press heavily upon the farmer. With the money got 
by the sale of his fruits, wines, olive-oil, hemp, flax, and silk, the 
farmer pays his debts, contracted beforehand, his taxes and 
necessaries of life. The numerous holidays and pilgrimages, 
jointly with the warm climate, are seducing the people into indo- 
lence, the more so as in many convents the poor can have their 



128 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



States of the Church: Classes, Secular and Ecclesiastical. 



daily scanty food for nothing. Nevertheless a good deal of the 
population would starve but for their frugality, and the plenty 
and cheapness of a^great variety of fruits. Though the rivers, 
lakes, and coasts afford great facilities for the fisheries, yet these 
are by no means a great object of pursuit ; and as there are an- 
nually about 160 days of abstinence on which only fish meals 
are allowed, great quantities of dried fish are to be imported 
from foreign countries. The commerce in general is of no great 
importance, and the imports are far exceeding the exports. Thus, 
for instance, in Civita Vecchia, the only seaport on the western 
coast of the country, the imports for the year 1842 were valued 
at $1,742,000, while the exports were only valued at $588,000. 
This being the actual state of things, the manufactures are, with 
few exceptions, in a backward state. 

The nation is divided into four classes : the clergy, nobility, 
burghers, and farmers. The nobility comprises princes and 
dukes belonging to collateral lines of the popes, the so-called 
senatorial nobility, or Roman aristocracy, and the lower degrees 
of nobility. The highest state oflices are generally occupied by 
the cardinals, and most of the other public offices either by pre- 
lates or nobles. 

The Roman Catholic is of course the established church, which 
in this country is governed by 6 archbishops and 72 bishops. 
In 1847 there were, moreover, 53,000 secular and regular clergy- 
men, 1,824 monasteries, and 612 nunneries. Austins. Barna- 
bites, Benedictines, Camaldulenses, Capuchins, Carmelites, Cis- 
tercians, Coelestians, Cordelians, Dominicans, Jesuits, Minims, 
Philippines, Recollectians, Somascians, Trinitarians. Theatins, 
etc. — all these religious orders are to be found in the States of 
the Church. As for the rest, all other religions are tolerated. 
In Rome are 8,000, and in Ancona 5,000 Jews. 

There are 7 universities : at Bologna (see History of Europe, 



ITALY. 129 

States of the Church : Universities— Government. 

§ 17,/; this university was in 1841 frequented by 560 students), 
at Rome (founded in 1248, and in 1841 with 680 students), 
at Ferrara (founded in 1264, and in 1841 with 200 students), at 
Perugia (founded in 1307, and in 1841 with 210 students), at Ma- 
cerata (founded in 1548, and in 1841 with 320 students), at Fermo 
(founded in 1589, and in 1841 with 235 students), and at Came- 
rino (founded in 1727, and in 1841 with 200 students). More- 
over, the clergy numbers many learned men, distinguished for 
their attainments in literature and science. Nevertheless the 
means of education in general are very deficient, and the mass 
of the people grossly ignorant. That Rome is the chief seat 
of fine arts, and at the same time noted for the value of its libra- 
ries, is universally known. 

The form of government is an elective monarchy. The States 
of the Church are ruled by the pope, who is the head of the 
Catholic church, and is invested with absolute (although at pres- 
ent somewhat modified) power, both spiritual and temporal. He 
is elected out of the college of the cardinals (whose number is 
fixed at 70). The reigning pope, Pius IX. (previous to his elec- 
tion, Jos. Maria, Count Mastai Ferreti, archbishop of Imola, born 
on the 13th of May, 1792, at Sinigaglia), was elected on the 16th 
of June, 1846. 

The public revenue was lately estimated at about $9,000,000, 
and the expenditure at nearly $9,800,000, thus a deficit of 
$800,000. The public debt is computed at $34,000,000. The 
clerical revenues (for dispensations, taxes from the property left 
by clergymen, etc.), which still in the last century amounted to 
more than $650,000 per annum, fall at present short of $300,000. 
The army numbered 12,669 men with 1,382 horses at the end of 
the year 1844. Besides these there were two regiments of 
Swiss, numbering 4,100 men. The navy consists of some small 
vessels. 

6* 



130 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 



States of the Church: History. 



There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. 
Gregory the Great, instituted in 1832. 2. The order of St. John 
the Baptist, also called the order of Christ, instituted in 1319. 
3. The order of the golden spur, instituted in 1559. 

History. — The pope, as ruler of the States of the Church, is invested with 
temporal, and as the head of the Catholic church, with spiritual power. We 
shall first speak of the latter. In the days of the apostles the Christian 
church was governed by seniors (presbyters), superintendents (bishops), and 
deacons, under the direction of the apostles. In the course of time it became 
the custom to select one of the seniors or superintendents, who by way of 
eminence was called bishop, and had a decisive vote in the affairs of the 
church community. About the middle of the third century the bishops of 
Rome, Carthage, Alexandria, Antiochia, and other principal cities of the Ro- 
man empire, began to enjoy higher credit than those of the remaining dio- 
ceses. At a later period the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, 
and Jerusalem, were called patriarchs, and Rome being still revered as the 
former metropolis of the Ptoman empire, the bishop or patriarch of Rome 
began to exercise more and more a kind of supremacy, until in the year 607 
Boniface 111. assumed the papal title for the first time. Thus the spiritual 
power of the pope, as head of the Catholic church, dates from this period. 
For a long time, the popes of Rome had authority only in matters of religion, 
but in the 9th century and after the death of Charlemagne, they began to 
claim the authority of God's agents or vicegerents on earth ; and towards the 
end of the 11th century Gregory VII (1073-1085) established the formal 
privilege of the pope to dispose freely of temporal crowns and kingdoms. 
He and several of his successors exercised this right on the largest scale, until 
first in the beginning of the 14th century, King Philip IV. of France, and 
then above all the reformation in the 16th century, put an end to this usurpa- 
tion. (See History of Europe, § 17, e and h.) The temporal power of the 
pope dates from the year 755, when Pepin the Little, king of the Franks, 
wrested the so-called exarchate (comprising, among others, the cities and 
towns of Ravenna, Forli, Frosinone, Velletri, and Rieti) from the Lombards, 
and gave it to the holy See. His son, Charlemagne, enlarged this territory 
considerably. In the 11th century the duchy of Benevento, and in the 12 th 
the duchy of Spoleto and part of the mark (margraviate) of Ancona, etc., 
were added by way of donation. The city of Rome did not become subject 



ITALY. 131 

stales of the Church : Geographical Division. 



to the papal power until in 1216. In the year 12*73 the county of Venaissin 
(in the French province of Provence) was, by King Philip IV. of France, 
ceded to the popes, who in 1 848 purchased the city of Avignon (quite near 
to Venaissin) for 80,000 gold florins. In the 1 6th century Bologna, the duchy of 
Ferrara, and the remaining part of the mark of Ancona, and in the 17th cen- 
tury the duchies of Urbiuo and Castro were acquired. In this way the 
States of the Church in Italy were gradually enlarged to that extent which 
they have now. Only Avignon and Venaissin, of which the French took 
possession in 1790, were lost forever ; while the Italian territories wrested 
from the Popedom by the French and Napoleon in the years 1191, 1808, and 
1809 (in the last-named year the pope, then Pius VII., was completely de- 
prived of his temporal power), were restored by the determination of the 
congress of Vienna in 1815. 

Since the year 1832 the States of the Church are divided into 
21 provinces, of which 13 are styled Delegations, and those of 
Bologna. Ferrara, Ravenna, TJrbino-Pesaro, Forli, and Velletri 
are styled Legations, while the province of Rome bears the name 
of Comarca, and that of Loretto the appellation of Commissariat. 
In an historical relation the legation of Velletri, the comarca di 
Roma, the delegations of Frosinone and Rieti. and the legations 
of Ravenna and Forli, comprise the above-mentioned exarchate, 
given to the holy see in 755, or the ancient duchy of Rome and 
the Romagna. The delegations of Civita Vecchia and Viterbo 
comprise the so-called estates of Matilda, which were given to the 
popes in 1077 and 1102 by the margravine Matilda of Tuscany. 
The delegations of Spoleto, Camerino, and Perugia, comprise the 
ancient duchy of Spoleto (see above). The legation of Bologna 
comprises the ancient Bolognese, or the city of Bologna and its 
territory. The delegations of Ancona and Macerata, jointly with 
the commissariat of Loretto, comprise the ancient Mark of Ancona. 
The delegations of Fermo and Ascoli comprise the ancient 
Mark of Fermo, acquired in the 16th century. The legation of 
Ferrara comprises the ancient duchy of Fermo, acquired in 1598 ; 



132 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



States of the Church : Statistics. 



and the legation of Urbino and Pesaro comprises the ancient 
duchy of Urbino, acquired in 1631. 

1. The comarca di Roma contains : Rome, the capital of the States of the 
Church, and residence of the pope, on the Tiber, at 18 miles distance from its 
mouth, had, according to the census of 1841, a population of 175,883 inhabi- 
tants, exclusive of Jews, whose number was computed at 8,000. That Rome 
was once the capital of the Roman empire, is universally known ; it had then, 
or at least in the days of the Emperor Augustus, a population of 2,000,000 
inhabitants, and was 50 miles in circumference. Though now much decayed, 
and a great part of it in ruins, it is still one of the most interesting cities in 
the world, and is noted for its churches, palaces, columns, arches, and other 
monuments of splendid architecture, among which are the Coliseum (a vast 
amphitheatre for 82,000 spectators, built in the days of the Emperor Titus), 
the column of Trajan, the arches of Titus, Septimus Severus, etc. Among 
the 364 churches of the city, ranks first St. Peter's, the largest church in the 
world (it was nearly 200 years in building, and not before the year 1626 
completely finished : it is 666 feet long, and 284 feet wide, and its magnificent 
cupola rises to the height of 408 feet). The Vatican is the largest palace in 
the world: it is 1,080 feet long, and contains 4,422 saloons, halls, and apart- 
ments, moreover the most valuable library in Europe, and the finest works of 
Raphael and Michael Angelo. The popes have usually resided here in the win 
ter months. Other palaces are, the Quirinal (the residence of the pope in the 
summer season), the vast palace of Barberini, the palaces of Farnese, Colonna, 
Borghese, etc. The number of literary institutions, academies of fine arts, 
etc., in Rome, is very great. In the year 1845, there were at Rome 404 
foreign artists, of whom 14 were from America. The environs of Rome, 
comprising the ancient Latium, are at present known by the name of the 
Campagna di Roma. Tivoli, the ancient Tibur, a town on the Teverone, 18 
miles east-north-east of Rome, with a beautiful cataract (60 feet in height), 
numerous remains of antiquity, and 6,300 inhabitants. Ostia, a maritime 
town at the mouth of the Tiber, was once the seaport of Rome, but it is now 
almost deserted, on account of the bad air of the surrounding marshes. Other 
towns of the Campagna di Roma are : Albano (with 5,600 inhabitants), Castel 
Qandolfo (with a palace of the pope, who resides here some weeks in the 
summer season), Frascati (formerly Tuscidum, with 4,000 inhabitants), Pales- 
trina (formerly Praeneste, with 2,500 inhabitants), Subiaco (with 6,000 inhab- 



ITALY. 133 

States of the Church : Statistics. 



itants), and Fhimicino (with 600 inhabitants). 2. The legation of VelletrL or 
Marittima, contains: Velletri, chief town, south-eastward and 23 miles 
distant from Rome, with many remains of antiquity, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
Terracina (the ancient Anxur), a town near the coast and the frontier of 
Naples, amidst the Pontine marshes, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cori and Norma, 
towns with respectively 4,000 aad 2,000 inhabitants. 3. The delegation of 
Frosinone contains : Frosinone, chief town on the Cosa, 46 miles east-south- 
east of Rome, with 7,500 inhabitants. To this delegation belongs likewise 
the district of Pontecorvo, northward and 23 miles distant from Gaeta, and 
entirely surrounded by the Neapolitan territory. It occupies a tract of 43 
square miles, has a population of more than 7,000 inhabitants, and belonged 
in the period from the year 1806 to 1810, to the late king of Sweden, 
Bernadotte. The town of Pontecorvo has a population of 6,000 inhabitants. 
4. The delegation of Rieti contains : Rieti, chief town on the Velino, north- 
eastward and 37 miles distant from Rome, with 12,600 inhabitants. Magliano, 
a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. 5. The delegation of Spoleto contains : Spoleto 
chief town at the foot of the Apennines, and on the Mareggia, crossed by a 
handsome bridge, with a magnificent cathedral, an aqueduct built by the 
ancient Romans, and 8,500 inhabitants. Narni and Tcrni, towns, with re- 
spectively 5,500 and 8,500 inhabitants. 6. The delegation of Civita Vecchia 
contains : Civita Vecchia, a fortified maritime town, and next to Ancona, the 
chief seaport of the States of the Church, 37 miles north-north-west of Ostia, 
or the mouth of the Tiber, with 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this dele- 
gation are : Tolfa (with 2,800 inhabitants), Corneto (with 3,800 inhabitants), 
Montalto, Cani?io, and Ponte Bodio. 7. The delegation of Viterbo contains : 
Viterbo, chief town at the foot of Mount Cimino, northward and 46 miles 
distant from Rome, with 15,000 inhabitants. Montefiascone, a town on the 
Lake Bolsena, is noted for its excellent wines, and has 4,500 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this delegation are: Acquapendente (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Ronciglione (with various manufactories), and Bolsena (with curious remains 
of antiquity. 8. The delegation of Orvieto contains : Orvieto, chief town on 
the Paglia, northward and 18 miles distant from Viterbo, with a beautiful 
Gothic cathedral, excellent wines, and 8,000 inhabitants. Civita Castellana, 
a town, with 4,500 inhabitants. 9. The delegation of Pemgia contains : 
Perugia, a city between the Trasimenian Lake and the Tiber, northward 
and 83 miles distant from Rome, with several remarkable churches, a univer- 
sity, and 32,000 inhabitants. Assisi, a town renowned as the birth-place of 



134 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



States of the Chinch : Statistics. 



St. Franciscus, author of the Franciscan order, with 5,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this delegation are: Foligno (with 16,000 inhabitants), Spello (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Cita di Castello (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nocera (with 
3,000 inhabitants), and Cita della Pieve. 10. The delegation of Ascoli, along 
the coast of the Adriatic, contains : Ascoli, chief town on the Trento, and 
near the Neapolitan frontier, with a citadel, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns are: Montalto and Ripa Transom. 11, The delegation of Fermo con- 
tains : Fermo, chief town, near the Adriatic, with 20,000 inhabitants, a uni- 
versity, and the little seaport Porto Fermo. 12. The delegation of Carrier ino 
contains : Camerino, chief town, in the Apennines, with a university, and 
7,500 inhabitants. 13. The delegation of Macerata contains : Macerata, chief 
town on the high road between Rome and Ancona, with a university, and 
18,000 inhabitants. Tolentino, a town on the Chienti, south-westward and 
30 miles distant from Ancona, with 3,500 inhabitants, is noted for a treaty of 
peace concluded here in 1797 between France and the pope, and for a battle 
in 1815, where King Murat, of Naples, was defeated by the Austrians. 
Fabriano, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. 14. The Commissariat of Loreto 
contains: Loreto, or Loretto, a town near the Adriatic, southward and 13 
miles distant from Ancona, has 8,000 inhabitants, and has, for many hundred 
years, been renowned for its holy shrine, or a little cottage, in which the holy 
virgin is said to have lived, having been transported by angels from Gali- 
lee to Dalmatia, and thence to Loreto. This cottage, called Casa Santa, 
is in the interior of a splendid church. Loreto has, therefore, long been a 
place of great resort for pilgrims, but the number has of late decreased. 
15. The delegation of Ancona (about the mark of Ancona, see p. 131) contains : 
Ancona, a fortified city and chief seaport of the Popedom on the Adriatic, 
north-eastward and 30 miles distant from Rome, with very important trade 
with the Levant, an excellent pier built in the days of the Roman emperor 
Trajan, a remarkable cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Jesi and Osimo, 
towns, with respectively 6,000 and 7,000 inhabitants. 16. The legation of 
Urbino and Pesaro contains : Urbino, chief town at the foot of the Apennines, 
westward and 46 miles distant from Ancona, is noted as the birth-place of 
Raphael (born in 1483, in a house which still exists), and has 14,000 inhabi- 
tants. Sinigaolia, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, is celebrated for 
its annual fair, and has 11,600 inhabitants. Other towns and cities of this 
legation are: Fano (with 17,000 inhabitants), Fossombrone (with 6,400 inhab- 
itants), Gubbio (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Pesaro (with 15,000 inhabitants). 



ITALY. 135 

States of the Church: Statistics. 

17. The legation of Forti contains: Forti, chief town in a fertile country, 
north-westward and 83 miles distant from Ancona, with a remarkable cathe- 
dral, and 17,000 inhabitants. Rimini, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
Marecchia, with several fine churches and well-conserved remains of antiquity, 
and 18,000 inhabitants. Cesena, a town on the Savio, with 16,000 inhabi- 
tants. 18. The legation of Ravenna contains: Ravenna, chief town in a 
marshy country near the Adriatic, north-westward and 87 miles distant from 
Ancona, with several interesting remains of antiquity and edifices reared in 
the days of Honorius, Theoderic, etc., and 26,000 inhabitants. Ravenna was 
the residence of the last Roman emperors, of some Gothic kings, and of the 
exarch, or governor, of the Greek emperors. The seaport of Ravenna is 
called Porto Corsini. Other towns of this legation are : Cervia (with 4,000 
inhabitants), Faenza (with 20,000 inhabitants), and Imola (with 9,000 inhabi- 
tants). 19. The legation of Bologna contains : Bologna, next to Rome the 
most important city of the States of the Church, in a romantic country, south- 
eastward and 23 miles distant from Modena, and northward 46 miles distant 
from Florence, with a magnificent cathedral, and several other remarkable 
churches and palaces, a university, and a great variety of other literary insti- 
tutions, and 75,000 inhabitants. Cento and Medicina, towns, with respectively 
4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants. 20. The legation of Ferrara contains : Ferrara, 
a city on a branch of the Po, in a marshy, unwholesome country, 27 miles 
north-north-east of Bologna, with a citadel, a vast Gothic castle, once the 
residence of the princes of Este (see History of Modena), a university, and 
28,000 inhabitants. Comacchio, a fortified town amidst the marshy Valli di 
Comacchio (see above), with 6,000 inhabitants. Ponte di Lago Scuro, a town 
on the Po, with 5,000 inhabitants. 21. The delegation of Benevento comprises 
the ancient duchy of the same name, is entirely surrounded by Neapolitan 
territory, and situated north-eastward and about 32 miles distant from the 
city of Naples. It occupies a tract of 89 square miles, and has a population 
of 25,000 inhabitants. The duchy of Benevento was created in 571 by the 
Lombards, and had a far greater extent than now. In 851 it was divided 
into three principalities, of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua. The Emperor 
Henry III. gave Benevento to the holy See in 1053, and since that time it has 
formed a constituent part of the States of the Church. In the period from 
the year 1806 to 1815, the French minister Talleyrand was in possession of 
this principality, whose capital, Benevento, has a remarkable cathedral, many 
interesting remains of antiquity, and 15,000 inhabitants 



136 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Republic of San Marino. 



VII— THE REPUBLIC OF SAN MARINO. 

Area : 32 square miles. 
Population : 8,200 inhabitants. 

The republic of San Marino is the smallest of all European 
states with regard to the extent (for with regard to the popula- 
tion, the principality of Liechtenstein is inferior to it), is entirely 
surrounded by papal territory, and situated between Ancona and 
Florence. It is at the same time the oldest republic in Europe, 
dating its origin from the year 469. In this year St. Marinus, or 
Marino, originally a mason from Dalmatia, retired to a solitary 
mountain here, and led a hermit's life. He soon became famous 
as a holy man, and the proprietress of the mountain, a pious 
lady, gave it to him. A great number of devouts joined him, 
and in this way the little state came into existence. The consti- 
tution is partly aristocratic, partly democratic. The executive 
power is vested in two Capitani reggenti, who are elected only 
for the period of six months. The amount of the revenue, and 
of the expenditure, is about $6,000. The regular military con- 
sists of only 24 men and 7 commissioned and non-commissioned 
officers, but the militia comprises 850 men. Besides the capital, 
there are only four villages in the country. 

San Marino, the capital and the seat of government, is situated on the 
above-mentioned mountain, and has 5 churches (in one of them is the tomb 
of San Marino), 3 convents, and 6,000 inhabitants. The 4 villages alluded to 
are : Serravalle, Faetano, Acquaviva, and Feglio. 



ITALY. 137 

Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 

VIII— THE KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES. 

Area : 42,110 square miles. 
Population: 8,373,000 inhabitants. 

This state, commonly called the kingdom of Naples, comprises 
the whole .of Lower Italy, together with the island of Sicily and 
some neighboring isles. 

With the exception of 80,000 Greek Christians and 2,000 
Jews, the inhabitants are Catholics, under the church authority 
of 16 archbishops and 77 bishops. In 1842 the whole kingdom 
numbered 32.360 priests, 12,751 monks, and 10,056 nuns. 

About the Neapolitan Apennines and Abruzzi, the Gran Sasso 
d'llalia and Mt. Vesuvius on the continent, and Mt. Etna, etc., on 
the island of Sicily, see Introduction, § 7, d. In the Abruzzi is 
the lake of Celano, about 15 miles long and 5 miles wide. Be- 
sides the Volturno and Garigliano (see Introduction, § 10), there 
are no rivers worth mentioning. 

The climate is in most parts of the country very delightful, 
and even during the winter months the trees are covered with 
green leaves. On the island of Sicily the sugar-cane and other 
tropical products thrive very well. The wine which grows in 
the environs of Syracuse is excellent, like that on Mt. Vesuvius, 
known by the name of Lacrymae Christi (see Introduction to 
Italy). On account of the peerless fertility of the soil in Sicily, 
wheat is raised here in such quantities, that in some years it has 
been exported at the value of 4,500,000 Neapolitan ducats ; not- 
withstanding that the agriculture is in a very backward state 
throughout the kingdom. Besides wheat and wine, the staples 
are olive-oil, silk, and sulphur. That the Neapolitan horses are 
of a very fine breed, has already been mentioned in the Introduc- 
tion to Italy. The kingdom of Naples is the only country in 



138 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Two Sicilies — Education, etc. 



Europe where the porcupine is met with. Manufactures have of 
late improved, both on the continent and in Sicily. 

With regard to the means of education, there are 4 universi- 
ties : at Naples (founded in 1224, and in 1841 frequented by 
1,550 students), at Catania, (founded in 1445, and in 1841 with 
600 students), at Palermo (founded in 1447, and in 1841 with 735 
students), and at Messina (founded in 1838, and in 1841 with 60 
students). Moreover there are lyceums at Salerno, Bari, Catan- 
garo, and Aquila, 4 gymnasiums in the city of Naples, and in each 
province at least one gymnasium. The number of Latin schools 
amounts to 780 ; and in the continental part of the kingdom 
there are 2,130 common schools. (About the terms of gymna- 
sium, etc., see the note annexed to the Introduction of Portugal.) 

The government is almost absolute, as it was before the last 
revolution, which in 1849 has been completely suppressed. 

The public revenue and expenditure is computed at about 
26,000,000 Neapolitan ducats annually ; and the public debt at 
86,000,000 ducats. 

The army numbers on the peace footing 60,000, and on the 
war footing nearly 100,000 men, besides several regiments of 
Swiss. The navy consists of 1 ship of the line, 3 frigates, 4 
sloops of war, and 4 smaller vessels. 

There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The order of St. 
January, instituted in 1738, in one class. 2. The order of St. Fer- 
dinand, instituted in 1 800, in 3 classes. 3. The order of St. Con- 
stantin, conferred by the king in his quality as heir of the house 
of Farnese (compare Parma). 4. The order of the two Sicilies, 
instituted in 1 808, in 3 classes. 5. The order of Francis the First, 
instituted in 1829 by King Francis I., in 5 classes. 

History. — The greatest part of the present kingdom of Naples was at an 
early period occupied by Greek colonists, and for this reason called Great- 



ITALY. 189 

Kingdom of Naples : History. 



Greece (see History of Italy). At a later period the Carthaginians took pos- 
session of some parts of Sicily, and when in 212 B. C. the Romans conquered 
this island, the continental part of Magna G-reciahad long since been subdued 
by them. After the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century, Naples 
and Sicily became a prey of Germanic tribes, especially of the Ostrogoths. 
Since the year 535 Lower Italy and Sicily were under the sway of the Greek 
emperors, until in 842 the island of Sicily, and soon after Calabria too, was 
conquered by the Arabs. Meanwhile, the Greek governors of several other 
parts of Lower Italy had made themselves independent. Greeks and Arabs 
now combated for the possession of Lower Italy, and finally the German 
emperors partook in this struggle and conquered the principalities of Bene- 
vento and Capua, and even part of Calabria. In 1016 Norman warriors 
from Normandy came accidentally to Salerno, where they defeated the 
Arabs, and were richly rewarded for it by the Christian inhabitants. The Nor- 
mans now remained in the country, others of their countrymen joined them, 
and thus they established themselves here permanently. Their valiant 
rulers belonged to the famous family of Hauteville, and the conquests of 
the Normans had, before the end of the 11th century, extended to Sicily 
(since the year 1061), and the greatest part of Lower Italy. Roger II. 
of Hauteville was crowned by the pope as king of the Two Sicilies, yet 
at the same time suffered himself to be enfeoffed with this kingdom by 
the holy father. Towards the end of the 12th century the male line of 
the house of Hauteville became extinct with William III, and the only 
rightful heiress of the kingdom was Constantia, daughter of William III. 
She was married to the German emperor, Henry VI., of the house of Ho- 
henstaufen. When she died in 1198, she bequeathed the kingdom to her 
son, the famous emperor Frederic II. of Hohenstaufen, who during Ins reign 
was ever at variance with the holy see. About the middle of the 13th cen- 
tury the pope, filled with hatred against the house of Hohenstaufen, invested 
Charles of Anjou (brother of King Louis IX. of France) with the kingdom 
of the two Sicilies. Charles took possession of it, but lost the island of Sicily 
in 1282, when the French were exterminated there by the inhabitants. Tins 
massacre is known in history by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. The 
Sicilians now elected Peter III. of Aragon (who was married to a princess 
of the house of Hohenstaufen) their king, while the continental part of the 
kingdom continued to be under the sway of the house of Anjou until the 
year 1442, when Johanna II., the last heiress, died. Naples and Sicily were 



140 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Kingdom of Naples: History and Statistics. 

now united again by King Alphonso V. of Sicily and Aragon. He subse- 
quently invested his natural son Ferdinand with the continental part, but in 
1503 both parts of the kingdom were united permanently. Since that time 
the two Sicilies continued to form a constituent part of the Spanish kingdom, 
until by the treaties of peace, concluded at Utrecht and Rastadt in 1713 and 
1714, the house of Austria became possessed of them (see History of Spain). 
But in 1734 they were wrested from it again by the Spaniards, and the Span- 
ish prince, Charles, was acknowledged as king of the two Sicilies. When in 
1759 Charles ascended the Spanish throne, he ceded the kingdom of Naples 
to his third son, Ferdinand, with complete sovereignty for him and his de- 
scendants. Towards the end of the last century the French conquered the 
continental part of the kingdom, and in 1806 Napoleon appointed first his 
brother Joseph, and in 1808 his brother-in-law Murat king of this part, while 
Ferdinand, assisted by the English, kept possession of the island of Sicily. 
In 1815 Ferdinand was reinstated into the whole of his kingdom. He died 
in 1825, and was succeeded by his son, Francis I., who died in 1830, and was 
succeeded by his son, the at present reigning king, Ferdinand II (born 
in 1810). 

The Neapolitan continent is divided into 15 provinces, of which 
the section Terra di Lavoro comprises 4 (Naples, Terra di Lavoro 
proper, Principato citeriore, and Principato ulteriore), the section 
Abruzzi comprises 3 (Abruzzo ulteriore I., Abruzzo ulteriore II.. 
and Abruzzo citeriore), the section Apulia comprises 4 (Molise, 
Capitanata, Terra di Bari, and Terra di Otranto), and the section 
Calabria comprises 4 (Basilicata^ Calabria citeriore, Calabria 
ulteriore I., and Calabria ulteriore II.). The island of Sicily is 
divided into 7 val, or provinces. 



ITALY. 141 

Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. 

J..— THE NEAPOLITAN CONTINENT. 

Area : 31,556 square miles. 
Population : 6,323,000 inhabitants. 

1. Terra di Lavoro, comprising : Naples (in ancient ages called Parthenope), 
the capital of the whole kingdom, and residence of the king, on a beautiful 
bay of the same name, near the base of Mount Vesuvius, south-eastward and 
110 miles distant from Rome, is the largest city in Italy, and had, according 
to the census of 1845, a population of 400,813 inhabitants (among them were 
3,401 priests, 1,764 monks, and 1,445 nuns). The houses have, for the most 
part, five or six stories, with fiat roofs decorated with orangery and flowers. 
There are many palaces, and some of them have been reared in the days of 
the Normans and Hohenstaufen. The theatre of San Carlo is the largest 
opera-house in the world. Among the 122 churches, the most remarkable is 
the magnificent cathedral where the pretended blood of St. January is pre- 
served. The number of convents in the city amounts to 149. Besides a 
university, there are many other literary institutions. Among the inhabi- 
tants are about 80,000 Lazzaroni, or people of the lower classes, who seldom 
dwell in a house, and only do any work (as porters, day -laborers, etc.) when 
they are compelled to it by hunger. The environs of Naples are highly 
interesting by the numerous remains of antiquity, among which are those of 
Herculaneum and Potnpeji, that were buried under the lava and ashes of 
Vesuvius in 79 A. D. Near these ancient towns, digged out since the last 
century, are situated the town of Portici, with a royal palace and 7,000 
inhabitants, and the large village of Heaina, with a mansion of the prince of 
Salerno, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Torre 
delV Annunziata (with 9,000 inhabitants), Castellamare (with 15,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Sorrento (with 5,000 inhabitants). At the entrance of the bay of 
Naples are situated the following islands: Procida (with a population of 
18,000 inhabitants), Ischia (very fertile, and much resorted to for bathing; 
its population amounts to 24,000 inhabitants), Capri (with 4,000 inhabitants ; 
the Roman emperor Tiberius lived here many years ; immense flocks of quails 
are caught here annually), Nisida (beautiful like a garden), and Purgaturo. 
Caserta, or Caserta Nuova, chief town of the province of Terra di Lavoro 



142 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. 



proper, romantically situated, northward and 13 miles distant from Naples, 
"with a most splendid royal palace, and 5,000 inhabitants. Gaeta, one of the 
strongest fortresses in the world, on the bay of the same name, north-westward 
and 42 miles distant from Naples. Close by is situated the town of Gaeta, 
with 1 6,000 inhabitants. Capua, a fortified town on the Vulturno, northward 
and 18 miles distant from Naples, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,500 
inhabitants. Monte Cassino, a celebrated Benedictine abbey, founded in 
528, on a steep hill, 46 miles north-north-west of Naples. Quite near is 
situated the town of San Germano, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this province are : Nola (with 9,000 inhabitants ; here died the Roman emperor 
Augustus), Piedimonte (with 5,000 inhabitants), Arpino (with 12,000 inhabi- 
tants), Santa Maria Maggiore (with the remains of the ancient Capua, 
destroyed by the Arabs in 844; has a population of 9,000 inhabitants), 
Cajazzo (with a remarkable cathedral, and 4,000 inhabitants), Acerra (with 
7,000 inhabitants), Aversa (with a mad-house, and 16,000 inhabitants), Mad- 
daloni (with 11,500 inhabitants), Fondi (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sessa (with 
4,000 inhabitants), and Aquino (noted as the birth-place of the holy Thomas 
of Aquino). South-westward from Gaeta are situated the Pontine, or Ponza 
Isles, with rather few inhabitants. Salerno, chief town of the province of 
Principato citeriore, on the bay of the same name, 28 miles east-south-east 
of Naples, with an ancient cathedral, where Pope Gregory VII. is buried, 
various manufactories, and 12,000 inhabitants. (About the once-renowned 
medical faculty, or seminary of Salerno, see History of Europe, §17, /.) 
Amalfi, a town on the bay of Salerno, south-eastward and 23 miles distant 
from Naples, with 3,000 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Amalfi was one of 
the emporiums of Europe (see History of Europe, § 17). Other towns of 
this province are : Capaccio (with 2,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the 
ancient town of Paestum), Eboli (with 6,000 inhabitants), Campagna (with a 
beautiful cathedral, and 7,000 inhabitants), Piano (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Cava (with 19,000 inhabitants), Sarno (with 13,000 inhabitants), and Nocera 
(with 7,000 inhabitants). Avellino, chief town of the province of Principato 
ulteriore, at the foot of Mount Vergine, eastward and 28 miles distant from 
Naples, is noted for its nuts, and has a population of 15,000 inhabitants. 
Quite near are the Caudinian Passes, known by the Roman history. Other 
towns of this province are: Ariano (with 12,500 inhabitants), Solofra (with 
6,000 inhabitants), Pesco Pagano (with 4,000 inhabitants), Conza (with 4,000 
inhabitants), Montefarchio (with 6,000 inhabitants), Montefusco (with 3,000 



ITALY. 143 

Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. 



inhabitants), Atripalda, or Atribaldo (with 5,500 inhabitants), and Rocca San 
Felice (with 2,500 inhabitants). 

2. The section of the Abruzzi, comprising the most northerly part of the 
Neapolitan continent, contains : Teramo, chief town of the province of Abruzzo 
ulteriore I., on the high road between Naples and Ancona, north-eastward 
and 83 miles distant from Rome, with a botanic garden, and 10,000 inhabi- 
tants. Teramo was in ancient ages called Interamnia, and subsequently 
Abruzzo, hence the nomination of the Abruzzi. Other towns of this province 
are : Atri (with 5,000 inhabitants), Civitella del Tronto (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), Penne, or Civita di Penne (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Senarica 
(whose inhabitants are altogether nobles, and endowed with various privileges). 
Aquila, fortified capital of the province of Abruzzo ulteriore II., on the 
Aterno, south-westward and 28 miles distant from Teramo, belongs to the 
most industrious trading places of the kingdom, and has a population of 
14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Sulmona (with 10,000 
inhabitants), Avezzano (with 6,000 inhabitants), Celano (with 2,200 inhabi- 
tants), Civita Ducale (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Tagliacozzo (a small town 
situated south-westward and 23 miles distant from Aquila, and eastward and 
42 miles distant from Rome, noted for the battle in 1268, which the unhappy 
Conradin, of Hohenstaufen, lost against Charles of Anjou). Chieti, or Civita 
di Chieti, capital of the province of Abruzzo citeriore, on the Pescara and 
near the Adriatic, northward and 101 miles distant from Naples, with a 
beautiful cathedral, and 14,000 inhabitants. From this town, formerly called 
Theate, or Teate, the monastic order of the Theatines has derived its name. 
Lanoiano, the most important trading town of the Abruzzi, on the Feltrino, 
and quite near the Adriatic, with 15,000 inhabitants. Ortona a Mare, a town 
on the Adriatic, with 6,000 inhabitants. Pescara, a fortified town on the river 
of the same name, and on the Adriatic, with 3,000, or, according to others 
only with 600 inhabitants. 

3. The section of Apidia (area: 9,351 square miles; population: 1,525,382, 
according to the census of 1844), comprising, exclusive the Abruzzi, the 
eastern half of the Neapolitan continent, and containing : Lecce, capital of 
the province of Terra di Otranto (which comprises the eastern great tongue 
of land of Italy), in a fertile plain, eastward and 207 miles distant from 
Naples, with 12 churches (among which is a remarkable cathedral), 8 con- 
vents, several higher schools, and 21,000 inhabitants. Otranto. a fortified 
town at the strait of Otranto (entrance into the Adriatic Sea), with a citadel, 



144 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Kingdom of Naples — Neapolitan Continent. 

a remarkable cathedral, and 4,500 inhabitants. Brtndisi, the ancient Brun- 
dusium (the common place of passing over to Dyrrachium on the opposite 
coast of Epirus), a maritime town on the Adriatic, 46 miles north-north-west 
of Otranto, with Roman antiquities, and 7,000 inhabitants (in the period of 
the crusades the population amounted still to 60,000 inhabitants). Taranto, a 
fortified town on a bay of the same name, with 8 churches, great salt-works, 
and 19,000 inhabitants. In the 5th century B. C. Taranto had a population of 
800,000 inhabitants. Gallipoli, a fortified maritime town, on the bay of Ta- 
ranto, with very important trade in olive-oil, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bari, 
fortified capital of the province of Terra di Bari, on the Adriatic, opposite to 
Cattaro in Dalmatia, with a renowned chapel to which pilgrims resort, and 21,000 
inhabitants. Trani, a fortified maritime town on the Adriatic, with a beauti- 
ful ancient cathedral (whose steeple is one of the highest in Italy), and 15,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Barletta (with great salt- 
works, and 22,000 inhabitants), Molfetta (with 13,000 inhabitants), Terlizzi 
(with 12,000 inhabitants), Ruvo (with 10,000 inhabitants), Altamura (with 
16,000 inhabitants), Monopoli (with 16,000 inhabitants), Mola, surnamed di 
Bari (with 8,000 inhabitants), Giovenazzo (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bisceglia 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), Bitonto (with 15,000 inhabitants), and Canosa (on 
the Ofanto, with 4,000 inhabitants). In the vicinity of Canosa is situated, 
106 miles east-north-east of Naples, and 193 miles east-south-east of Rome, 
the little town of Canne, in ancient times called Cannae, so renowned for the 
victory Hannibal gained over the Romans in 216 B. C. Foggia, capital of 
the province of Capitanata, on the Cervaro, north-eastward and 83 miles dis- 
tant from Naples, with an annual fair much resorted to, 20 churches, and 
26,000 inhabitants. San Severo, formerly the capital of this province, with 
a medical faculty, and 18,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: 
Manfredonia (with important commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants), Lucera (with 
8,000 inhabitants), Monte SanfAngelo (with 12,500 inhabitants), Ascoli, sur- 
named di Satriano (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bovino, (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
and Viesti (with 6,000 inhabitants). To the province of Capitanata belong 
also the 4 Tremitian Isles, or hole de Tremiti, lying in the Adriatic Sea, 
but of which only two, viz. : San Nicola or Tremiti, and Domino, are in- 
habited. Campobasso, capital of the province of Molise, 55 miles north- 
north-east of Naples with important corn-trade, and 9,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this province are: hernia (with 5,000 inhabitants), Trivento (with 



ITALY. Ho 

Kingdom of Naples— Neapolitan Continent. 



3,000 inhabitants), Bojano (with 2,500 inhabitants), Sepino (with 5,000 inhab- 
itants), and Agnone (with 7,000 inhabitants). 

4. The section of Calabria (area: 10,107 square miles; population: 
1,570,824 inhabitants, according to the census of 1844), comprising the west- 
ern half of the JNeapolitan continent, and containing : Reggio, capital of the 
province of Calabria ulteriore I. (which comprises the most southern part of 
the western great tongue of land of Italy), on the straits of Messina and in 
an exceedingly fertile country, with 12 churches, various manufactories, very 
active trade and 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Gerace 
(with 6,500 inhabitants), Sciglio (near the promontory which the ancients 
called Scylla, has a population of 4,500 inhabitants), Seminar a (with 9,000 
inhabitants) and Palmi (with 6,500). Catanzaro, capital of the province of 
Calabria ulterior II., north eastward and 74 miles distant from Reggio, with 
important trade in silk and olive-oil, and 13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this province are: Monteleone (with 7,000 inhabitants), Nicastro (with 10,000 
inhabitants), Squillace (with 2,000 inhabitants), Tropea (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Cotrone (anciently Croton, with 5,500 inhabitants), Santa Severina (anciently 
Syberona, with 1,800 inhabitants), Pizzo (with 5,500 inhabitants ; here was 
Joachim Murat in Oct. 1815 taken and shot), and Stilo (with important iron 
mines). Cosenza, capital of the province of Calabria citeriore, in a romantic 
and fertile country, south-eastward and 165 miles distant from Naples, with 
a beautiful cathedral, and 15 other churches, an orphan asylum for 700 chil- 
dren, considerable trade in silk, and 8,000 inhabitants. Quite near, in the bed 
of the little river of the Bisenzio, lies buried Alaric I., king of the Visigoths, 
who died here in 410 A. D. Other towns of this province are: Cassano 
(with 7,000 inhabitants), Castrovillari (with 5,000 inhabitants), Corigliano 
(with 7,000 inhabitants), Rossano (with 8,500 inhabitants), Amantra (with 
8,500 inhabitants), Paula or Paola (with 5,500 inhabitants ; the holy Francis 
of Paula was born here), Longobuco (with iron mines), and Altomonte (with 
salt mines). Potenza, capital of the province of Basilicata (comprising the 
ancient Lucania), in the Apennines, 92 miles east-south-east of Naples, with 
10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Matera (with 12,000 
inhabitants), Montepelono (with 5,000 inhabitants), Melfi (with a remarkable 
cathedral, and 8,000 inhabitants), Tarsi (with 6,000 inhabitants), Venosa (with 
4,500 inhabitants), Lagonegro or Lagonero (with 5,500 inhabitants), Franca- 
villa (with 12,000 inhabitants), Acerenza (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Ber- 
nalda or Bernaldo (with 3,000 inhabitants). 

7 



146 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Kingdom of Naples — Island of Sicily. 



B.— THE ISLAND OF SICILY. 

Area: 10,554 square miles. 
Population : 2,050,000 inhabitants. 

This island is, as has already been mentioned, divided into 1 val, or prov- 
inces, bearing the name of their respective chief towns. In the following de- 
scription we shall separate them from each other by dashes. — Palermo, 
capital of the whole island, and the seat of its governor, on a small bay of the 
northern coast, 193 miles south- south-west of Naples, and westward and 124 
miles distant from Messina, is splendidly and regularly built, and has 60 
churches (among which are to be noted the magnificent Gothic cathedral, St. 
Joseph's, and the church of the Capuchins, the latter remarkable for its vaults), 
a vast and ancient royal castle, 8 abbeys and *71 other convents, a university, 
and numerous other similar institutions, a great many manufactories, consider- 
able trade and commerce, and 180,000 inhabitants. The environs of Palermo 
ire adorned with numerous and magnificent villas. In the vicinity of the 
city is situated the town of Monreale or Montreale, with a splendid cathe- 
dral,* and 14,000 inhabitants. In Monreale it was, where, on the 30th of 
March, 1282, the massacre of the French, or the Sicilian Vespers (see His- 
tory of the kingdom of the two Sicilies), commenced. San Martino, a cele- 
brated abbey of the Benedictines, in whose church is one of th'e greatest 
organs in Italy. Termini, a maritime town, with renowned hot springs, and 
19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Cefalu (with ] 0,000 
inhabitants), Corleone (with 16,000 inhabitants), Cinesi (with 4,500 inhabi- 
tants), Polizzi (with 4,500 inhabitants), Castronuovo (with 6,500 inhabitants), 
Bnsachino (with 9,000 inhabitants), Piano de'Greci (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
and Carini (with 8,000 inhabitants). Northward and 18 miles distant from 
Palermo lies solitary in the Mediterranean Sea the little island of Ustica, 
with 2,400 inhabitants. — Trapani, a strongly fortified town on a peninsula, 
westward and 46 miles distant from Palermo, with 18 churches, 24 convents, 
important salt-works, and 26,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
are: Alcamo (with 15,600 inhabitants), Monte Giuliano (with 10,300 inhabi- 
tants), Casldlamare (with 6,500 inhabitants), Calatafimi (with 11,000 in- 
habitants), Salemi (with 12,000 inhabitants), Castelvctrano (with 16,000 



ITALY. 147 

Kingdom of Naples : Island of Sicily. 



inhabitants), Mazzara (with a remarkable cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), 
and Marsala (noted for its vines, and with 16 churches, 14 convents, salt- 
works, and 23,400 inhabitants). Marsala is situated close by the promontory 
of Bocco, anciently renowned by the name of Lilybaeum. Westward from 
Trapani, at a distance of about 20 miles from the coast, are lying in the 
Mediterranean Sea the Aegades or Aegadian Islands, with 12,000 inhabitants. 
The largest and most remarkable of them are: Favignana (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), Levanzo (woody, with rearing of cattle, and 5,000 inhabitants), 
and Maretimo, or Maritimo (with a castle for state-prisoners). — Girgenti, a 
town on the southern coast, 60 miles south-south-east of Palermo, with a 
remarkable cathedral, and 18,000 inhabitants. Quite near was situated the 
so renowned ancient city of Agrigent, which in its most flourishing days had 
a population of 800,000 inhabitants. Favara, a town with 9,000 inhabitants, 
and situated in the midst of the so-called sulphur-districts, which occupy a 
tract of 596 square miles, and where in 150 mines about 4,400 workmen are 
occupied, earning annually about 1,000,000 quintals of sulphur. Contessa, 
Piana, Mezzafuso, and Palazzo Adriano, 4 towns which together bear the 
common name of Casale de 'Grecchi, and whose inhabitants are descendants 
cf emigrated Albanians who settled here in the year 1480. Other towns 
of this province are: Aragona (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sciacca (with 18 
churches, 14 convents, and 15,000 inhabitants), Bivona (with 6,000 inhabi- 
tants), Catolica and Eegalmuto (with 8,000 inhabitants). Westward and 69 
miles distant from Girgenti, and at about 36 miles distance from the Tunesian 
coast, lies the exceedingly fertile Island of Pantelaria, or Pantalaria, with 
a town of the same name (also known by the name of Oppidolo), mineral 
springs, and 7,000 inhabitants. Other smaller isles in its vicinity are : Lam- 
pedusa, Lampione, and Cinosa. Only the first-named is inhabited since the 
year 1834. — Caltanisetta, a town situated in a fertile elevated plain, towards 
the midst of the island of Sicily, south-eastward and 64 miles distant from 
Palermo, with 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: Piazza 
(with 13,000 inhabitants), Naro (with 10,000 inhabitants), Castro Giovanni 
(with 12,700 inhabitants), Alicata, commonly called Licata (with 12,000 in- 
habitants), Terranova (with 9,800 inhabitants), Mazzarino (with 10,000 in- 
habitants), Cannicatti (with 17,000 inhabitants), and Palma (with 6,000 inhab- 
itants). — Syracuse, a fortified city on the eastern coast of Sicily, southward 
and 83 miles distant from Messina, is renowned for its excellent wines, and 
has two seaports, 22 churches (among which is the cathedral, anciently a tem- 



■148 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Kingdom of Naples : Island of Sicily. 



pie of Minerva), and 18,000 inhabitants. The celebrated ancient Syracuse 
was 23 miles in circuit, and said to have had a population of 1,200,000 in- 
habitants. Noto, a town south-westward and 13 miles distant from Syra- 
cuse, with a remarkable cathedral, and 19,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this province are : Modica (with 26,000 inhabitants), Ragusa (with 21,500 
inhabitants), Spaccafomo or Spaccafumo (with 9,000 inhabitants), Vittoria 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), Agosta (with 15,000 inhabitants), Avola (with 7,000 
inhabitants), Pachino (with 1,500 inhabitants), Chiaramonte (with 6,500 in- 
habitants), Comiso (with 11,500 inhabitants), JBiscari (with 3,000 inhabitants^ 
and Floridia (with 4,500 inhabitants). — Catanea, or Catania, a city on the 
Sicilian east coast, and at the foot of Mount Etna, northward and 36 miles 
distant from Syracuse, with a university, a magnificent cathedral, 25 convents, 
considerable silk manufactories, and 60,000 inhabitants. Near the town of 
Mascoli (with 3,000 inhabitants), at the foot of Mount Etna, is the renowned 
chestnut-tree, considered as the largest tree throughout Europe. The circum- 
ference of its trunk is immense. Other towns of this province are : Aei 
Reale (with 20,000 inhabitants), Nicolosi (with 2,400 inhabitants), Glare (with 
17,700 inhabitants), Nicosia (with 13,000 inhabitants), Paterno (with 10,700 
inhabitants), Anderno (with 13,500 inhabitants), Mineo (with 8,300 inhabi- 
tants), Caltagirone (with 21,600 inhabitants), Vizzini (with 11,100 inhabitants), 
Lentini (with excellent potteries, and 7,300 inhabitants), Bronte (with 11,000 
inhabitants), Biancavilla (with 6,500 inhabitants), Sperlinga (with 1,500 in- 
habitants), Leonforte (with 10,000 inhabitants), and San Filippo d'Argyro 
(with 7,500 inhabitants). — Messina, a city on the strait of the same name, 
with a university, considerable commerce, and 85,000 inhabitants. The cita- 
del of this city is very strong. Taormina, a town at the southern entrance 
of the strait of Messina, and on a steep and almost inaccessible rock, with 
6,500 inhabitants. In the middle ages this town sustained a siege of 80 
years, the longest known in history. Other towns of this province are: 
Melazzo, or Milazzo (with 9,200 inhabitants), Roccalumera (with 12,000 in- 
habitants), Patti (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcellona (with 10,000 inhabitants), 
Mistretta (with 11,000 inhabitants), Randazzo (with 15,000 inhabitants), and 
Castroreale (with 15,000 inhabitants). At a distance from 18 to 46 miles 
northward from the coast of the province of Messina, are lying, in the Medi- 
terranean Sea, the Lipari Islands (anciently called the Aeolian Islands), 1 3 in 
number, and altogether of volcanic origin, although they produce wines, figs, 
cotton, etc. The most remarkable of them are : Lipari (the principal island, 



ITALY. 149 

Island of Malta: Geographical Description. 



106 square miles in extent, with hot mineral springs, and 16,000 inhabitants), 
Volcano (uninhabited, with two burning volcanic mountains), Salina (with 4 
villages, salt-works, and 4,000 inhabitants), Stromholi (a volcanic mountain, 
constantly burning, and called the light-house of the Mediterranean ; only 
with 300 inhabitants), Felicvdi (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Volcanello (un- 
inhabited). 



IX.— MALTA. 

Area: 213 square miles. 
Population : 140,000 inhabitants. 



This group, consisting of the islands of Malta, Gozzo, and 
Comino (together with the uninhabited isle of Cominotto), is 
lying in the Mediterranean Sea, between the island of Sicily and 
the northern coast of Africa, and belongs to Great Britain since 
the year 1800. 

The islands are in themselves, it is true, bare calcareous rocks, 
yet for the most part covered with fertile mould. The climate is 
peerlessly mild and pleasant, and the inhabitants being very 
diligent in cultivating the soil, they raise corn, cotton, wine, 
sugar-cane, and other tropic productions. Besides this, sheep, 
goats, and donkeys, are reared. 

The inhabitants, for the most part Catholics, and speaking a 
corrupted Arabian, intermixed with modern Grecian, Italian, and 
French words, do not only till the ground, but are also manufac- 
turing cotton goods, and carry on a considerable trade. 

They have retained their ancient laws and privileges, and are 
ruled by a British military governor. In 1829, the public reve- 
nue amounted to £133,072, and the expenditure to only £103,610. 



150 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Island of Malta: History, etc. 

History. — Malta was primitively called Iperia, and subsequently Ogygia 
(though the island of Gozzo was properly denoted by this latter name) ; at a 
later period, the Greeks named it Melite, which the Arabs finally transmuted 
into Malta. The most ancient inhabitants were Phasacians ; however, they 
were expelled by the Phoenicians, and these again by the Greeks. Subse- 
quently the islands came under the sway of the Carthaginians, from whom 
they were wrested by the Romans. At last they formed a constituent part 
of the Eastern, or Greek Empire, until in 818 the Arabs took possession of 
them. In 1090 the islands were conquered by the Sicilian Normans, and 
since that period, Malta and Sicily were under the sway of one and the same 
ruler. The Emperor Charles V., in his quality as king of Spain, Naples, 
and Sicily (see History of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies), ceded, in 1530, 
Malta to the knights of St. John (see History of Europe, §17, h), who since 
assumed the name of knights of the order of Malta. They had engaged 
themselves to wage war continually against the Turks and pirates, and kept 
for this purpose a navy, which in 1770 consisted of 4 ships of the line, 1 
frigate, 4 galleys, and several other smaller vessels. In 1798 the French con- 
quered Malta, but in 1800 it was wrested from them by the British, who since 
have continued to be in possession of the islands. We shall now describe 
them in the following succession : — 

1. The island of Malta (area: 128 square miles; population: 120,000 in- 
habitants), containing : La Valetta, capital of the whole group, and one of 
the strongest fortresses, with numerous ancient and modern palaces, a univer- 
sity, a public library with 100,000 volumes, a botanic garden, ship docks, two 
seaports, considerable commerce, and 50,000 inhabitants. In the midst of the 
island is situated Citta Vechia (also called Malta, or Melite), the ancient 
capital, with a remarkable cathedral, several convents, and 6,500 inhabitants. 
Other towns are : Pinto (with 4,000 inhabitants), Zorrica (with 3,500 inhabi- 
tants), and Zebug (with 4,000 inhabitants). 

2. The island of Gozzo (area: 88 square miles; population: 19,000 inhabi- 
tants), containing: Gozzo, chief town, with 3,000 inhabitants, and the little 
fortress of Rabatto. Chambra is a mansion of the English governor. 

3. The island of Coinino, with a fortress of the same name, has only a pop- 
ulation of 1,000 inhabitants. 

4. The isle of Cominotto is uninhabited. 



SWITZERLAND. 

Area: 15,315 square miles. 
Population : 2,400,000 inhabitants. 

Switzerland (instead of which, the ancient name of Helvetia 
is sometimes used) is situated between Germany and Italy, and 
on the west bordered by France. 

In point of religion, the Swiss are divided into Reformists (or 
Calvinists) and Catholics ; in some cantons the former, in others 
the latter prevail. Of Lutherans, there are perhaps only 400 
to be found throughout the country. In 1845, the total popula- 
tion amounted to 2,363,000 inhabitants, of whom 998,000 were 
Catholics, and about 1,364,000 Reformists. The Catholics are 
under the church-authority of 5 bishops, viz. : of Lausanne 
(residing at Friburg), of Basle (residing at Soleure), of Sion (for 
the canton of Valais), of Chur and St. Gall (residing alternately 
at Chur and St. Gall), and of Como (for the canton of Tesino). 
The number of Jews in Switzerland amounts to about 2,000. 
What regards the origin, the majority of the Swiss belongs to 
the great family of the Germanians, and the remainder (speaking 
partly French, partly Italian, and partly the so-called Ladinian 
language, or a corrupted Latin) to the great family of the Roma- 
nians (see Introduction, § 12). 

Switzerland is thoroughly mountainous^ and traversed by several 
branches of the Alps (see Introduction, § 7). while the Jura 
Mountains form the boundary on the west towards France (see 
the particulars in the just-named paragraph of the Introduction). 



152 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Switzerland: Geographical Features. 



Two of the principal rivers of Europe rise in Switzerland, viz. : 
the Rhine (whose tributaries are here the 111, Thur, and Aar, 
which latter receives here the Emme, Reuss,a.nd Livimat), and the 
Rhone, which has no remarkable tributaries in Switzerland. 
Moreover, the Tesino, or Ticino, tributary of the Po, and the Inn, 
tributary of the Danube, rise here. The lakes exclusively belong- 
ing to Switzerland, are described in § 9 of the Introduction, 
where also the particulars about the lakes of Constance and 
Geneva are to be found. 

The climate is wholesome throughout the country, although of 
course the temperature varies according to the higher or lower 
elevation of the country. In the higher mountainous regions the 
air is much cooled by the glaciers, or extensive fields of ice that 
cover the lofty summits of the Alps. It may be mentioned on 
this occasion, that sometimes vast masses of snow, called ava- 
lanches, break away from the glaciers, and slide down the declivi- 
ties with a tremendous roar, overwhelming in a moment the 
villages below. Remarkable winds are. the Bise, "coming from 
east or north-east, and the Foehn, a humid south wind. 

Notwithstanding the mountainous character of the country, 
some parts of it are very fertile. Many valleys have a rich soil, 
and renowned for their nutritious and aromatic herbs are the 
excellent Alpine pastures. Pasturage and the making of cheese 
are therefore the chief objects of the farmer. The Swiss breed 
of cattle is, in some respects, considered as the finest in Europe. 
The rearing of sheep is inconsiderable, but goats abound every- 
where. The horses, which generally are strong and durable, are, 
together with mules, used as sumpters, to carry goods on their 
backs across the mountains. The Swiss delight in hunting the 
chamois, which dwells among the highest precipices of the Alps, 
while the ibex is not more, or at least very seldom, found. The 
principal other wild animals found in Switzerland are, the bear, 



SWITZERLAND. 153 



Manufactures— Political Division. 



wolf, lynx, and marmot. The rivers and lakes abound in various 
kinds of excellent fishes, and the Alpine brooks especially in 
trouts. In some of the western and southern cantons, the vine 
is cultivated. 

There are a great many manufactories in Switzerland, especially 
of cotton, silks, watches, etc. The trade is considerable, and, besides 
the manufactured goods, chiefly cattle, cheese, and drugs, are 
exported. 

Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities : at 
Basle (founded in 1459, and frequented by about 130 students), 
at Zurich (founded in 1833, and in 1845 frequented by 125 
students), and at Berne (founded in 1834, but not much resorted 
to). Moreover, there are so-called academies, or faculties, at 
Geneva and Lausanne, and gymnasiums in most of the cantons. 
At Friburg is a college of Jesuits, and at Hofwyl (near the city 
of Berne) a celebrated boarding-school, founded by Mr. Fellen- 
berg. Common schools are numerous. 

Switzerland is divided into 22 cantons, *and the government is 
that of a federal republic (also called Helvetic Republic). Each 
canton is independent, and has the exclusive control of all 
concerns merely local ; but the defence of the country, and the 
general interest of the confederacy are committed to a general 
government, or rather Diet — a kind of congress, called Tagsatzung, 
and composed of two deputies from each canton (Berne and 
Zurich have the privilege of sending each three deputies, while 
Grlarus sends only one). During the time when the Diet is not 
assembled, the so-called Vorort, that is the directory or directorial 
government, vested alternately in the cantons of Berne, Zurich, 
and Lucerne, for two years at a time, manages the affairs of the 
confederacy. 

The ordinary public expenditure of the confederacy was in 
1818 fixed at 539,275 Swiss francs (these are somewhat more in 

■y* 



154 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Histurv. 



value than the French francs) annually ; its public debt, which 
in 1814 amounted to 3,000,000 francs, is long since paid. The 
total revenue of the cantons may be computed at 10,000,000 
francs. The wealthiest cantons are Berne, Vaud, and Zurich 
(the revenue of the first-named amounted in 1844 to 3.055,400 
francs, that of the second to 1,655,200, and that of the third to 
1,100,000 francs), and the poorest are Unterwalden, Lug, and 
Uri, with a revenue of respectively 20,000, 11,000, and 10,000 
francs. 

The Helvetic Republic has no standing army, but keeps in 
time of peace only a small number of regular troops, not exceed- 
ing 1,200 or 1,300 men. Yet in time of war the confederacy 
raises a federal army, whose strength is fixed at 64,019 men, with 
3,426 horses. 

History. — Switzerland, until the year 406 A. D. a Roman province and 
inhabited by Germanic tribes, called Helvetians by the Romans, was, since 
the beginning of the migration of nations, occupied by the Burgundians and 
Alemanni (belonging to the great tribe of the Sueves; compare History of 
Europe, § 3), and came about the year 500 under the sway of the Franks. 
After the death of Charlemagne, many Swiss counts and barons made them- 
selves independent, while part of the country belonged to the Burgundian 
empire (see History of Europe, §§3 and 8, and History of Burgundy under 
France). The German emperors were to be considered as sovereigns of this 
empire, and consequently of Switzerland too, and the latter would perhaps 
until the present day have formed a constituent part of the German empire, if 
not the political interest of the country itself and of France had prevented it. 
In Switzerland, the clergy was possessed of considerable estates and tracts of 
land, beside the barons, among whom the most powerful were the counts of 
Hapsburg, Kyburg, Toggenburg, Neuehatel, Thierstein, and Savoy, the barons 
of Wyssenburg, Grandson, etc. All these lords acknowledged the sovereignty 
of the German emperors, at least nominally, as also those cities and towns 
did, that were endowed with imperial privileges, and ruled by imperial gov- 
ernors, or bailifs of the empire. Cantons did not then exist ; however, there 
were privileged provinces, of which Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden, elected 



SWITZERLAND. 155 



History — Geography. 



in 1257 the mighty Count Rodolph V., count of Hapsburg (subsequently 
German emperor), their protector, but refused allegiance to his son, Emperor 
Albert I., because they pretended to be injured by him in their privileges. 
In the beginning of the year 1308, they destroyed the castles of the imperial 
governors (among whom was one, named Gesler), and united into a confederacy, 
at first for ten years. In the course of time, other provinces joined in this 
confederacy, and as the canton of Schweitz was then the most powerful, the 
German name of Schweitz (Switzerland), for denoting the whole country, came 
into vogue. In 1513, the number of cantons was 13, since and before the 
year 1803, six other joined them, and in 1815 the whole number of 22 was 
completed by the addition of Valais, Neuchatel, and Geneva. Not before 
the Westphalian treaty of peace, concluded in 1648, the independence of the 
Helvetic Republic was formally acknowledged by the foreign powers. It 
must be remarked here, by the way, that many modern historians are of the 
opinion that William Tell did never exist, but all what is related about him is 
to be considered as a legend, derived from the Scandinavian traditions. Be 
this as it may, the fact is, that the above-named three cantons united into a 
confederacy without William Tell, and that also in every other respect he did 
not exert the slightest political influence on the revolution of the year 1308. 
In this respect it made no difference, whether he shot Gesler or not. To 
place the political institutions and liberty of Switzerland on a par with those 
of the United States, would be a great mistake ; for since the end of the last 
century the Helvetic Republic has been in a very unsettled condition, which 
in the last twenty years has almost degenerated into complete anarchy. 
Liberty and lawlessness are at present nearly synonymous in the opinion of 
the great majority of the Swiss ; and sooner or later the country will doubt- 
less become a prey of the adjacent powers, which, hitherto, only the jealousy 
among them has prevented. 

In order to facilitate the finding out of the several cantons, we 
shall describe them in an alphabetic order ; and it only be 
remarked here, that Schafhausen is the most northerly, Valais the 
most southerly, Vaud the most westerly, and Grisons the most 
easterly canton. The population stated in the following descrip- 
tion is according to the last census of 1845. 



156 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Switzerland— Cantons of Aargau and Appenzell. 

1. The canton of Aargau (area: 511 square miles; population: 190,000 
inhabitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, while only 
90,000 are Catholics), between the cantons of Basle and Zurich, crossed by 
the Aar river, and on the north separated from the German grand-duchy of 
Baden by the Rhine. It belonged formerly to the canton of Berne until in 
1803, when it became an independent canton, and contains: Aarau, capital 
of the canton, on the Aar, south-eastward and 26 miles distant from Basle, 
with cotton, silk, and hardware manufactures, considerable trade, and 4,500 
inhabitants. Aarburg, a town on the Aar, south-westward and 9 miles dis- 
tant from Aarau, with the only fortress of all Switzerland, and 1,700 inhabi- 
tants. Baden (sometimes also called Oberbaden, to distinguish it from the 
grand-ducal Badish town of the same name), a town on the Limmat, north- 
westward and 14 miles distant from Zurich, with renowned hot mineral 
springs, and 2,-000 inhabitants. On the 7th of September, 1714, a treaty of 
peace between France and the German empire, was concluded here. Muri, 
formerly a rich and celebrated abbey of the Benedictines, which was founded 
either in 991 or in 1027. This remarkable building is 725 feet long. Close by 
is the town of the same name, with a silk manufactory, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
Brugg, or Bruck, a town on the Aar, has 1,000 inhabitants, and was once the 
property of the counts of Hapsburg, of whose ancestor's castle HArsBURG 
considerable remnants are still extant in the neighborhood. This castle was 
reared in 1027. Not far from here, near the village of Windisch, it was 
where, on the 1st of May, 1308, Emperor Albert I. was murdered by his 
nephew. His widow and daughter reared a nunnery on the very place, named 
Koenigsfelden, which in 1528 was transformed into a hospital. Zofingen, a 
town on the Wigger, with various manufactures, and 3,400 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this canton are: Bremgarten (with 1,050 inhabitants), Lenzburg 
(with 2,200 inhabitants), Rheinfelden (with 1,600 inhabitants), Lauffenburg 
(with 1,000 inhabitants), Klingnau (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zurzach (with 
1,000 inhabitants), Villmergen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Frick (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Wettingen (with 1,050 inhabitants), Ober-Kulm (with 1,700 inhab- 
itants), and Unter-Kulm (with 1,800 inhabitants). 

2. The canton of Appenzell (area: 149 square miles; population: 54,000 
inhabitants, speaking German, and partly Reformists, partly Catholics), en- 
tirely surrounded by the territory of the canton of St. Gall, and situated near 
the lake of Constance. It became an independent canton in 1513, and was 
since the reformation divided into two distinct districts, called Inner-Rhoden 



SWITZERLAND. 157 



Canton of Basle. 



and Ausser-Rhoden, the former inhabited only by Catholics, and the latter 
only by Reformists. Inner-Rhoden contains : Appenzell, capital of the whole 
canton, on the Sitter, southward and 7 miles distant from the city of St. Gall, 
and 26 miles south-south-east of Constance, with a Gothic church, 2 convents, 
linen trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. Weissbad and Gonten, villages, with 
mineral springs. Ausser-Rhoden contains: Trogen, chief town of this district, 
with considerable linen trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
district are : Herisau (noted for its manufactures, with 7,900 inhabitants), 
Teuffen (with 4,200 inhabitants), Zum Stein (with 3,000 inhabitants), Umaesch 
(with 2,100 inhabitants), Gais (noted for its whey, with 2,900 inhabitants), 
and Hundwyl (with 1,100 inhabitants). 

3. The canton of Basle (area: 192 square miles; population: 66,000 inhab- 
itants, of whom only 6,500 are Catholics, while the majority consists of 
Reformists, all speaking German), on and near the Rhine, bordered on the 
west by France, and on the south by the canton of Soleure. It joined the 
confederacy in 1491, and is since the year 1833 divided into Basle-City and 
Basle-Campagne. The former contains: Basle, capital of the canton, on the 
left bank of the Rhine, which is crossed here by its only stone bridge (all the 
other bridges over the Rhine are constructed by boats), southward and 73 
miles distant from Strasburg, and northward and 46 miles distant from Berne, 
is noted for its considerable trade and manufactures, its university and board 
of missions, its ancient Gothic cathedral (founded in 1010; the council or 
synod of the years 1431-1448 was held here; and, moreover, it contains the 
sepulchre of the renowned Erasmus, of Rotterdam), and has a population of 
23,000 inhabitants. One of its suburbs, called Little Basle (Klein-Basel), is 
situated on the right bank of the Rhine. Basle, founded in the 4th century, 
was until the year 1529 the seat of the catholic bishop of Basle, who at the 
same time was a prince of the German empire, and sovereign of a territory, 
which in 1814 was annexed to the canton of Berne. The present bishop of 
Basle resides at Soleure, while his antecessors since the year 1529 resided at 
Pruntrut (see next canton). To the district of Basle-city belong, moreover, 
the small townships of Bettingen, Riehen, and Kleinhuejiingen (Little Huenin- 
gen). Basle-Campagne contains : Liestall, or Liechstall, chief town of this 
district, on the Ergolz, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Basle, with 
various manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this district are : 
Sissach (with 1,200 inhabitants), Waldenburg (with 800 inhabitants), A rlesheim 



158 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Switzerland — Canton of Berne. 



(with 800 inhabitants), and Muttenz (with a remarkable old church, and 1,850 
inhabitants). 

4. The canton of Berne (area: 2,5*76 square miles ; population: 440,000 
inhabitants, for the most part speaking German, but in the western part 
French; the majority consists of Reformists, and only 53,000 are Catholics), 
occupying nearly the centre of Switzerland, and on the south bordered by the 
canton of Valais. It joined the confederacy in 1352; and until 1803 the 
present cantons of Aargau and Vaud formed parts of it. In 1815, it was 
indemnificated by the former territory of the bishop of Basle (see above). It 
contains : Berne, the capital of the canton, on the Aar, southward and 46 
miles distant from Basle, and north-eastward and 82 miles distant from 
Geneva, with a university and several other schools and literary institutions, 
various manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. 
About 4 miles distant from here is situated the estate of Hofwyl, where is 
the before-mentioned school of Fellenberg. Laupen, a town on the Saane, 
with 900 inhabitants. In the district of Ober- Aargau (Upper Aargau) are 
situated the towns of Aarwangen (with 1,450 inhabitants), and Wangen 
(with 900 inhabitants). In the romantic valley of the Emme (noted for its 
fine cattle, cheese, and industry) are situated the towns of Langenthal (north- 
eastward and 23 miles distant from Berne, with 2,800 inhabitants), Langnau 
(with 5,700 inhabitants), Hutiweil, or Hutwyl (with 900 inhabitants), and 
Burgdorf (with 2,300 inhabitants). Saanen, chief town of the valley of the 
same name (noted for its cheese), and in French called Gessenay. In the 
so-called Berner Oberland (Highlands of Berne) are situated: Thun, a town 
on the lake of the same name, 16 miles south-south-east of Berne, is the seat 
of a military academy of the confederacy, and has a population of 5,000 
inhabitants. Near the village of Lauterbrunnen are the celebrated falls of 
the Staubbach. Meyringen, on the Aar, is the chief town of the Haslithal 
(valley of Hasli), whose inhabitants are noted for their fine shape. Wimmis 
is the chief town of the eminently cultivated valley of the Simmen, or Sim- 
menthal. Other towns in the Bernese Oberlands are : Frutingen (with 1,800 
inhabitants), and Unterseen (with 1,250 inhabitants). Interlaken, or Inter- 
lachen, formerly a renowned monastery of Austin friars, founded in 1130. In 
the district called Seeland (lake-land, because it is bordered by the lake of 
Biel) are situated: Erlach (in French, Erlier, or Cerlier), a town on the lake 
of Biel, 19 miles west-north-west of Berne, with 1,200 inhabitants, Nidau (a 
town, with 1,000 inhabitants), Bueren (a town on the Aar, with 1,350 inhabi- 



SWITZERLAND. 159 



Cantons of Freiburg and St. Gall. 



tants), and Aarberg (a town on the Aar, with 800 inhabitants). In the former 
territory of the bishop of Basle (see above) are situated : Pruntrut (in French, 
Porentruy), a town on the Halaine, 37 miles north-north-west of Berne, was 
until 1803 the seat of the bishop of Basle, who resided here in a magnificent 
palace, and has a population of 2,700 inhabitants. Biel (in French, Bienne), 
a town on the lake of the same name, with 2,800 inhabitants. Other towns 
of this district are: Delsberg, in French, Delemont (with 1,450 inhabitants), 
St. Ursanne, mx St. Ursitz (with 1,000 inhabitants), Laufen (with 900 inhabi- 
tants), and Neuenstadt, in French, JVeuveville, or Bonneville (with 1,300 inhabi- 
tants). 

5. The canton of Fribtirg, or Freiburg (area : 564 square miles ; popula- 
tion: 95,000 inhabitants, partly speaking French, and partly German, and 
the majority consisting of Catholics, only 6,400 being Reformists), bordered on 
the north-west by the lake of Neuchatel, and on the east by the canton of 
Berne. It joined the confederacy in 1481, and contains : Freiburg, or Friburg, 
the capital, on the Saane (crossed by a wire suspension bridge, which is 834 
feet in length, and 145 feet above the surface of the water), south-westward and 
19 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 73 miles distant from 
Geneva, is the seat of the bishop of Lausanne, and has the above-mentioned 
college of Jesuits (in 1842 with 676 pupils), a Gothic cathedral (whose steeple 
is 365 feet in height), 8 convents, and 9,200 inhabitants. In the vicinity is 
situated the Cistercian monastery Altenryf, in French, Hauterive. Murten 
(in French, Morat), a town on the lake of the same name, is noted for the 
battle against Charles the Temerarious, of Burgundy, in 1476, and has 1,700 
inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Greyerz, in French, Gruyeres 
(noted for its cheese, and with 1,050 inhabitants), Romont (with 1,400 inhabi- 
tants), and Staefis, in French, Estavayer (with 1,800 inhabitants). 

6. The canton of St. Gall (area: 744 square miles; population: 172,000 
inhabitants, speaking German, and in point of religion at the ratio of 106,000 
Catholics and 66,000 Reformists), separated by the Rhine (before this river 
enters the lake of Constance) from Tyrol. This canton, which joined the 
confederacy in 1798, was until then (with the exception of the city of St. 
Gall) the territory of the Benedictine abbey of St. Gall, whose seat was in 
the just-named city, though separated from it by a high wall. The abbey 
originated from a cell, built by the holy Gallus (from Ireland, and a pupil of 
Columban), who 'in the beginning of the 7th century came here to preach the 
gospel to the neighboring Allemani. He converted many of them, who set- 



160 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Switzerland — Canton of Geneva. 



tied themselves around him, and at last a monastery was built, whose first 
regular abbot was elected in 720. The abbey was endowed with many 
privileges ; the abbot was only subjected to the pope, and in his temporal 
quality as prince of the German empire, to the emperor, and was at the same 
time sovereign of a pretty large territory. Since the year 1451 he partook 
in the direction of the general affairs of the Helvetic Republic, without being 
an actual member of the confederacy, until in 1798 the whole bishopric (or 
the territory of the abbey), together with the city of St. Gall, was trans- 
formed into a canton. (About the present bishop of St. Gall, see above.) 
The canton contains : St. Gall, its capital, on the Steinach, 20 miles south- 
south-east of Constance, and eastward and 9 miles distant from Zurich, with 
the former edifice of the abbey, now the residence of the government, 6 
churches, several schools and valuable libraries, important linen trade, and 
11,500 inhabitants. Pfeffers (in French Faviere), a village situated in the 
wild, romantic Tamina Valley (Taminathal), and noted for its warm baths. 
Here is also a Benedictine abbey, founded in 720. Wildhaus, a village near 
the head of the Thur river, remarkable as the birth-place of the reformer 
Zwingli, who was born here in 1484, in a house which is still extant. Ror- 
schach, a town on the lake of Constance, with important commerce, and 1,700 
inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Rappers wyl, or Rapperschweil 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Sargans (with 750 inhabitants), Wallenstadt (with 
800 inhabitants), Rheineek (with 1,800 inhabitants), Rayatz (with 1,300 in- 
habitants), Werdenberg (with 950 inhabitants), Lichten&teig (chief town of 
the ancient county of Toggenburg, with 7,500 inhabitants), and Wyl (with 
2,400 inhabitants). 

7. The canton of Geneva (area: 92 square miles; population: 65,000 in- 
habitants, speaking French, and for the most part Reformists, only 19,700 
being Catholics), situated along the south-west corner of the lake of Geneva. 
It partook since the year 1558 in the direction of the public affairs of Swit- 
zerland, without being an actual member of the confederacy. In 1798 it was, 
by the name of Leman-department, annexed to France, but in 1815 restored 
to its independency, and now it became a formal member of the confederacy. 
It contains : Geneva, fortified capital, on the lake of the same name, and on 
the Rhone (at the point where this river issues from the lake), south-westward 
and 82 miles distant from Berne, and north-eastward and 69 miles distant 
from Lyons, is the most populous and industrious city of Switzerland, and 
especially noted for its extensive manufactures of watches and jewelleries 



SWITZERLAND. 161 



Cantons of Glarus and Grisons. 



(annually about 60,000 ounces of gold, 5,000 marks of silver and precious 
stones, at the value of 500,000 francs, are used up for this purpose), and 
moreover for its literary institutions, and has a population of 31,000 inhabi- 
tants, among whom are 5,800 Catholics. Geneva was founded by the Allo- 
brogi (a Gaulic tribe in the south-eastern part of Gaul and in the adjacent 
country, now called Savoy), came in the beginning of the 5th century of the 
Christian era under the sway of the Burgundians, and formed since part of 
the Burgundian kingdom, but was at the same time held in some dependency 
of the bishop of Geneva. In 1478 the bishop and the city entered into a 
league with the cantons of Berne and Freiburg, which in 1526 was renewed, 
till in 1558 (the bishopric being meanwhile dissolved) matters were arranged 
in the above-mentioned manner. The territory of the city contains, among 
others, the towns of Versoix or Versoy (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Carouge 
(with 4,000 inhabitants). 

8. The canton of Glarus (area: 276 square miles; population: 32,000 in- 
habitants, speaking German, and for the most part Reformists, only 4,300 
being Catholics), situated in the interior of Switzerland, at about 14 miles 
distance from Tyrol, and on the south bordered by the canton of Grisons. It 
joined the confederacy in 1352, and contains: Glarus, capital on the Linth, 32 
miles south-south-west of St. Gall, and south-eastward and 36 miles distant 
from Zurich, with numerous cotton and cloth manufactures, important trade, 
and 6,000 inhabitants. Mollis, Schwanden, and Naefels, towns with re- 
spectively 2,600, 2,200, and 1,800 inhabitants. Naefels is noted for a battle 
in 1388. 

9. The canton of Grisons (area: 2,981 square miles; population: 92,000 
inhabitants, of whom about two parts are Reformists and one part Catholics, 
speaking partly German, partly Italian, and partly the above-mentioned 
Ladinian, or corrupt Latin language), comprising the south-eastern part of 
Switzerland, and bordered by Tyrol and Lombardy. There are not less than 
241 glaciers and 170 valleys in this canton, from which two great roads cross 
the Alps to Italy ; one over the Bernardin, and the other over Mount Spliigen. 
Grisons, once a constituent part of Rhaetia (as Tyrol anciently was called), 
came in the 5th century under the sway of the Ostrogoths, and in 529 under 
that of the kings of Austrasia (see History of Europe, § 8), who annexed it 
to the duchy of Swabia. or Alemannia. The German emperor, Otho I., and 
the duke Louis of Alemannia endowed in 951 the bishop of Chur with 
various privileges in this city, which subsequently were extended over a great 



162 EUROPE, PAST xlND PRESENT. 



Switzerland — Cantons of Orisons, Luzerne and Neucltatel. 



part of Grisons, where, moreover, free communities had arisen. The latter 
entered into three leagues, viz. : the Grey League, the Gods-house League, and 
the League of the ten Jurisdictions ; while about the same time, or in 1419, 
the bishop and the city of Chur entered into a confederacy with Zurich. Yet it 
was not until the year 1798 Grisons became a canton and actual member of the 
Helvetic Republic. The government of the canton consists of representatives 
of the above leagues, still existing ; and it may be remarked that Chur is 
the chief town of the so-called God's-house League, Ilanz that of the Grey 
League, and Meyenfeld the chief town of the League of the ten Jurisdictions. 
The canton contains : Chur, capital of all Grisons, near the sources of the 
Rhine, southward and 46 miles distant from St. Gall, with a remarkable 
cathedral, 2 convents, considerable transit trade, and 5,800 inhabitants. 
Especially in the valley of Engadin the Ladinian language is spoken, and 
many of its inhabitants are spread over all Europe as expert confectioners 
and keepers of coffee-houses. Puschlaf or Poschiavo and Zizers, towns with 
respectively 900 and 800 inhabitants. Ilanz (see above), the uppermost 
town on the Rhine (the nethermost is Ley den, in Holland), westward and 18 
miles distant from Chur, with 750 inhabitants. $plugen,& town at the north- 
ern foot of Mount Splugen, 28 miles south-south-west of Chur, with 800 in- 
habitants. Other towns of this district are : Disentis (with 1,200 inhabitants), 
and Thusis (with 900 inhabitants). Meyenfeld (see above), a town north- 
ward and 12 miles distant from Chur, with a remarkable old castle, transit 
trade, and 1,200 inhabitants. Davos, a town with 1,100 inhabitants. Pretti- 
gau, a valley noted for its fine cattle. 

10. The canton of Luzerne (area: 595 square miles; population: 128,000 
inhabitants, all Catholics, and speaking German), near the centre of Switzer- 
land, and bordered on the north by the canton of Aargau. It joined the 
confederacy in 1332, and contains: Luzerne, the capital, on the Reuss, 46 
miles east-north-east of Berne, with 5 churches, 4 convents, several literary 
institutions, manufactures, transit trade, and 8,500 inhabitants. The town of 
Sempach, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted for a battle in 1386. Other towns 
of this canton are : Willisau (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Sursee (with 3,000 
inhabitants). 

11. The canton of Neuchatel (area: 297 square miles; population: 66,000 
inhabitants in 1845, but 67,200 inhabitants in the beginning of the year 1847 ; 
they speak, for the most part, French, but also German ; the majority consists 
of Reformists, and only 3,500 are Catholics), situated on the west side of the 



SWITZERLAND. 163 



Cantons of Neuehatol and Schafhausen. 



lake of Neuchatel, and on the west bordered by the French province of 
Franche Comte. This canton, since the year 1815 a member of the confed- 
eracy, but in other respects subjected to the sovereignty of the king of Prussia, 
was in 1082 annexed to the German empire as an almost sovereign county, 
(subsequently principality), which since the year 1324 changed hands, until 
towards the end of the 17th century the Prince William III., of Orange (king 
of Great Britain in the period 1689-1702), became possessed of it. From 
him, his nephew, King Frederic I., of Prussia, inherited the principality, and 
took possession of it in 1707. Since that time, Neuchatel has continued to be 
under Prussian sway, with the exception of the period from the year 1805 to 
1814, in which it formed part of France. In 1848 the people declared them- 
selves independent from the Prussian crown, but it is very doubtful whether 
they will be able to maintain their independence, the more so as the king of 
Prussia has not at all acquiesced in it. The country is noted for its industry ; 
and at the end of the year 1843, there were 8,825 watch-makers, 3,055 lace- 
makers, 1,994 linen-weavers, 10,021 vine-dressers, etc., etc. Politically, or 
historically, the country is divided into the principality of Neuchatel, and the 
county of Valangin. The former contains: Neuchatel, the capital of the 
whole canton, on the northern bank of the lake of Neuchatel, westward and 
27 miles distant from Berne, with a castle, reared in 1250, and since the seat 
of the sovereigns of the country, most of whom are buried in the Gothic 
church of Our Lady here, manufactures of watches and laces, considerable 
trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. Travers, a village in the valley of the same 
name, whose 6,000 inhabitants are for the most part watch- and lace-makers. 
Boudry, a town noted for its wines, with 1,700 inhabitants. Lanberon, a town 
on the lake of Biel, with 1,000 inhabitants. Cortaillod, a village on the lake 
of Neuchatel, with calico printings, and 1,100 inhabitants. Valangin, chief 
town of the ancient county of Valangin, in a deep valley, north-westward 
and 2 miles distant from Neuchatel, with a Gothic church and 6,000 inhabi- 
tants. Locle, a town near the French frontier, is noted for its manufactures 
of watches, and has a population of 6,000 inhabitants. Also the town of 
Chaux de Fonds (with 8,500 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of 
watches. 

12. The canton of Schafhausen (area: 117 square miles; population: 
35,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Reformists, with the excep- 
tion of only 600 Catholics), the most northerly canton, and almost entirely 
surrounded by the territory of the German grand-duchy of Baden. It joined 



164 EUROPE. PAST AND PRESENT. 



Switzerland — Cantons of Schweitz and Soleure. 



the confederacy in 1501, and contains: Schafhausen, the capital, on the 
Rhine (whose celebrated falls are not far from here, close by the village of 
Laufen, which, however, belongs to Zurich), north-eastward and 82 miles 
distant from Berne, and 27 miles north-north-east of Zurich, with 3 churches, 
manufactures of silks and cotton goods, and 7,500 inhabitants. Stein, or 
Stein am Rhein (because this town is situated on the Rhine), is noted for its 
wines, and has 1,800 inhabitants. Quite near the town is the ancient castle 
of HohenMingen. Other towns of this canton are : Neukirch (with 1,000 
inhabitants), Taeyingen (with 700 inhabitants), Unter-Hallau (with mineral 
baths, and 3,100 inhabitants), and Wilchingen (with 900 inhabitants). 

13. The canton of Schweitz, or Schwyz (area: 340 square miles; popula- 
tion : 43,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on 
the south side of the lake of Zurich. It was one of those three cantons which 
in 1308 first entered into a confederacy, and contains: Schwyz, or Schweitz, 
the capital, at the foot of Mount Myten (5,790 feet high), eastward and 65 
miles distant from Berne, and south-westward and 69 miles distant from St. 
Gall, with 2 convents, and 5.000 inhabitants. Einsiedeln, a town on the 
Sihl, 9 miles north-north-east of Schwyz, with 6,000 inhabitants, and a cele- 
brated Benedictine abbey (founded in 906), whose holy shrine is annually 
visited by about 150,000 pilgrims. Other towns of this canton are : Lachen 
(with 1,300 inhabitants), Gersau (with 1,500 inhabitants), Arth (with 2,600 
inhabitants), and Kuessnacht (with 1,700 inhabitants). In this canton is also 
Mount Rigi, 5,700 feet high. Between this mountain and another, called 
Russberg (4,800 feet in height), was situated the town of Goldau, which on 
the 2d of September, 1806, was totally buried by a terrible fall of earth. 

14. The canton of Soleure (area: 255 square miles; population: 65,000 
inhabitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on the south side 
of the canton of Basle. It joined the confederacy in 1481, and contains: 
Soleure, the capital, on the Aar, northward and 20 miles distant from Basle, 
with 3 churches, 5 convents, considerable transit trade, and 4,600 inhabitants. 
Gilgenberg, an ancient remarkable mountain-castle, whose walls are 14 feet 
thick. Olten, a town on the Aar, with important inland trade, and 1,800 
inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Ballstall (with 800 inhabitants), 
Trimmbach (with 1,100 inhabitants), Schoenenwerth, or Bellowerth (with 800 
inhabitants), Hegendorf (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Grenchen (with 1,200 
inhabitants). 

15. The canton of Tesino (area: 1,044 square miles; population: 114,000 



SWITZERLAND. 165 



Cantons of Tesino and Thur-.au. 



inhabitants in 1845, but 121,000 inhabitants in 1847, speaking, for the most part, 
Italian, and being Catholics), situated between Grisons (on the east) and 
Valais (on the west), and on the south bordered by Lombardy. It consists 
of the 7 former Italian bailiffships of Bellinzona, Riviera, Bollenz, Lugano, 
Locarno, Meynthal, and Mendrisio, which were allied to the Swiss cantons, 
until in 1803 they joined the confederacy as a canton by the name of Tesino 
(derived from that of the river crossing the country). It is sometimes called 
Italian Switzerland, has no permanent capital, the towns of Bellinzona, Lugano, 
and Locarno, being alternately the seat of government, and contains : Bellin- 
zona, a town on the Tesino, or Ticino, south-eastward and 115 miles distant 
from Berne, with 3 castles, one of which is strongly fortified, 2 churches, 3 
convents, transit trade, and 1,600 inhabitants. Riviera, or Polese, chief town 
of the former bailiffship of the same name. Cevio, or Gevio, chief town of 
the former bailiffship of Meynthal, has a population of 600 inhabitants. 
Bollenz (also called Palenzerthal), formerly a bailiffship, which in 1500 allied 
to the cantons of Uri, Schweitz, and Unterwalden. Lugano (in German, 
Lauis, or Lavis), a town on the lake of the same name, southward and 19 
miles distant from Bellinzona, with 16 churches, 6 convents, various manufac- 
tures, important trade, and 4,700 inhabitants. Agno and Ponte Tresa, towns, 
with respectively 1,900 and 850 inhabitants. Locarno, a town at the northern 
end of the lake Maggiore, westward and 9 miles distant from Bellinzona, with 
1,700 inhabitants. Ascona and Dongio, towns, with respectively 1,800 and 
1,000 inhabitants. Mendrisio, or Mendris, a town near the lake of Lugano, 
northward and 30 miles distant from Milan, with 3 convents, silk spinning, 
and 1,800 inhabitants. Airolo (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Giornico, or 
Imis (with 2 remarkable churches, and 900 inhabitants), towns situated in 
the valley of Levantina. Other towns of this canton are : Balerno (with 750 
inhabitants), Stabio (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Chiasso (with 800 inhabi- 
tants). 

16. The canton of Thurgau (area: 266 square miles; population: 92,000 
inhabitants, speaking German, and being Reformists, with the exception of 
19,800 Catholics), on the western bank of the lake of Constance, on the west 
bordered by the canton of Zurich. This canton, the most fertile of Switzer- 
land, joined the confederacy in 1803, and contains: Frauenfeld, the capital, 
on the Murg, south-westward and 13 miles distant from Constance, with silk 
manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants. Gottlieben, a town on the Rhine, and 
near Constance, with an old castle, where John Huss and the pope, John 



166 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Switzerland — Cantons of Unterwalden and Uri 



XXIII., were kept prisoners in 1415, transit trade, and 600 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this canton are : Arbon (with various manufactures, and 
1,100 inhabitants), Weinfelden (with 2,400 inhabitants), Steckborn (with 
2,200 inhabitants), Diessenhofen (with 1,300 inhabitants), Bischofszell (with 
2,600 inhabitants), Ermatingen (with 2,800 inhabitants), and Hauptweil (with 
2,200 inhabitants). 

17. The canton of Unterwalden (area: 266 square miles; population: 
25,000 inhabitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated in the 
interior of Switzerland, on the south bordered by the canton of Berne, and 
on the north-west by the canton of Luzerne. It is crossed from the south to 
the north by a forest, called Kernwald, which divides the canton into two 
districts, known by the names of Nidwalden and Obwalden (beneath and 
above the forest). Unterwalden is one of the three cantons, which in 1308 
first entered into a confederacy, and has no capital, Stanz (eastward and 46 
miles distant from Berne, with 2 convents, and 3,500 inhabitants) being the 
chief town of Nidwalden (which besides it contains the towns of Bucks, with 
1,600 inhabitants, and Stanzstad, or Stansstadt, with 800 inhabitants). The 
chief town of Obwalden is Sarnen, on the lake of the same name, 9 miles 
westrsouth-west of Stanz, with a beautiful church, 2 convents, and 4,000 in- 
habitants. Sachseln, or Saxeln, a village on the lake of Sarnen, with 2,200 
inhabitants, and a church, where the renowned hermit, Nicholas von der Flue 
(_|_ 1487), is buried. Engelberg and Melchthal are two romantic village?. 
Kerns and Alpnach, or Altnacht, towns with respectively 2,900 and 1,800 
inhabitants. 

18. The canton of Uri (area: 426 square miles; population: 14,500 in- 
habitants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on the east side 
of Unterwalden, and on the south-east and south bordered by the cantons 
of Grison and Tesino. It was one of the the three cantons, which in 1308 
first entered into a confederacy, and contains : Altorf, the capital, on the 
Reuss and the lake of Luzerne, eastward and 55 miles distant from Berne, 
and southward and 36 miles distant from Zurich, with 2 convents, transit 
trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. Here it was, where Gessler (see History of 
Switzerland) lived. Not far from here is the wild, romantic valley, called 
Schaechcnthal. Fluelen, a village on the lake of Luzerne, with considerable 
transit trade, and 650 inhabitants. Goeschenen, a village on the new road 
over Mount St. Gothard (whose highest peak, called Galenstoch, is 11,300 
feet high), which at the same time leads over the Devil. 's-bridge (built in mod- 



SWITZERLAND. 167 



Cantons of Uri, Valais and Vaud. 



em time, and consisting of an arch 55 feet wide, and built at the height of 
90 feet over the Reuss : the old Devil' s-bridge is still extant). In the valley 
of Urseren is situated the village of Andermatt, with 1,400 inhabitants. 

19. The canton of Valais (area : 1667 square miles ; population : 80,000 
inhabitants, being Catholics, and speaking partly French, partly German, and 
partly Italian), the most southerly canton, bordered on the south by Pied- 
mont. It belonged first to the Burgundian, and since the year 1032 to the 
German empire, became in the years 1475 and 1529 a member of the Swiss 
confederacy, was in 1810 annexed to the French empire (by the name of de- 
partment of Simplon), but in 1815 restored to independency. It is divided 
into Upper and Lower Valais, and contains : Sion (in German Sitten), the 
capital of the canton, and chief town of Upper Valais, near the Rhone, south- 
ward and 54 miles distant from Berne, and northward and 82 miles distant 
from Turin, with 6 churches (among which is a remarkable cathedral), a col- 
lege of Jesuits, and 3,200 inhabitants. Leuk (in French, Loueche), a town on 
the Rhone, is noted for its warm baths, and has 750 inhabitants. Simplon, a 
village on the mountain of the same name (11,730 feet high), and on the road 
crossing the latter. Brig, Haters, and Sieders, towns on the Rhone and in 
Upper Valais, with respectively 750, 2,500, and 1,000 inhabitants. Martigny 
(in German, Martinach), chief town of Lower Valais, on the Dranse, south- 
westward and 9 miles distant from Sion, with vine culture on a large 
scale, considerable transit trade, and 1,250 inhabitants. Between this town 
and the frontier of Piedmont is the valley of Bagne, with 4,000 inhabitants. 
Here commences the road over the Great St. Bernard (10,400 feet high, and 
belonging to the Pennine Alps), by which the French army passed into Italy 
in the month of May, 1800, and at whose top is a Benedictine monastery 
(reared in the midst of the 10th century), where annually about 15,000 trav- 
ellers are hospitably entertained. St. Maurice (in German St. Moritz), a 
town on the Rhone, with considerable transit trade, and 1,200 inhabitants. 
Monthey, a town on the Vieze, with 1,100 inhabitants. 

20. The canton of Vaud (area: 1,186 square miles; population : 203,000 
inhabitants, for the most part Reformists, and of French origin, only 6,000 
speaking German, and no more than 3,000 being Catholics), situated between 
the lakes of Geneva and Neuchatel, and in common life also called French 
Switzerland. It belonged formerly to the canton of Berne, but joined the 
confederacy in 1798 as an actual member. It contains : Lausanne, the capi- 
tal, on the northern bank of the lake of Geneva, with a beautiful Gothic 



168 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Switzerland -Cantons of Valid, Zug, and Zurich. 



cathedral and 2 other churches, several higher schools and literary institutions, 
vine culture, and 16,000 inhabitants. Grandson (in German, Gransee), a 
town on the lake of Neuchatel, is noted for a battle in 1476, and has 1,000 
inhabitants. Vevay, or Vivis, a town on the lake of Geneva, with manufac- 
tures of watches, etc., and 4, 7 00 inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : 
La Tour, surnamed de Peils (with 800 inhabitants), ViUeneuve (with 1,500 in- 
habitants), St Saphorin (with 800 inhabitants), Cully, or Cuilly (with 2,900 
inhabitants), Lustri, or Lutry (with 1,500 inhabitants), Morges, or Morsee 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Aubonne (with 1,800 inhabitants), Nyon, in German, 
Neuss (with 2,800 inhabitants), Coppet (with 600 inhabitants), Yverdun, or 
Iverdun, in German, Ifferten (with 3,200 inhabitants), Moudon, in German, 
Mllden (with 1,600 inhabitants), Avenches, in German, Wijflisburg (with 1,100 
inhabitants), Gassonay (with 1,200 inhabitants), Payerne, in German, Peter- 
lingen (with 2,400 inhabitants), Romainmonstiers (with 1,200 inhabitants), 
Echallens, in German, Tscherlitz (with 700 inhabitants), Orbe, in German, 
Orbach (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aigle, in German, Aelen (with 1,900 inhabi- 
tants), and Bex (with the only salt-work in Switzerland, and 2,400 inhabitants). 
The valley ofloux is noted for its manufactures of watches, swords, hard-ware, 
etc., and has a population of 3,000 inhabitants. 

21. The canton of Zug (area: 85 square miles; population: 16,500 inhabi- 
tants, speaking German, and being Catholics), situated on the south side of 
the canton of Zurich. It joined the confederacy in 1352, and contains: Zug, 
the capital, on the lake of the same name, southward and 14 miles distant 
from Zurich, with transit trade, and 3,500 inhabitants. South-eastward and 9 
miles distant from Zug is the little mountain or hill of Morgarten, noted for a 
battle in 1315. Baar and Cham, towns, with respectively 2,500 and 1,300 
inhabitants. Other towns of this canton are : Aegeri (with 2,800 inhabitants), 
Walchwyl (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Maenzingen (with 1,500 inhabitants). 

22. The canton of Zurich (area : 686 square miles ; population : 280,000 
inhabitants, speaking German, and being Reformists, with the exception of 
2,000 Catholics), in the northern part of Switzerland, at about 20 miles distance 
from the lake of Constance, on the north bordered by the canton of Schaf- 
hausen. It joined the confederacy in 1351, and contains: Zurich, the capital, 
on the lake of the same name, and on the Limmat, 46 miles east-south-east 
of Basle, with a university (see above), 4 churches (at St. Peter's, the cele- 
brated Lavater was minister), several literary and charitable institutions, 
various manufactures, considerable trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. In 1799, 



SWITZERLAND. 169 



Canton of Zurich. 



a battle was fought here between the French and the Austro-Russians. 
"VVinterthur, a town, situated north-eastward and 14 miles distant from 
Zurich, with various literary institutions, manufactures, and 3,650 inhabitants. 
Pfeffikon, Wald, and Affoltern, extensive and highly industrious villages, with 
respectively 3,500, 5,000, and 1,900 inhabitants. Laufen, a village near 
Schafhausen, and on the Rhine, whose falls are here. Cappel, a village near 
the frontier of the canton of Zug, is noted for a battle, in which the Reformists 
of Zurich were defeated by the Swiss Catholics, and where Zwingli was killed. 
Kyburg, a town, situated south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Zurich, 
with an ancient mountain-castle, reared in 1079, and once the seat of renowned 
and powerful counts of Kyburg. Other towns in this canton are : Neumunster 
(with 4,400 inhabitants), Horgen (with 4,000 inhabitants), Buelach (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Meilen (with 5.100 inhabitants), Staefa (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
Eglisau (with 1,800 inhabitants), Andelfingen (with 2,900 inhabitants), Grue- 
ningen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Waedenschwyl, or Waedensweil (with 6,000 
inhabitants), Richtenschtoeil (with 2,800 inhabitants), Marthalen (with 1,450 
inhabitants), Ellg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Uster (with 2,200 inhabitants), and 
Gossan (with 3,600 inhabitants). Upper and Lower Stammheim are two 
towns, which together have a population of 2,500 inhabitants, and mineral 
baths. 



8 



FKANCE. 

Area : 204,825 square miles. 
Population : 35,401,000 inhabitants. 

France, lying on the south-west side of Germany, and on 
;he south separated from Spain by the Pyrenees, touches the 
yforth Sea only with a small part of its northern extremity, is 
separated from the British Islands by the Strait of Dover and 
the English Channel, and is bounded on the west by the Atlantic 
Ocean and the Bay of Biscay, and on the south by the Mediter- 
ranean Sea and the Gulf of Lyons. (See Introduction, or General 
V^iew of Europe, § 8.) 

In France, every fifth year a census is taken ; and the above- 
stated population is according to the last one, of the year 1846 ; 
and the number of inhabitants was then exactly 35,400,486. 
According to the census of 1841 the population was 34,173,234, 
and according to that of 1836 it was 33,540,910 inhabitants. 
Thus in the period from 1836 to 1841, the population had 
increased by 632,324, and in the period from 1841 to 1846 by 
1,227,252 inhabitants. In the year 1700 (when Corsica and 
Lorraine were not yet annexed to France) the population amounted 
to 19,669,320 inhabitants, and in 1773 to 23,531,000 inhabitants. 

The great mass of the people consists of French, belonging to 
the great family of the Romanians (see General View of Europe, 
^ 12). The number of Germans (chiefly in Alsace and Lorraine) 
is about 1,500.000; and in French Flanders live about 180,000 
Flemings (see Introduction, § 12). In the French province of 



FRANCE. 171 



Geographical Features. 



Brittany are nearly 1,200,000 Breyzards, or descendants of the 
ancient Britons, who settled here in the 5th century (see History 
of Europe, § 4), and in Gascogne about 150,000 Basques. (See 
General View of Europe, § 12). Near the Pyrenees are to be 
found Gypsies, perhaps 9,000 in number. 

There is no established religion in France, all denominations 
being equal in the eye of the law ; but the great mass of the 
people are Roman Catholics (under the church-authority of 14 
archbishops and 66 bishops) ; while only about 4,000,000 are 
Protestants (nearly 3,000,000 Reformists, and about 1,000,000 
Lutherans). There are nearly 4.000 convents with 24,000 
religious, of whom, however, 18,000 are sisters, or nuns, who have 
devoted themselves to the attendance and care of the sick and 
to the education of children. 

The face of the country is mountainous in the south and east, 
level in the north, and diversified in the centre. For the moun- 
tain ranges which, beside parts .of the Pyrenees. Alps, and Jura, 
belong to France, see General View of Europe, § 7, h. 

The 4 principal rivers of France: Seine, Loire, Garonne, and 
Rhone, are together with their chief tributaries, and with the 
other rivers, as: Var, Herault, Aude, Somme, etc., described in 
General View of Europe, § 10. The principal canals in France 
are the following : the canal of Languedoc, connecting the Garonne 
with the Mediterranean Sea ; the canal of the centre, connecting 
the Loire with the Saone ; the Rhine-canal, connecting the Rhine 
with the Saone, and the canal of Burgundy, connecting the Seine 
with the Rhone. It may be mentioned here, that at the present 
time rail-roads are crossing many parts of France. The most im- 
portant of them, are those which connect Havre de Grace with 
Paris, and this capital with Strasburg. 

The climate is in general temperate, France lying between the 
parallels of 42° and 50° N. lat. In the south, it is sometimes 



172 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



v 



Natural Products of Fiance. 



very hot ; but there, as well as in other parts of the country, it 
has sometimes also been very cold, especially in 1608, in the 
beginning of last century, and in 1776. 

The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, yet there are also many 
barren and desert tracts, together amounting to 7,799,672 hec- 
tares, or 30,279 square miles (nearly one seventh of the total 
area of France). Of the arable land, about 14,000,000 hec- 
tares (or 54,346 square miles) are appropriated to grain-raising; 
and in 1843 there were 5,338,043 hectares (257£ hectares are 
nearly equal to one English square mile) cultivated with wheat, 
2,638,948 with rye, 1,300,186 with barley, 2,840,360 with oats, 
700,890 with buckwheat, and 595.227 with maize and millet. Upon 
an average, the annual produce is about 333,000,000 bushels of 
grain, 128,000,000 of which consist of wheat. (Beside which, 
the annual harvest of potatoes may be computed at 170,000,000 
bushels.) All the grain raised in the country is at times not 
sufficient for home consumption, and in the period from 1815 to 
1841, grain has been imported from foreign countries to the 
amount of 464,000.000 francs in value. The agriculture in France 
is generally in a backward state, or at least inferior to that of 
England, Belgium, and Germany. Of far greater importance 
is the vine culture, to which purpose 2,134,822 hectares were 
appropriated in 1843. At all events, France ranks first among 
the wine countries in the world, and its annual produce in wines 
may on an average be estimated at 720 million gallons (next to 
France, follows the Austrian empire, inclusive Hungary, with an 
annual produce of about 603 million gallons ; then Spain, with 
about 153 million, and then Germany, with about 81 million 
gallons). Other productions of the vegetable kingdom are prin- 
cipally : madder (in the environs of Avignon, and other parts of 
Provence, and in Languedoc), fruits (apples in Normandy and 
Brittany, plums in Gascony), sugar beets (of which at least 22 



FRANCE. m 



Forests — Rearing of Cattle — Mineral Products. 



million pounds of sugar are made annually), olives (renowned is 
the olive-oil from Provence), tobacco (cultivated only in Brittany, 
Gascony, French Flanders, and Alsace, the tobacco trade being 
a monopoly of the government), capers, almonds, and truffles 
(renowned are the truffles of Perigord). Before the revolution 
of 1789, France had extensive and valuable forests, but they have 
since been thinned so extravagantly that in 1843 no more than 
7,422,315 hectares, or only about the seventh part of the total 
area of France, were still woodland, of which moreover only the 
14th part consisted of forests of tall trees. 

The rearing of cattle is in France, even more than agriculture, 
in a backward state, and in 1843 the total number was only 
9,130,632, whereas for instance Austria numbered in the same 
year 11,389,001 heads of black cattle. The best breed is that of 
Normandy and Auvergne. For the home consumption, the cattle 
reared in France are not found sufficient. The number of horses 
throughout the country is estimated at 2\ million ; the finest 
breed is to be found in Normandy and Limousin, but even these 
horses are inferior to those of Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, and 
other parts of Grermany, from which countries numerous horses 
are annually imported to remount the French cavalry. In Poi- 
tou and Auvergne are reared fine mules. The numbers of sheep 
(the finest breed is in Berry) amounted in 1843 to 29,130,231 
(in the same year in Austria there were numbered 31,809.481 
sheep). Of goats, the fine breed from Angora and Thibet, intro- 
duced into France since 1819, thrives well in the southern prov- 
inces. In these provinces the rearing of silk-worms is also very 
important. 

Of mineral products, France has only iron and coalin somewhat 
considerable quantities. Most of the iron mines are in Cham- 
pagne, Burgundy, Franche-Comte, Lorraine, Nivernais, Lyonnais, 
and Berry, and in 1842 the total produce was 6.954,100 



114 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Manufactures and Commerce of France. 



metric quintals of iron of various descriptions. The total pro- 
duce of coal amounted in the same year to 35,920,843 metric 
quintals, but being not sufficient for home consumption, nearly 
17 million quintals had to be imported from Belgium and 
England. Of precious metals, only silver is obtained in Dau- 
phiny ; and the annual produce of copper (chiefly found in 
Navarre and Beam, Dauphiny, Lyonnais, and Lower Alsace) may 
be estimated at 3,000 quintals. Salt is made in rather large 
quantities by evaporation of sea-water at Cette and other mari- 
time towns. France abounds in warm springs and mineral waters, 
on account of which especially Bagneres and Bareges (in the 
Pyrenees), Bourbon l'Archambault and Vichy (in Bourbonnais), 
etc., are much visited. 

The manufactures are various and numerous, and the value of 
the annually manufactured goods (cotton, woollen, silk, and fancy 
goods, hard-ware, jewelr}^, perfumes, paper, etc.) is estimated at 
$400,000,000 to $500,000,000. Many of the French shawls rival, 
if not in fineness and softness, at least in the elegance of pat- 
tern, those of Cashemere. The French paper is almost unrival- 
led ; and in some respects the same may be said of French cloth. 

Next to Great Britain, France ranks first as a commercial state, 
and its exports and imports for the year 1843 were in value 
2,179,000,000 francs (about $436,000,000), the exports being in 
value 992,000,000 francs (or about $198,500,000), and the im- 
ports in value 1,187,000,000 francs (or about $237,500,000). 
(In 1840 the total value of the exports and imports of the Uni- 
ted States was about $214,500,000, but with the difference that 
here the exports exceeded the imports by nearly $20,000,000, 
while in France the imports were by 195,000,000 francs, or nearly 
$39,000,000 more in value than the exports. Moreover, the 
commerce of France does not extend to all parts of the world, 
like that of the United States ; as for instance, its intercourse 



FRANCE. i>75 



Ed ucation— Universities. 



with China and India is comparatively very insignificant.) The 
French exports are chiefly silks, cottons, woollens, wine, brandy, 
madder, paper and paper-hangings, looking-glasses and plate-glass, 
laces, and fancy articles of all kinds, olive-oil, fruits, etc. The 
chief imports are cotton, raw silk, wool, grain, sugar, coal, timber, 
furs and hides, iron, and indigo. 

Of the means of education in France it may be said, that there 
is much ado about nothing. All schools (with the exception of 
military, mining, and other similar academies) are under the spe- 
cial direction of a supreme board at Paris, styled the university, 
which however has nothing to do with teaching or instructing 
like other institutions bearing this name. It is a characteristic 
evidence of the system of centralization prevailing in France, 
that just as 27 tribunals are subjected to the control of the court 
of cassation (or supreme court), so 27 academies (as they are 
styled) are subjected to the control of the university ; while all 
common and other inferior schools are again subjected to these 
academies. France has no universities like those of Germany, 
etc.. that is with all 4 faculties united (see the explanatory note, 
page 95), but the faculties are separated, though they have re- 
tained that name. The university of Paris, so renowned in the 
middle ages (see History of Europe, § 17,/), is still extant, and 
was in 1841 frequented by about 7,000 students, but it con- 
sists at present of three faculties (of theology, of jurisprudence, 
and of medicine), separated from each other. It is the same 
with that of Toulouse (founded in 1233, and in 1841 with 1,250 
students), and of Strasburg (founded in 1638, and 880 students 
in the last-named year). The former universities of Lyons 
(founded in 1300), ^li:r (founded in 1409), Bordeaux (founded in 
1447), and Rouen (founded in 1800) are now reduced to faculties 
of catholic theology (only in Aix is also a faculty of jurispru- 
dence) ; — those of Caen (founded in 1433), Dijon (founded in 



116 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Education in France — Form of Government. 



1722), Poitiers (founded in 1411), and Rennes (founded in 1801), 
to faculties of jurisprudence ; — that of Montpellier (founded in 
1289), to a faculty of medicine ; that of Montauban (founded in 
1800), to a protestant theological faculty; and that of Besancon 
(founded in 1564), to a faculty of philosophy. Moreover, there 
are faculties of science and literature (as they are styled) in Paris, 
Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Montpellier, Strasburg, and Toulouse. 
With regard to secondary schools, there are 358 public colleges 
(numbering 57,278 pupils in 1844), 1,100 pr.vate schools (with 
35,000), and 120 clerical schools (with 20.000 pupils). The 
•primary schools throughout France were in 1840 frequented by 
2,881,679 children. (The common schools of Germany are an- 
nually frequented by more than 6 million children.) In 1837 
there were 7,682, and in 1840 still 4,196 French communities 
vnthout schools at all (in Germany even not the smallest parish is 
without a school), and according to the statement of a credible 
French statistician (Legoyt, in his " France statistique"), out of 
every one thousand French 405 (upon an average) can neither 
readnor write. In 1843 there were out of 50,352 schoolmasters, 
not less than 23,048 who had only an annual salary of 200 francs 
(or little more than $40) each, while that of the remainder 
amounted to no more than 300 francs. Now the sum for the 
sustenance of a galley-slave in the bagnos of Toulon, Rochefort, 
and Lorient is fixed at 319 francs annually; thus the wants of 
culprits are indeed better provided for, than those of teachers in 
the public schools. 

The form of government is at present, i. e., since the year 
1848, republican ; the legislative power being vested in an As- 
sembly, or Congress, and the executive power in a President, 
chosen for 4 years. How long this form may last, nobody can 
at present say ; yet it is at all events a curious fact, that 
France has had not less than eight constitutions since its first 



FRANCE. 177 



Financial Particulars. 



revolution, viz. : in 1791 (limited monarchy), 1793 (republic, with 
terrorism), 1795 (republic with aristocratism), 1799 (republic 
with absolutism), 1804 (unlimited military monarchy), 1814 (lim- 
ited monarchy), 1830 (forms of limited monarchy with actual 
absolutism and money-aristocracy), and 1848 (republic with ten- 
dency to monarchical reaction). 

It is evident that under such circumstances the public finances 
of the country could not prosper. Shortly before the revolution 
of 1789 the public debt amounted to about 4,200 million livres, 
or francs; in 1838 it had increased to 4,590,876,111, and at 
present it amounts to more than five thousand million francs, not- 
withstanding the confiscation of several thousand millions of 
church, private, and other property, in the time of the first revo- 
lution. In 1787 the deficit in the public revenue and expenditure 
was 180 million livres, and in 1846 the deficit amounted to 
421,462,992 francs! In 1788 the ratio in tax-paying of the 
French people fell short of 22 livres per head, and in 1846 this 
ratio had increased to almost 79 francs. None of the French 
rulers since the first revolution has extorted more money from the 
people than Lov,is Philipe. In the year anterior to the revolution 
of 1830 the amount of the public expenditure was 977,935,329, 
and in the year posterior to this revolution it was 1,233,000,000 
francs; in 1832 it was still more, and so it increased in regular 
progression until in 1846 it had reached the height of 1,727,999,- 
673 francs! In 1829 the public revenue and expenditure had 
yielded a surplus of 1,180,382 francs, and every year posterior to 
the revolution of 1830 brought a deficit, which in 1843 amounted 
to 39,826,728 francs, in 1844 to about 157,750,000, in the follow- 
ing year to 350,000,000, and in 1846 to % 1,462,992 francs! 
We repeat, it was not the amount of the public debt, nor the 
public expenditure, but a real and plain deficit. Neither the public 
debt nor the expenditure were affected by such a trifle, the former 

8* 



178 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Finances, Army and Navy of France. 



requiring at the same period nearly 375 million francs for pay- 
ing interest, and the latter amounting (as has been stated above) 
to nearly 1,728 million francs. In short, at the beginning of the 
year 1846 the account stood exactly thus : 

Interest of the public debt, 374,845,536 francs. 

Other branches of the expenditure, 1,353,151, 137 

The deficit of the last year, - 421,462,992 " 

Arrears of the former deficits, 293,560,267 

Extraordinary loan contracted by the government, to 
make head against temporary embarrassments, and 

for which public forests were mortgaged, 350,000,000 " 

Total amount, 2,793,019,932 franos. 

Divide this enormous sum by the population of France, then 
amounting to about 35.400,000 inhabitants, and it will be found 
that each inhabitant had to contribute almost 79 francs. The 
revolution of 1848 has anew increased the public expenditure, 
and in 1849 a fresh loan of 200 million francs was required. 

The French army comprised in 1846, according to official 
statements, 340,000 men, and 81,669 horses ; and the navy con- 
sisted in 1845 of 23 ships of the line, 30 frigates, 22 sloops of 
war, 154 other vessels, 4 steam frigates, and 41 other steam 
vessels, all in active service ; while 23 ships of the line, 20 frigates, 
3 sloops of war, and 2 schooners, were in the navy yards, and 4 
steam frigates, and 18 other steam vessels, still on the stocks. 

The monarchy having been again abolished, honorary orders 
are of course out of question, at least for the present ; the more 
so as since the revolution of 1830 only the order of the legion of 
honor (instituted in 1802 by Bonaparte) was retained and distrib- 
uted by Louis Philipe in such an immense number (more than 
50,000), that it was almost degraded to disdain. The former 



FRANCE. 179 

History— The Capet Dynasty. 



orders of honor, distributed before the revolution of 1789, and in 
the period from 1814 to 1830, were the following: — 1. The order 
of the Holy Ghost, instituted by King Henry III., in 1 579. 2. The 
order of St. Louis (instituted by Louis XIV., in 1693, for Catholic 
officers of the army and navy). 3. The older of St. Michael 
(instituted by Louis XL, in 1469, and renewed in 1665). 4. The 
order of Military Merit (instituted by Louis XV., in 1759, for 
protestant officers). 

History. — The aborigines of the country were the Iberians, and subsequently 
the Celts (see Introduction, or General View of Europe, § 12), by the Romans 
called Gauls. The country itself was then, and until the 5th century, only 
known by the name of Gaul. In the period from the year 124 to 50 B. C, 
the Romans subjected the whole country. The changes brought on since the 
beginning of the 5th century, by German tribes, especially by the Franks, 
have been related in the History of Europe (§§ 3, 8, and 14), where we have 
learned that by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843, Charles the Bald 
acquired France. He died in 87*7, and his descendants and successors being 
weak kings, the race of the French Carlovingians was towards the end of the 
10th century excluded from the throne, upon which in 987 the mighty duke of 
Francia (subsequently called Isle de France, and comprising the city of Paris), 
Hugh Capet, was raised to it by the French barons, or vassals of the crown. 
With him, the reign of the Capetingians commenced (Louis Philipe, as well 
as other members of the House of Bourbon, are descendants of Hugh Capet). 
Hugh Capet, or as King, Hugh I, died in 996, and was succeeded by his son 
Robert I (996-1031); then followed in succession: Henry I. (1031-1060), 
Philip I. (1060-1108), Louis VI (1108-1137), Louis VII. (1137-1180). The 
last-named king was succeeded by Philip II, surnamed Augustus, who reigned 
from the year 1180 to 1223, and in this period the wars between France and 
England commenced. King Henry II., of England, being at the same time 
duke of Anjou and Normandy by birth, acquired moreover, by marriage and 
inheritance, Brittany, Guyenne, Poitou, etc., and became thus possessed of nearly 
the whole western half of France. The French king refusing to acknowledge 
the claims of Henry II., the wars commenced, and lasted, though with many 
intervals, two centuries and a half, without a final success on the part of the 
English. The successors of Philip II. were the following: Louis VIII 



180 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

House of Bourbon — First French Revolution — Napoleon. 

(1223-1226), Louis IX, surnamed the Holy (1226-1210), Philip III (1270- 
1285), Philip IV, surnamed the Fair (1285-1314), and in the short period 
from 1314 to 1328, Philip the Fair's sons Louis X, Philip V, and Charles IV. 
With the last-named king, the chief line of the Capetingians became extinct, 
and now the collateral line of the House of Valois ascended the throne in the 
person of Philip VI (great-grandson of King Louis IX., and reigning from 
1328 to 1350). His successors (belonging, like him, to the House of Valois) 
were the following: John, surnamed the Good (1350-1364), Charles V, sur- 
named the Wise (1364-1380), Charles VI (1380-1422), Charles VII (1422- 
1461 ; at this time lived the famous Maid of Orleans, named Joan of Arc), 
Louis XI (1461-1483), Charles VIII (1483-1498), Louis XII (1498-1515), 
Francis I (1515-1547), Henry II (1547-1559), Francis II (1559-1560), 
Charles IX. (1560-1574; during his reign, in 1572, the horrible murder of 
French Protestants, in the night of Saint Bartholomew's day, occurred), and 
Henry III (1574-1589). With Henry III., who was murdered by a monk, 
the House of Valois became extinct, and now the House of Bourbon ascended 
the throne. The first king from this house (whose ancestor was Robert of 
Clermont, second son of King Louis IX.) was Henry IV. (1589-1610), whose 
father, Anton of Bourbon, was married to Johanna, heiress of Navarre, from 
which cause, Henry became possessed of this kingdom (i. e., its part lying on 
the north side of the Pyrenees) too, and bequeathed it to his descendants and 
successors on the French throne. Henry was murdered on the 14th of May, 
1610, by Ravaillac, and was succeeded by his son Louis XIII. (1610-1643). 
The following kings were: Louis XIV. (1643-1715), Louis XV. (his great- 
grandson, 1715-1774), and Louis XVI (grandson of Louis XV.), who 
ascended the throne in 1774, and was a good-natured and honest man, but 
not at all qualified for a ruler. Being of an extremely weak and yielding 
temper, he made one concession after the other to the leaders of the first 
French revolution (see History of Europe, § 18), and this was the surest way, 
first to be deprived of his royal prerogatives (on the 3d of September, 1791), 
and then of his life on the scaffold (on the 21st of January, 1793). The reign 
of terror lasted for more than a whole year, viz.: from the 24th of July, 1793, 
to the 28th of July, 1794, and that of the so-called Directory (government of 
five members) from the 26th of October, 1795, to the 10th of November, 
1799, when Bonaparte attained the power, first as Consul, and in 1804 as 
Emperor, by the name of Napoleon. In 1814, he was compelled by the other 
European powers to surrender the imperial crown of France, in exchange for 



FRANCE. 181 



Second and Third Revolution — Departments and Provinces. 

the sovereignty of the little island of Elba (see page 126), the Bourbons returned 
to France, and Louis XVIII. was established on the French throne. In March, 
1815, Napoleon suddenly landed on the French coast, and in a few days his 
banner again waved triumphant over all France, but in the battle of Waterloo, 
on the 18th of June, 1815, he was utterly overthrown, and the Bourbons returned 
for a second time. Louis XVIII. died on the 16th of September, 1824, and was 
succeeded by his brother Charles X. By the revolution of 1830, the Bourbons 
were banished anew from the French territory, with the exception of the 
duke of Orleans (a descendant of Philip of Orleans, brother of Louis XIV.), 
who by the name of Louis Philip was proclaimed king of the French, but 
experiened at last the very same fate which he had prepared to his cousin 
and antecessor, eighteen years before. By the revolution of February, 1848, 
he was compelled to make his escape to England, and the French citizen- 
kinghood was transformed into a republic. 

Before the first French revolution France was divided into as 
many •provinces (32 great, and 8 smaller ones, which latter were, 
except Corsica, inclosed by the former), as there had been baro- 
nages, or duchies and counties, in the middle ages. In 1790 this 
arrangement was abolished, and the country divided into 86 (at 
first into 83) departments, and their names derived chiefly from 
the rivers, mountains, and other natural objects within their 
limits. The departments are subdivided into districts (363 in all), 
the latter into cantons (2,846), and the cantons again into commu- 
nities (37,295 in all). Each department is governed by a prefect, 
each district by an under-prefect, and each canton and commu- 
nity by a mayor. But as the names of the provinces have all 
since continued to be used in common life, and as they moreover 
continually occur in history and other reading, we have retained 
them in the following description, and combined them at the 
same time with the departmental division, in a manner that it 
easily can be found out which and how many departments each 
province comprises. The chief towns of departments are marked 
by a cross (+). 



182 EUROPE, PAST AND. PRESENT. 

The French Province of Isle de France. 

I. Isle de France. — This province, once called Francia (see History of 
France), and subsequently Isle de France, or Island of France, on account of 
its insular situation amidst the rivers of Seine, Marne, Oise, etc., comprises 5 
departments, viz. : the Aisne Department (part of which belongs to Picardy ; 
its chief town is Laon),the Oise Department (chief town Beauvais), the Seine 
and Oise Department (chief town Versailles), the Seine Department (with 
Paris), and the Seine and Marne Department (chief town Melun). 1. The 
Seine Department contains: -}~P ARIS . tne capital of all France, on the Seine, 
165 miles south-south-west of Brussels, with a population of 1,053,907 inhab- 
itants, according to the census of 1846. It embraces (beside 14 suburbs) 
three parts, called ville, cite, and university. The ville is situated on the 
north side of the Seine, the cite (city proper) on the islands of the river, and 
the university on the south side of the Seine. Paris is next to London the 
first city in Europe for size ; and its numerous public buildings and palaces 
generally excel those of the British capital. It contains about 30,000 houses 
(many of which are eight stories high), 1,150 streets, 75 public places (among 
which are, the place of Vendome with the statue of Napoleon on a column 133 
feet high ; the place of Concord, formerly called place of Louis XV., where 
Louis XVI. was executed, and which is at present adorned by an obelisk 
from Luxor, and the place of Victory, with an equestrian statue of Louis 
XIV.), 22 bridges (among which the Pont Neuf, 1,020 feet long and 72 feet 
wide, with an equestrian statue of Henry IV.), 41 churches (the most remark- 
able of which is the Gothic cathedral of Notre Dame), 25 hospitals, 84 bar- 
racks, 24 theatres, and 8 former royal palaces. The most prominent among 
these palaces are the Tuileries (reared in 1564 and the following years by 
Queen Catharine of Medici), connected by side-wings with the Louvre (founded 
in 1528 by Francis 1.), and the Palais Royal (reared by the cardinal Riche- 
lieu in the years 1629-1636, presented by him to Louis XIII., and subse- 
quently by Louis XIV. to his brother Philip of Orleans, who bequeathed it 
to his descendants). Other remarkable public buildings are : the palace of 
Luxembourg (founded in 1612 by Queen Mary of Medici, widow of Henry IV.), 
the Hotel of Invalids (since 1840 containing the mortal remains of Napoleon), 
the palace of Justice (reared in the 9 th century, and until 1431 the royal 
residence), the Hotel Dieu, the Salpetriere (containing 4,000 tenants), etc. 
The most remarkable of the public gardens is the Jardin des plantes, or 
botanic garden, with 7,000 exotic plants and a menagery. Paris is also noted 
for the value of its public libraries (43 in all, and the principal public library 



FRANCE. 183 



The Province of Isle de Fiance. 



contains 700,000 volumes, and 10,000 manuscripts), collections of pictures, etc., 
and literary institutions ; and moreover for its numerous and various manu- 
factures. Its inland trade is very important. Paris was founded already 
before the Christian era, but then known only by the name of Lutetia ; it 
was burnt down by the Parisians, a Celtic tribe, but built up again by the 
Romans, and since that time the name of Paris came into use. The kings of 
the race of the Merovingians and Carlovingians resided here only at times, 
but the Capetingians permanently, except in the period from 1672 to 1190, 
during which the kings of France resided at Versailles. Louis Philipe used to 
reside during the summer season in his palace at Neuilly, a town with 3,000 
inhabitants. St. Denis, a town near the right bank of the Seine, with 9,500 
inhabitants, and a formerly renowned Benedictine abbey (founded in the year 
600 by King Clotar II.), in whose magnificent church is the sepulchre of the 
royal family of France, the mortal remains of 26 kings of France, 16 queens, 
and 83 princes and princesses having been deposited there. Other towns of 
this department are : Passy (with 3,100 inhabitants), Vincennes (with 5,000 in- 
habitants, and a renowned castle, reared in 1337 by Philip of Valois), Cha- 
reuton (near the junction of the Marne with the Seine, with a mad-house, 
and 1,500 inhabitants), Sceaux (with important cattle fairs, and 1,800 inhabi- 
tants), and Bourg la Reine (with a manufactory of porcelain). 2. The Seine 
and Oise Department contains : -{-Versailles, chief town, 9 miles west-south- 
west of Versailles, with 30,000 (before the revolution of 1789 with nearly 
100,000) inhabitants, and a vast palace (1,800 feet long), reared by Louis 
XIV., and the splendid royal residence in the period 1672-1790, with a 
highly remarkable park and water-works. About 4 miles distant from here 
is Marly, a town on the Seine, with 1,500 inhabitants, and a former royal 
palace. Within the limits of the park of Versailles is situated St. Cyr, 
formerly a convent of Austin nuns, instituted in 1686 by Madame de Mainte- 
non (married to Louis XIV. with the left hand), at present a military acad- 
emy. Not far from here are the former royal palaces of Great and Little 
Trianon. St. Germain, surnamed en Laye, a town on the left bank of the 
Seine, opposite St. Denys, with 11,000 inhabitants, and a great former royal 
palace, reared by King Francis I., and in which Henry II., Charles IX., and 
Louis XIV. were born, and where James II. of England lived until his 
death. St. Cloud, a town on the Seine, opposite the Bois de Boulogne 
(which is connected with the garden of the Tuileries at Paris), with 3,000 
inhabitants, and a former royal palace, in which Henry III. was murdered. 



184 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Province of Isle de France. 

Not far from here are Sevres (a town with 4,000 inhabitants, and a celebrated 
manufactory of porcelain), and Malmaison, once the favorite palace of Napo- 
leon, where his consort Josephine died in 1814. Montmorency, a town in 
the romantic valley of the same name, with 1,900 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this department are : Rueil (with 3,000 inhabitants, and a palace, once the 
frequent abode of the cardinal Richelieu), Rambouillet (with 3,200 inhabitants, 
and a palace, where Francis I, died in 1547), Pontoise (with 5,800 inhabi- 
tants), JEcouen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Argenteuil (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
Corbeil (with 3,900 inhabitants), Mantes (with 4,400 inhabitants), Etampes 
(with 8,500 inhabitants), Meudon (with 3,000 inhabitants), Poissy (with im- 
portant cattle fairs, and 3,000 inhabitants), and Mereville (with the most 
considerable fairs of the Department). 3. The Seine and Marne Department 
contains: -j-Melun, chief town, on the Seine, south-eastward and 28 miles 
distant from Paris, with a remarkable church, and 7,000 inhabitants. Fon- 
tainebleau, a town on the Seine and in an extensive and beautiful forrest, 
37 miles south-south-east of Paris, with 8,800 inhabitants, and a celebrated 
vast palace, the frequent seat of the last members of the House of Valois, 
and where in 1657 Monaldeschi, equerry of the Swedish queen Christiana, 
was murdered by her command. Other towns of this department are: 
Nemours (with 4,000 inhabitants), Nangis (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Brie 
sur Yeres, or Brie Comte Robert (with 3,000 inhabitants). These three last- 
named towns belong to the ancient district of la Brie francoise (la Brie cham- 
penoise is within the limits of Champagne, and comprises the towns of 
Meaux, Provins, Coulommiers, and La Ferte sous Jouarre, which in adminis- 
trative regard belong to the Seine and Marne Department). 4. The Oise 
Department contains : -j-Beauvais, chief town on the Therain, eastward and 
46 miles distant from Rouen, and 46 miles north-north-west of Paris, with a 
remarkable Gothic cathedral, important manufactures of carpets, cloth, etc., 
and 14,000 inhabitants. Compiegne, a town on the Oise, 46 miles north-north- 
east of Paris, with an ancient palace (where in former times the royal court 
used to reside in the summer season), several Gothic churches, and 9,500 in- 
habitants. Clermont, surnamed en Beauvaisis (at present also called Cler- 
mont- Oise), a town eastward and 13 miles distant from Beauvais, with numer- 
ous manufactures, and 2,000 inhabitants. Salency, a village on the Oise, 
noted for its feast of roses, celebrated annually on the 8th of June, and insti- 
tuted in the 5 th century by the holy Medardus. Crepy, or Crespy en Valois 
a town southward and 1 3 miles distant from Compiegne, with 2,300 inhabi- 



FRANCE. 185 



The Provinces of Isle de France and Normandy. 



tants, is noted for a treaty of peace, concluded here on the 18th of Septem- 
ber, 1544, between Francis I. and the emperor Charles V. Other towns of 
this department are : Senlis (with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, whose steeple 
is one of the highest in France, and 5,500 inhabitants), ChantiUy (with 2,000 
inhabitants, important manufactures of laces, etc., and the remains of a once 
renowned palace of the princes of Conde), and Creil (with 2,000 inhabitants). 
5. The Aisne Department contains : -(-Laon, chief town, on a hill and surrounded 
by fortifications, north-eastward and 74 miles distant from Paris, with a vast 
and remarkable cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants. Soissons, a town on the 
Aisne, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Paris, with a remarkable ca- 
thedral, and 8,500 inhabitants, is noted for a battle in 486, in which King Clovis 
I. defeated Syagrius, the last Roman governor in France. Other towns of this 
department are : Chauny (with 4,000 inhabitants), La Ferte Milon (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Craonne (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Crespy en Ldonais (north- 
eastward and 36 miles distant from Crespy en Valois, with 1,400 inhabitants). 
Premontre, formerly the chief convent of the Premonstrants. Of the other 
towns, belonging to this department, those of St. Quentin, La Fere, Vervins, 
St. Gobin, and Aubenton, are situated within the limits of Picardy, and Cha- 
teau Thierry within the limits of Champagne. On the other hand the 
following towns of the Eure and Loir Department (see Orleanais) are situated 
within the limits of Isle de France : Dreux, a town on the Blaise, westward 
and 32 miles distant from Versailles, with 7,000 inhabitants, is noted for a 
battle in 1562 between the Catholics and Protestants, in which the prince of 
Conde was taken prisoner. Anet, a town with 1,800 inhabitants, and a 
palace reared by King Henry II., and inhabited by his mistress, Diana of 
Poitiers. 

II. Normandy. — This province, between Paris and the English Channel, and 
crossed by the Seine, was in 911 given to the Normans in feoffment (see 
History of Europe, § 15), and reunited with the French crown by King 
Charles VII. It comprises 5 departments, viz. : the Lower Seine Department 
(chief town, Rouen), the Eure Department (chief town, Evreux), the Calvados 
Department (chief town, Caen), the Orne Department (chief town, Alencon), 
and the Manche Department (chief town, St. Lo). 6. The Lower Seine 
Department contains : -\- Rouen, ancient capital of Normandy, on the Seine, 
north-westward and 69 miles distant from Paris, and southward and 115 miles 
distant from Calais, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral (where many of the 
dukes of Normandy are buried), very considerable commerce, numerous and 



186 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Province of Normandy. 

important manufactures of cotton, etc., and 100,000 inhabitants. Noted for 
their manufactures are also the neighboring towns of Bolbec (with 9,000 inhab- 
itants), Caudebec (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Lillebonne (with 2,100 inhab- 
itants). Elbeuf, a town in the vicinity of Rouen, with 11,000 inhabitants, is 
one of the principal seats of cloth manufactures. Havre (surnamed de Grace, 
but by the French commonly called Le Havre), a fortified commercial city at 
the mouth of the Seine, may be considered as the port of Paris, is the chief 
seat of the commerce with America, and has 30,000 inhabitants. Dieppe, a 
maritime town on the English Channel, 82 miles south-south-west of Calais, is 
renowned for its sea-baths, and has 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
department are : Neufchatel (with 3,800 inhabitants), Goumay (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Fecamp (with 9,000 inhabitants), St. Valery, surnamed en Gaux 
(with 5,500 inhabitants), Ailly (with 1,800 inhabitants),^ (with 4,000 inhab- 
itants, and a former royal palace), Treport (with 2,500 inhabitants), Aumale 
(with 2,260 inhabitants, and mineral springs), Yvetot (with renowned linen 
manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants), Harfleur (with 2,300 inhabitants), and 
Montivilliers (with 4,000 inhabitants). 7. The Eure Department contains : 
-j- Evreux, chief town on the Iton, southward and 27 miles distant from 
Rouen, with a beautiful Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 252 feet in height), 
and 13,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the palace of Navarre, 
reared in 1686 by a duke of Bouillon, and inhabited by the Empress Josephine 
in the period from 1810 to 1813. Louviers, a town on the Eure, and one of 
the principal seats of cloth manufactures, with a magnificent cathedral, and 
11,000 inhabitants. Quilleboeuf, a maritime town on the left bank of the 
Seine, opposite to Havre, is to be considered as the port of Rouen, and has 
1,500 inhabitants. Ivry, a town on the Eure, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted 
for the victory Henry IV. obtained over the Liguists, or Catholics, on the 14th 
of March, 1590. Other towns of this department are: Conches (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Rugles (with 2,000 inhabitants), Vemeuil (with renowned pot- 
teries, and 4,600 inhabitants), Vernon (with 7,000 inhabitants), Les Andelys 
(with 5,500 inhabitants), Pont Audeiner (with 5,8C0 inhabitants), and Bemay 
(with important horse-marts, and 8,000 inhabitants). 8. The Calvados Depart- 
ment contains : -f- Caen, chief town near the mouth of the Orne, with lace 
manufactures, a church containing the mortal remains of William the Con- 
queror, and 43,000 inhabitants. Courseule, a village on the English Channel, 
is noted for its oysters, of which about 1,000,000 are sent every week to Paris. 
Jlonfieur, a maritime town on the south side of the mouth of the Seine, oppo- 



FRANCE. 18*7 



Tlie Provinces of Normandy and Picardy. 



site to Harfleur and Havre, with 11,000 inhabitants, many of whom are 
engaged in whale and cod-fishery. Other towns of this department are: 
Pont VEveque (with 2,300 inhabitants), Vire (with 8,500 inhabitants), Conde 
sur Noireau (with 6,000 inhabitants), Bayeux (with a remarkable cathedral, 
and 11,000 inhabitants), Isigny (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lisieux (with impor- 
tant linen and cloth manufactures, and 12,500 inhabitants), and Falaise (with 
10,000 inhabitants, renowned dyeries and hosieries, the remains of an ancient 
castle where William the Conqueror was born in 1027, and celebrated fairs in 
its suburb Guibray), 9. The Manche Department contains : St. L6, chief 
town on the Vire, westward and 32 miles distant from Caen, with important 
manufactures of coarse woollens, two beautiful and remarkable churches, and 
9,500 inhabitants. Cherbourg, a fortified maritime town and naval depot on 
the English Channel, is famous for its breakwater and docks, and has a popu- 
lation of 20,500 inhabitants. On the 18th of August, 1830, Charles X. em- 
barked here with his family for England. Westward and 23 miles distant 
from here is Cape La Hogue, noted for the naval battle in 1692, between the 
French and British. Mont St. Michel, a strongly fortified town on a promon- 
tory, which twice daily is separated from the continent by the tide, with a 
castle, where state-prisoners are confined, and with Gothic chapels belonging 
to a Benedictine abbey, instituted in 966. Other towns of this department 
are : Coutances (with one of the finest cathedrals in France, and 9,500 inhab- 
itants), Valogne (with 1,000 inhabitants), Mortain (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Granville (with 8,500 inhabitants), Avranches (with 8,000 inhabitants), and 
Villedieu les Poeles (with 3,000 inhabitants). 10. The Orne Department 
contains : -f- Alen^on, chief town on the Sarthe, 110 miles west-south-west of 
Paris, with various manufactures, and 15,000 inhabitants. The manufacturing 
of lace, straw hats, and crystal wares, for which Alencon formerly was 
renowned, are at present almost left off. Other towns of this department are : 
Seez (with a beautiful cathedral, and 5,800 inhabitants), Argentan (with 6,500 
inhabitants), Vimoutiers (chief seat of linen manufactures, with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), L'Aigle (with needle manufactures, and 6,000 inhabitants), Tinchebray 
with 3,500 inhabitants), and Domfront (with 2,600 inhabitants). The towns 
of Mortagne, La Trappe, etc., belonging to this department, are situated within 
the limits of Perche (see province XVIIL). 

III. Picardy. — This province, on the north side of Normandy and Isle de 
France, and bordering upon the English Channel between Dieppe and Calais, 
was since the year 823 ruled by mighty counts, who, however, continued to 



188 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Province of Picardy. 

be more or less dependent on the French crown. Out of its chief territory- 
has been formed the Somme Department, yet being of far greater extent, the 
province of Picardy comprises also parts of the Pas de Calais and Aisne 
Departments. 11. The Somme Department contains : -j- Amiens, the fortified 
ancient capital of Picardy, on the Somme, northward and 73 miles distant 
from Paris, with a cathedral considered as a masterpiece of Gothic architec- 
ture, important manufactures of velvet, carpets, etc., considerable inland trade, 
and 48,000 inhabitants. Treaty of peace concluded here between France and 
Great Britain, on the 25th of March, 1802. Abbeville, a fortified town on 
the Somme, with velvet, cloth, and other manufactures, considerable trade, 
and 19,500 inhabitants. Peronne, a fortified town on the Somme, on the 
high road between Valenciennes and Paris, with a remarkable old castle (in 
which Charles the Simple was kept prisoner and died in 929, and where also 
Louis XL was confined for three days by Charles of Burgundy, in 1468), and 
4,200 inhabitants. Crecy, or Cressy, a town, with 1,600 inhabitants, is noted 
for the battle of the 26th of August, 1346, in which Philip of Valois was 
defeated by King Edward III. of England. Ham, a town on the Somme, with 
an ancient strong castle, whose walls are 36 feet thick, and where, among 
other state-prisoners, Polignac and his fellow-ministers, Louis Napoleon Bona- 
parte., etc., were confined. Other towns of this department are : Conti (from 
which Bourbon princes of a collateral fine derived their title), Doullens (with 
4,000 inhabitants), St. Valery (north-eastward and 42 miles distant from St. 
Valery en Caux, with 3,500 inhabitants, and a harbor where William the 
Conqueror embarked for England in 1066), Rue (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
Crotoy (with 1,000 inhabitants), Ault (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Montdidier 
(with 4,000 inhabitants). Of the towns belonging to the Aisne Department 
(see Isle de France) are situated within the limits of Picardy the following : 
St. Quentin, a fortified city on the Somme, eastward and 37 miles distant 
from Amiens, with important manufactures of laces, shawls, etc., and 20,000 
inhabitants. Battle in 1557 between the Spaniards and French. St. Gobain, 
a town, with 2,000 inhabitants, is renowned for its looking-glass manufactory 
which makes plate-glasses of more than 150 inches in height, and more than 
90 inches wide. La Fere, a fortified town on the Oise, with an artillery 
school, and 3,000 inhabitants. Vervins (noted for a treaty of peace concluded 
here in 1598, between France and Spain) and Aubenton, towns, with respect- 
ively 3,000 and 1,500 inhabitants. Of the towns belonging to the Pas de 
Calais Department (see Artois) are situated within the limits of Picardy the 



FRANCE. 189 

The Provinces of f'icardy, Artois, and Boulonnais. 

following : Calais, a fortified town on the Strait of Dover (here about 18 miles 
wide), with important cotton manufactures, sea-baths, and 12,000 inhabitants- 
A daily intercourse with Dover is kept up here by steam navigation. Edward 
III. of England conquered Calais in 1346, and the English since continued to 
be possessed of it until the year 1558, when the French wrested it from them 
again. Ardres, a fortified town in the midst of marshes, with 2,300 inhabi- 
tants. Near this town, Francis I. held an interview with Henry VIII. of 
England, in 1520. Montreuil and St. Pierre, towns, with respectively 4,100 
and 7,000 inhabitants. 

IV. Artois. — This province, comprising a tract of land between Amiens 
and Lille, once formed part of Flanders and Hainault, and was in 1180 
brought in dowry by Isabella of Hainault, to her consort King Philip II. of 
France. It comprises at present: 12. The Pas de Calais Department, which 
contains : -f- Arras, fortified ancient capital of Artois, on the Scarpe, north- 
eastward and 32 miles distant from Amiens, with a strong citadel, a remark- 
able Gothic cathedral, manufactures of lace, cotton goods, etc., and 24,500 
inhabitants. St. Omer, a fortified town on the Aa, south-eastward *and 23 
miles distant from Calais, with tobacco manufactories, and 20,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this department are : St. Pol (with 4.000 inhabitants), Bapauyne 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), Bethune (with 7,000 inhabitants), Aire (with 9,000 
inhabitants), Hesdin (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Lens (with 2,300 inhabitants). 
The village of Agincourt is noted for the victory King Henry V. of England 
obtained over the French, on the 25th of October, 1415. 

V. Boulonnais. — It is situated on the Strait of Dover, south of Calais, and 
once formed part of the ancient county of Flanders, until it was acquired by 
Louis XL, who then invested with it the church of Our Lady at Boulogne, 
but considering himself as a vassal of this church, he offered to his feigned 
lady paramount a golden heart, 6,000 livres in value, in acknowledgment of 
her right. This ceremony was kept on by his successors until the first French 
revolution. At present the former province of Boulonnais forms part of the 
Pas de Calais Department (see above), and contains : Boulogne, ancient 
capital of Boulonnais, and a fortified maritime town, on the Strait of Dover, 
or rather on the English Channel, 23 miles south-south-west of Calais, with 
frequented sea-baths, considerable fishery, and 26,500 inhabitants. Boulogne 
is the residence of many English families. Etaples, a maritime town on the 
English Channel, with 1,800 inhabitants, and a harbor, where Julius Caasar 
shall have embarked for Britannia in the years 55 and 54 B. C. At the little 



190 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



French Flanders. 



maritime town of Ambleteuse it was, where James II. landed, when he had 
made his escape from England. 

VI. French Flanders. — This province, also called the French Netherlands, 
because it comprises only former Netherlandish territories, viz. : a great part 
of the ancient county of Flanders, the so-called country of Cambresis, and 
parts of Hainault and Namur. At present it comprises the whole Nord 
Department, and a part of the Ardennes Department. 13. The Nord Depart- 
ment contains : -\- Lille (in Flemish, called Ryssel), formerly the capital of 
the province, on the Deule, northward and 138 miles distant from Paris, is 
one of the strongest fortresses of France, is noted for its manufactures of cloth, 
linen, etc., and for its trade in flowers, and has a population of 80,000 inhabi- 
tants. Not far from here is the village of Bouvines, or Bovines, noted for the 
victory Philip II. obtained over the Emperor Otho IV. and the count of 
Flanders, in 1214. Douai, a fortified town on the Scarpe, with one of the 
greatest arsenals in France, numerous manufactures, and 20,000 inhabitants. 
Gravel^ines (in Flemish, Gravelingen), a fortified town on the North Sea, with 
4,000 inhabitants. Commines, a town on the Lys, by which it is divided into 
two parts, the one belonging to France (and having 5,000 inhabitants), and 
the other to Belgium (see Commines, under the head of Belgish West 
Flanders). Other towns of this French part of Flanders are : Armentieres 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), Bergues (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mont-Cassel, or 
Cassel (with 4,400 inhabitants), Hazebrouk (with 8,000 inhabitants), Bailleul 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), Roubaix (with 16,000 inhabitants), Tourcoing (with 
18.000 inhabitants), St. Amand (with 9,500 inhabitants), and Mortagne (with 
4,000 inhabitants). In the former so-called country of Cambresis are situated : 
Cambrat (in Flemish, Cameryk), a fortified town on the Scheldt, southward 
and 32 miles distant from Lille, is noted for its cambric manufactures, and has 
32,000 inhabitants, and a cathedral with the sepulchre of the celebrated arch- 
bishop Fenelon. Chateau-Cambresis, formerly the capital of the country (or 
county) of Cambresis, south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Cambrai, is 
noted for its fine twisted thread for bone-lace, and has 5,000 inhabitants. 
Crevecoeur, a town on the Scheldt, with 1,800 inhabitants. The French part 
of Hainault contains : Valenciennes, a strongly fortified town on the Scheldt, 
32 miles south-south-east of Lille, and south-westward and 55 miles distant 
from Brussels, with renowned lace manufactures, and 21,000 inhabitants. The 
neighboring village of Anzin is noted for its coal-pits, worked by 16,000 men. 
Conde, a fortified town on the Scheldt, with 8,000 inhabitants. Bouchain 



FRANCE. i9i 



French Flanders and the Province of Champagne. 



(with 2,000 inhabitants), Le Quesnoy (with 3,000 inhabitants), Landrecies (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Maubeuge (with 6,000 inhabitants), and A vesnes (with 3,000 
inhabitants), fortified towns. The village of Malplaquet is noted for the battle 
in 1709, between the French and the allied army under the command of 
Marlborough and Prince Eugene ; and the village ofDenain for the capture of 
the important Austrian magazines by Villars in 1712, in consequence of which, 
Prince Eugene was compelled to retreat. JBavay, a town, with Roman anti- 
quities, and 2,000 inhabitants. To the former province of French Flanders 
was annexed, since the treaty of Utrecht, the little province of Dunkirk, com- 
prising, beside some villages, the fortified maritime and commercial city of 
Dunkirk, on the North Sea, and at the northern extremity of France (north- 
ward and 580 miles distant from Perpignan, the most southern town of 
France), before the first revolution with 54,000, but at present only with 25,000 
inhabitants. First in 1646, and then in 1658, Dunkirk was wrested from the 
Spaniards by the French, who then ceded it to the English, in reward for their 
assistance in this war. But four years later, Charles II. sold it to France for 
5,000,000 livres. The French part of the former county of Namur comprises 
the following towns, which are situated within the limits of French Flanders, 
but belong at present to the Ardennes Department (see Champagne) : Givet, 
a fortified town on the Meuse, 40 miles east-south-east of Valenciennes, has 
4,000 inhabitants, and consists of the three united towns of Givet Notre Dame, 
Givet St. Hilaire, and Ckarlemont. Other towns on the Meuse are : Fumay 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), and Revin (with 2,000 inhabitants). 

VII. Champagne. — This province, situated between Isle de France and 
Lorraine, had in the days of the Carlovingians, their proper dukes, subse- 
quently counts, who ruled it until the latter part of the 13th century, when 
its only heiress, princess Johanna, brought it in dowry to her consort, Philip 
IV., or the Fair, in 1284, together with that part of it which was called 
Brie. Champagne comprises at present 4 departments, viz. : the Aube De- 
partment (chief town, Troyes), the Marne Department (chief town, Chalons), 
the Upper Marne Department (chief town, Chaumont), and the Ardennes 
Department (chief town, Mezieres). Beside these, parts of the Seine and 
Marne, Meuse and Aisne departments are within its limits. 14. The Aube 
Department contains : -{-Troves, ancient capital of Champagne, on the Seine, 
83 miles east-south-east of Paris, with a magnificent Gothic cathedral, numer- 
ous cotton manufactures, and 26,500 inhabitants. Arcis sur Aube and Bar 
sur Aube, towns on the Aube, with respectively 3,000 and 4,200 inhabitants. 



192 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Province of Champagne. 

Other towns of this department are : Nogent sur Seine (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Pont sur Seine (with 2,000 inhabitants), Brienne (formerly with a military 
academy where Napoleon was educated, and with 3,500 inhabitants), Riceys 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), and Clairvaux (formerly the seat of a renowned 
abbey of the Cistercians, whose abbot the holy Bernard was from 11 15 to 1153). 
15. The Marne Department contains : -|-Chalons sur Marne, chief town, on 
the Marne, eastward and 92 miles distant from Paris, and northward and 147 
miles distant from Chalons sur Saone, with a great cathedral, and 13,500 in- 
habitants. By the Romans Chalons was called Catalaunum, hence the name 
of the neighboring Catalaunian Fields, where Attila, king of the Huns, was 
defeated in 451. Rheims, a city situated north-eastward and 83 miles 
distant from Paris, is noted for its splendid cathedral (in which the kings of 
France were formerly crowned, for the last time in 1825), and for its consid- 
erable wine-trade, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Sillery, a village, and At, a 
town with 3,000 inhabitants, are noted for their culture of the vine. The 
chief seat of the trade in wines of Champagne is Epernay, a town on the 
Marne, southward and 14 miles distant from Rheims, with 5,800 inhabitants. 
St. Menehould, a town on the Aisne, with 4,200 inhabitants. Here it was 
where Louis XVI. on his flight from Paris was discovered by the postmaster 
Drouet, on the 22d of June, 1*791, and upon this apprehended on the next 
stage at Varennes (in Lorraine), and recouveyed to Paris. Other towns of 
this department are : Chatillon sur Marne (with 1,800 inhabitants), La Fere 
Champenoise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Vitry le Francais (with 7,500 inhabi- 
tants), and Vienne le Chateau, (with 1,800 inhabitants). (About Montmirail 
in this department, see below under the head of Brie.) 16. The Upper 
Marne Department contains : -{-Chaumont, fortified chief town, eastward and 
46 miles distant from Troyes, with iron-works and 6,800 inhabitants. Nogent 
le Roy, a town on the Treire, 184 miles east-south-east of Nogent le Roy in 
Orleanais, is renowned for its cutleries, and has 2,800 inhabitants. Bour- 
bonne les Bains, a town renowned for its mineral baths, has 3,700 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns of this department are : Langres (with a magnificent 
cathedral, renowned manufactures of cutleries, considerable trade in mill- 
stones, and 8,000 inhabitants). Vassy (with 2,800 inhabitants), St. Dizicr 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), and Joinville (with 3,200 inhabitants). 17. The 
Ardennes Department contains: -\- Mezieres, fortified chief town, on the 
Meuse, westward and 92 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 83 
miles distant from Brussels, with 4,400 inhabitants. On the opposite bank 



FRANCE. 193 



The Province of Champagne and Lorraine. 



of the Meuse is situated the town of Charleville, with a manufactory of fire- 
arms, and 8,500 inhabitants. Sedan, a fortified town on the Meuse and near 
the frontier of Belgium, is renowned for its cloth manufactures, has a popula- 
tion of 14,500 inhabitants, and was formerly the capital of a principality, 
belonging to the dukes of Bouillon, who in 1624 ceded it to France. Other 
towns of this department are : Chene le populeux (with 1,000 inhabitants), 
Rethel (with 7,000 inhabitants), Rocroy (with 3,100 inhabitants), Grandpre 
(with 1,600 inhabitants), Vouziers (with 2,300 inhabitants), Mouzon (with 2,400 
inhabitants), and Chateau Regnaud (with 1,800 inhabitants). (About Givet, 
Fumay, and Bevin, belonging to the Ardennes Department likewise, see 
French Flanders, towards the end.) Beside the above-stated places, the 
following, which belong to several other departments, are situated also within 
the limits of Champagne: Bray sur Seine (with 2,300 inhabitants), and 
Montereau fault Yonne (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns belonging to the 
Seine and Marne Department (see Isle de France) ; Domremy (village and 
birth-place of Joan d'Arc, the Maid of Orleans, born here in 1411), belonging 
to the Vosges Department (see Lorraine) ; Vaucouleurs, a town on the 
Meuse, with 5,500 inhabitants, belonging to the Meuse Department (see Lor- 
raine) ; Sens (on the Yonne, with a splendid Gothic cathedral and 9,400 in- 
habitants), Joigny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Tonnere (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Chablis (with 2,500 inhabitants), Villeneuve le Roy (with 5,500 inhabitants), 
Villeneuve VArcheveque (with 2,000 inhabitants), and St. Florentin (with 
3,000 inhabitants), towns belonging to the Yonne Department (see Burgundy). 
That part of Champagne, which is called Brie (about Brie francoise, see 
under the head of Isle de France), or rather Brie champenoise, comprises the 
following towns : Meaux (ancient capital of Brie in general, on the Marne, 
with a beautiful Gothic cathedral, and 9,000 inhabitants), Provins (with 6,500 
inhabitants), La Ferte sous Jouarre (with 4,300 inhabitants), and Coulommiers 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), all four belonging to the Seine and Marne Depart- 
ment (see Isle de France) ; Chateau Thierry (a town on the Marne, 46 miles 
east-north-east of Paris, with 5,000 inhabitants), belonging to the Aisne De- 
partment (see Isle de France) ; Montmirail (a town on the Morin, eastward 
and 54 miles distant from Paris, with considerable trade in millstones, and 
2,300 inhabitants), and Sezanne (a town on the Auge, with 4,500 inhabitants), 
belonging to the Marne Department (see above). 

VIII. Lorraine. — This province, situated between Champagne and Alsace, 
on the north bordered by Germany, formed a constituent part of that tract 

9 



194 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The French Province of Lorraine. 



of land, which by the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see History of Europe, § 14) 
fell to the share of Lothar ; but was at that time of far greater extent than 
at present, stretching from the Vosges Mountains in a north-westerly direc- 
tion down to the shores of the North Sea. In 954 it was divided into Upper 
and Lower Lorraine, out of which latter, comprising the Netherlands, Belgium, 
and Holland, including Luxemburg, arose in the course of time more or less 
independent duchies and counties, at last reunited under the sway of the dukes 
of Burgundy. On the other hand Upper Lorraine continued to be a German 
duchy, whose last duke was Francis Stephen, who married the renowned 
Austrian archi-duchess, Mary Therese (daughter of the German emperor 
Charles VI.), and was subsequently elected emperor by the name of Francis I. 
The king of France, Louis XV., was married to the daughter of Stanislaus 
Leczinski, who had been king of Poland in the period from 1104 to. 1710. 
Thus, when King Augustus II. of Poland died in 1733, France supported the 
claims of Stanislaus Leczinski upon the Polish throne by armed force, while 
Austria conjointly with Russia supported the claims of Augustus III. (son of 
Augustus II.). At last a treaty of peace was concluded on the 3d of October, 
1735, according to which Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, should become 
sovereign of the grand-duchy of Tuscany after the death of John Gasto, the 
last descendant of the Medici (see History of Tuscany), and on the other 
hand Stanislaus Leczinski should then succeed in Lorraine. In 1737 John 
Gasto died and was succeeded by Francis Stephen, while Stanislaus Leczinski 
became sovereign of Lorraine- and Bar (the official name of the duchy). He 
died in 1766, and his duchy (considered as an inheritance of his daughter, the 
queen of France) was now annexed to France, in conformity to the stipulations 
of the above-mentioned treaty. Lorraine comprises at present 4 depart- 
ments, viz. : the Meurthe Department (chief town, Nancy), the Vosges Depart- 
ment (chief town, Epinal), the Meuse Department (chief town, Bar le Due), 
and the Moselle Department (chief town, Metz). 18. The Meurthe Depart- 
ment contains : -f-N;YNeY, ancient capital of Lorraine, near the Meurthe, westr 
ward and 74 miles distant from Strasburg, and southward and 74 miles dis- 
tant from Luxemburg, is one of the finest and most regularly built cities of 
France, was until 1690 the residence of the dukes of Lorraine, and has 32,500 
inhabitants. Nancy is also noted for the battle of 1477, in which Charles the 
Temerarious of Burgundy was killed. Luneville, a town on the Meurthe, 
south-eastward and 16 miles distant from Nancy, with a magnificent palace 
(the residence of the ancient dukes of Lorraine in the period from 1690 to 



FRANCE. 195 



The Province of Lorraine. 



1*766, but at present transformed into a military barrack), and 13,500 inhabi- 
tants. Luneville is noted for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 9 th 
of February, 1801, between France and the German empire. Saarburg (in 
French, Sarrebourg), a town on the Saar, 37 miles west-north-west of Stras- 
burg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pont a 
Mousson (with 7,000 inhabitants), Gondreville (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nico- 
las de Port (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Malzeville (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Rosieres aux Salines (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau Salins (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Dieuze (with 4,000 inhabitants), Vic (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Moyenvic (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Baccarat (noted for its crystal-glass 
manufactures, with 3,000 inhabitants). The villages of St. Quirin and Cirey 
are also noted for their crystal and plate-glass manufactures. (About the towns 
of Pfalzburg and Toul, within this department, see below.) 19. The Vosges 
Department contains : -(-Epinal, chief town on the Moselle, 37 miles aouth-south- 
east of Nancy, with 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Archettes is 
noted for its paper manufactures. Plombieres, a town in the Vosges Mountains, 
is noted for its warm baths and hardware manufactures, and has 1,500 inhab- 
itants. Other towns of this department are : St. Pie (with 8,200 inhabitants), 
Rambervillers (with 5,000 inhabitants), Remiremont (with 5,200 inhabitants), 
Gerardmer (with 6,000 inhabitants), Mirecourt (with 6,000 inhabitants), and 
Neuf chateau (with 4,000 inhabitants). About the village of Domremy, birth- 
place of Joan d'Arc, see under the head of Champagne. 20. The Meuse 
Department contains : -|-Bar le Due, ancient capital of the former duchy of 
Bar (see above), which since the middle of the 15th century formed a con- 
stituent part of the duchy of Lorraine, is situated on the Ornain, westward 
and 46 miles distant from Nancy, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Varennes, a 
town on the Aisne, 13 miles north-north-east of St. Menehould (in Champagne, 
to which town we refer with regard to the seizure of Louis X.VL), with 
2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ligny (with 3,200 
inhabitants), St. Mihiel, or St. Michel (with 6,000 inhabitants), Commercy 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), Damvilliers (with 1,000 inhabitants), Marville (with 
1,200 inhabitants), and Montmedy (with 2,400 inhabitants). (About Verdun 
in this department, see below.) 21. The Moselle Department (whose capital, 
Metz, shall be described below) contains : Saargemund (in French, Sarregue- 
mines), a town on the Saar, at its junction with the Blies, eastward and 42 
miles distant from Metz, with 4,500 inhabitants. The villages of Monther- 
hausen, Maisenthal, Goetzenbruck, and Munzthal, are noted for their great 



196 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Lorraine and Alsace. 



glass-works. Bitsch, a town in the Vosges Mountains, is noted for its re- 
markable and strong citadel, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Thionville (in 
German, Diedenhofen), a strongly fortified town on the Moselle, southward 
and 13 miles distant from Luxemburg, with 6,000 inhabitants. It belonged 
formerly to the ancient duchy of Luxemburg, and was in 1659 ceded tc 
France. Other towns of this department are : St. Avoid (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Sarralbe or Saaralbe (on the Saar, at its junction with the Albe, has 
4,000 inhabitants), Sierk (in French, Sierques, with 2,000 inhabitants), Briey 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Lon.gwy (a fortified town, with 2,500 inhabitants), 
and Faulquemont (in German, Falkenberg, with 1,500 inhabitants). Beside 
these is situated within the limits of Lorraine the town of Bourmont (on the 
Meuse, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2,000 inhabitants), belonging to the 
Upper Marne Department (see under the head of Champagne). 

The following three cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, did indeed originally 
belong to Lorraine, but separated from it so early as towards the end of the 
10th century, and became since German free towns. In the days of the 
Emperor Charles V., the Protestant German princes formed a league against 
him, and induced King Henry II. of France, to make common cause with 
them, upon condition that he was to occupy the three named cities for his 
security. The German princes had, it is true, no right at all to dispose thus 
of the imperial cities; however, the latter were in 1552 actually occupied by 
the French, and in 1648 by the Westphalian treaty of peace, formally ceded 
to them. To the Moselle Department (see above) belongs at present : -f- Metz, 
strongly fortified chief town of this department, on the Moselle, south-west- 
ward and 50 miles distant from Treves, and southward and 37 miles distant 
from Luxemburg, with a magnificent cathedral, a remarkable arsenal, several 
military schools, many literary institutions, and 48,000 inhabitants. To the 
Meurthe Department (see above) belongs : Toul, a fortified town on the 
Moselle, southward and 30 miles distant from Metz, with a remarkable cathe- 
dral, and 7,700 inhabitants. To the Meuse Department (see above) belongs : 
Verdun, a fortified town on the Meuse, westward and 34 miles distant from 
Metz, with a citadel, and 11,000 inhabitants. 

IX. Alsace. — This province, situated along the left bank of the Rhine, by 
which it is separated from the German grand-duchy of Baden, on the south 
bounded by the Swiss canton of Basle, and on the north by the Bavarian 
Palatinate, belonged since the year 870 to the German empire, and formed a 
constituent part of the ancient duchy of Swabia (see introduction to the 



FRANCE. 197 



The Province of Alsace. 



Bavarian province, Swabia and Neuburg) in the period from the year 916 
to 1268. Since the solution of this duchy in the last-named year, Alsace 
became an immediate territory of the empire, although Austria got possession 
of a great part of Upper Alsace. France had long since lusted after this fine 
country, and having been called for assistance by the German Protestants in 
the war of thirty years, France reserved to herself Alsace, which actually was 
ceded to it in the Westphalian treaty of peace in 1648, with the exception of 
Strasburg and some other imperial cities. However, France took possession 
of them too in 1681, and in 1691 they were formally ceded to her. Alsace 
comprises two departments, viz. : the Lcnuer Rhine Department (or that part 
of Alsace which formerly was called Lower Alsace, or Northgau), and the 
Upper Rhine Department (formerly called Upper Alsace, or Sundgau, i. e., 
South District). 22. The Lower Rhine Department (or Lower Alsace) con- 
tains : -j- Strasburg, formerly the capital of all Alsace, and until the year 
1681 an imperial city of the German empire, quite near the Rhine, south- 
westward and 46 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 70,500 inhabitants, numer- 
ous and important manufactures, is one of the strongest fortresses in France, 
and noted for its magnificent cathedral reared in the period from 1015 to 1275, 
and whose steeple is 445 feet high. Strasburg was founded in the middle of 
the 6th century by the Franks. Since the beginning of the 7th century it was 
the seat of a bishopric, whose bishop was an immediate member of the 
German empire, and whose territory was situated partly on the right bank 
of the Rhine, partly in Alsace, there comprising : Zabern, in French, Saverne 
(a town, with 5,500 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace, where the bishop 
resided since the reformation), and the towns of Molsheim (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Mutzig (with 4,000 inhabitants), Dambach (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Bennfelden, and Markohheim. Hagenau, a fortified town on the Mbder, 
northward and 18 miles distant from Strasburg, with 10,000 inhabitants. 
Wasselonne (in German, Wasselnheim) and Rosheim, towns, with respectively 
5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. Ehenheim (in French, Obernay), a town at the 
foot of Mount St, Odilia (2,364 feet high), with calico manufactures, and 5,000 
inhabitants. In a neighboring valley of the Vosges is situated the village of 
Klingenthal, noted for its manufactures of sword blades, cutlery, etc. Barr, 
a town romantically situated at the foot of the Vosges, south-westward and 
18 miles distant from Strasburg, with numerous cotton and woollen manufac- 
tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the valley called, in French, 
Ban de la Roche, and in German, Steinthal, where the celebrated Lutheran 



8 



198 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT, 



The French Province of Alsace. 



minister J. F. Oberlin, lived in the period from 1766 to 1826, who transformed 
this rough and sterile valley into a little paradise, and by this, as well as by 
his truly Christian ministry, proved himself the benefactor of his parishioners. 
He resided in the village of Waldbach. Lichtenberg, a remarkable ancient 
feudal castle, until the year 1480 of barons of the same name, whose estates 
then were entailed upon the counts of Hanau (see the Bavarian Palatinate 
under the head of Germany). Buuhsweiler (a town, with various manufac- 
tures, and 4,000 inhabitants) was formerly the capital of the Lordship of 
Lichtenberg. Lauterburg, a fortified town near the junction of the Rhine 
with the Lauter, did until the first French revolution belong to the imme- 
diate German bishopric of Spire, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Here terminate 
the so-called Lines of Weissenburg, noted in the military history of the wars 
between France and Germany, and consisting of a rampftrt and moat running 
upwards along the Lauter to the town of Weissenburg (with 6,200 inhabi- 
tants), situated on tins river, westward and 14 miles distant from Lauterburg. 
Other towns of this department are : Bischweiler (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Schlettstadt (with 10,000 inhabitants), Niederbronn (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
and Saar- Union (with 3,600 inhabitants). Fort Louis, formerly also called 
Fort Vauban, at present a village, with 600 inhabitants, but formerly a fortified 
town on an island of the Rhine, founded in 1689 by order of Louis XIV. The 
above-mentioned fortified town of Pfalzburg, belonging to Lower Alsace, but 
at present situated within the limits of the Meurthe Department (see under 
the head of Lorraine), has 4,000 inhabitants. (To Lower Alsace belonged also 
the towns of Landan, Rlteinzabern, Kandel, and Bergzabern, which in 1815 
were ceded from France to Germany, and then annexed to the Bavarian 
Palatinate.) 23. The Upper Rhine Department (or Upper Alsace) contains : 
-J- Colmar, chief town of the department, on the Lauch, 41 miles south-south- 
west of Strasburg, is famous for its extensive cotton manufactures, and has 
16,500 inhabitants. New Breisach, a fortified town on the Rhine, right oppo- 
site and Old Breisach in Baden, founded in 1699 by Louis XIV., has 2,000 
inhabitants. Munster, surnamed im Gregorienthal (in the valley of Gregory), 
with important cotton and paper manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants Other 
towns of this department are : Kaisersberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Turhhehn 
(with 2,300 inhabitants), Rappoltsweiler (in French, Ribeauviller, with impor- 
tant cotton manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants), Rufaeh, or Rouffae (with 
4,400 inhabitants), Fgisheim (with 1,900 inhabitants), Herlisheim (with 1,200 
inhabitants), Gebioeiler (with 4,000 inhabitants)* Watweiler (with 1,600 inhabi- 



FRANCE. 190 



The Provinces of Alsace and Burgundy. 



tants), St. Amarin (with 2,000 inhabitants, and an extensive calico and indienne 
manufactory in the neighboring ancient castle of Wesserling), Ensisheim (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Thann (with 7,000 inhabitants), Sennhcim, or Cernay (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Beaucourt (with extensive manufactures of hardware, etc., 
and 1,100 inhabitants), Sulz (with 5,300 inhabitants), and Altkirch (with 3,000 
inhabitants). Near Basle (in Switzerland) and on the Rhine, is situated the 
town of Huningen (with 1,000 inhabitants), whose strong fortifications, erected 
in 1681 by order of Louis XIV., but demolished in 1815 according to the 
terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Paris, were renowned in the military 
history. Befort, or Belfort, a town on the Savoureuse, with 6,000 inhabi- 
tants, was once the capital of the Sundgau (see above). St. Marie aux Mines, 
in German, Markirch, a town, with various manufactures, and 10,500 inhabi- 
tants, is situated within the limits of this department, but is properly belonging 
to Lorraine. The city of Muhlsausen (on the 111, and 14 miles distant from 
Basle, with the most extensive cotton manufactures of the Upper Rhine 
Department, and 25,000 inhabitants), was formerly a German imperial city, 
and at the same time a member of the Helvetic confederation, but in 1798 
ceded to France. 

X. Bourgogne, or the ancient duchy of Burgundy, at the southern frontier 
of Champagne, and separated from Switzarland by the Franche Comte (or 
ancient county of Burgundy). This province conserving by its name still the 
memory of ancient Burgundy in general, so often mentioned in the European 
history of the middle ages, it may be here the most convenient place to give 
a historical sketch of ancient Burgundy. The Burgundians, mentioned in § 3 
of the History of Europe, founded after the beginning of the 5th century in 
the eastern parts of Gaul an extensive empire, which comprised not only the 
present French provinces of Bourgogne, Franche Comte, Lyonnais, Dauphiny, 
and Provence, but also Savoy and the western part of Switzerland. It was 
of greater extent than the present kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and ruled by 
kings who resided alternately at Geneva and Lyons. In the year 500 it was 
attacked by Clovis I., king of the Franks, who vanquished the Burgundians 
in a battle near Dijon, made them tributary, and wrested from them the 
greatest part of the subsequent Lyonnais. In 533 the kingdom of Burgundy 
was completely conquered by the sons of Clovis, and formally annexed to 
the Frankish empire. By the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see 
History of Europe, § 14) Lothar, the third son of Louis the Pious, became 
among other territories possessed of Burgundy too, and his claims upon it 



200 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Province of Burgundy. 

were subsequently transferred, by way of inheritance, to the German empe- 
rors and in several periods realized by them. Yet in the years 879 and 887 
this ancient and primitive kingdom of Burgundy was divided into three more 
or less independent parts : the kingdom of Provence, the kingdom of Bur- 
gundy, and the duchy of Burgundy. 1. The kingdom of Provence, whose 
■first king (since the year 879) was Boso duke of Provence (hence the name 
of the kingdom), did not only comprise the subsequent French province of 
this name, but also Savoy, Dauphiny, Lyonnais, and part of Franche Comte, 
and was subsequently often called the Cisjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. 
2. The second division of ancient Burgundy comprised the greatest part of 
Switzerland and parts of Savoy and Franche Comte ; its first king was Ro- 
dolph, duke of West Franconia; it was called par excellence the kingdom of 
Burgundy, or (to distinguish it from the just-mentioned other kingdom) the 
Transjuranian kingdom of Burgundy. In 933 it was united with the Cisju- 
ranian kingdom, and this united kingdom was since called the Arelatian 
kingdom, or kingdom of Arelate, because its kings resided in the city of Aries 
(in Provence and on the Rhone). In the course of time several of the govern- 
ors of its provinces made themselves independent, at a later period they 
became vassals of the French crown, and thus at last all the western provin- 
ces were incorporated into the kingdom of France, while of the other prov- 
inces Savoy became an independent duchy, and those situated in Switzerland 
were annexed to the Helvetic confederation. 3. What regards the third 
division of ancient Burgundy, or the duchy of Burgundy (of which is properly 
the question here), its first duke, since the year 887, was Richard, brother of 
Boso (see above), but since the beginning of the 11th century its rulers were 
French princes, or younger brothers of the reigning kings of France and their 
descendants. In 1369 Philip, duke of Burgundy, married Margaret, heiress 
of Flanders, and since the dukes of Burgundy became gradually possessed 
of the Netherlands too. In 1384 Philip's son John inherited likewise the 
Franche Comte (see the next province), which was generally known by the 
name of the county of Burgundy, or Upper Burgundy, and had for a long period 
been a constituent part of the Transjuranian kingdom. Towards the end of the 
14th and during the 15th century the dukes of Burgundy resided alternately 
in Dijon, Besancon, Bruges, and and other cities of the Netherlands. In 1477 
their male line became extinct, and the duchy now as vacant fee fell back to 
the French crown. The duchy, or province of Burgundy comprises at pres- 
ent 4 departments, viz. : the Cote d' Or Department (chief town Dijon), the 



FRANCE. 201 

The Province of Burgundy. 



Sabne and Loire Department (chief town Macon), the Yonne Department 
(chief town Auxerre), and the Ain Department (Bourgen Bresse). 24. The 
Cote oV Or Department contains : -[-Dijon, ancient capital of the duchy of 
Burgundy, at the junction of the Ouze and Suzon, south-eastward and 165 
miles distant from Paris, is noted for its mustard, wax candles and wines, and 
has 27,000 inhabitants. Citeaux (in Latin Cistercium), formerly a renowned 
abbey and chief convent of the Cistercian monks. Pommard and Volenay, 
great villages, noted for their excellent Burgundy wines. Nuits and Beaune, 
towns with respectively 3,000 and 12,000 inhabitants, are likewise noted for 
their Burgundy wines. Other towns of this department are: Fontaine 
Francaise (with 2,000 inhabitants), Issurtille (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. 
Jean de Losne (with 2,000 inhabitants), Auxonne (with 5,800 inhabitants), 
Chatillon sur Seine (with 4,600 inhabitants), Semur, surnamed en Auxois 
(with 4,300 inhabitants), Montbard (with 2,400 inhabitants), Saulieu (with 
3,000 inhabitants), and Arnay le Due (with 3,200 inhabitants). 25. The 
Sabne and Loire Department contains : -[-Macon, chief town, on the Saone, 
southward and 72 miles distant from Dijon, and westward and 65 miles dis- 
tant from Geneva, with important wine trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Cha- 
lons sur Saone, a town on the Saone, southward and 147 miles distant from 
Chalons sur Marne, and westward and 72 miles distant from Lyons, with 
13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Tournus (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Cluny or Clugny (with 5,000 inhabitants), Charolles (with 
3,400 inhabitants), Bourbon Lancy (with 2,700 inhabitants), Louhans (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Autun (with 10,800 inhabitants), Creuzot (with 1,600 in- 
habitants), and Semur, surnamed en Brionnais (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
26. The Yonne Department contains : -{-Auxerre, chief town, on the Yonne, 
north-westward and 78 miles distant from Dijon, with 14 churches, among 
which is a remarkable cathedral, important wine and timber trade, and 12,500 
inhabitants. Avallon, a town on the Yoisin, with 5,700 inhabitants. Cou- 
langes les Vineuses, a town on the Yonne, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its wines. The small town of Vezelay, with 1,600 inhabitants, is 
remarkable in history for that the holy Bernard preached here the second 
crusade. (The other towns of this department to be noticed, see under the 
head of Champagne.) 27. The Ain Department contains : -4-Bourg, sur- 
named en Bresse (having been the capital of the Burgundian district of 
Bresse), chief town, on the Reyssouse, westward and 46 miles distant from 
Geneva, with a magnificent Gothic church, and 10,000 inhabitants. Bellet 

9* 



202 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Burgundy and Franche Comie. 

a town on the Rhone, with 4,400 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the 
Burgundian district of Bugey, that was for a long tune in the possession of 
the dukes of Savoy, but was restored to France in 1601, and to which be- 
longed moreover the towns of Nantua, (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lagnieu 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), St. Ramhert (with 2,000 inhabitants), Oyonnar (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Seyssel (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Ville Bois, surnamed 
sous Belley (with 2,000 inhabitants). Trevoux, a town on the Saone, with 
3,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of watch-cases, etc. Trevoux 
was formerly the capital of the sovereign principality of Dombes, to which 
moreover belonged the towns of Toissey (with 1,500 inhabitants), and St. 
Trivier en Dombes, or sur Mognand (with 1,400 inhabitants). Other towns 
of the Ain department are : Pont de Vaux (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont 
aVAin (with 1,400 inhabitants), Pont de Veyle (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mont- 
luel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chatillon les Dombes (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants). Gex, a town at the Jura Mountains, is noted for its watch manufac- 
tures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. At about 2 miles distance from Geneva is 
situated the village of Ferney, where Voltaire lived. To the province, or 
duchy of Burgundy did moreover belong the town of Bar sur Seine, with 
considerable wine trade, and 2,100 inhabitants, at present situated within the 
limits of the Aube Department (see Champagne), and the town of Arc ex 
Barrois, with 2,000 inhabitants, at present situated within the limits of the 
Upper Marne Department (see Champagne). 

XI. Franche Comte, or the ancient county of Burgundy, situated between 
the duchy of Burgundy and Switzerland, and on the north bordered by Lor- 
raine and Alsace. It at first formed a constituent part of the Transjuranian 
kingdom of Burgundy (see above, under the head of Burgundy), became since 
an independent county, and devolved in 1384 hy inheritance to the dukes of 
Burgundy. Though the male line of these dukes became extinct in 147*7, the 
Franche Comte continued to form part of the Netherlandish estates of the 
house of Burgundy, until in 1679 it was ceded to France. Franche Comte 
comprises at present 3 departments, viz. : the Doubs Department (chief town 
Besancon), the Jura Department (chief town Lons le Saulnier), and the Upper 
Saone Department (chief town Vesoul). 28. The Doubs Department contains : 
-j- Besancon (in German, Bisanz), fortified former capital of Franche Comte, 
on the Doubs, eastward and 46 miles distant from Dijon, with a splendid 
Gothic cathedral, numerous manufactures, especially of watches, and 32,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : St. Hippolyte (with 5,000 



FRANCE. 203 



The Provinces of Franche Corate and Bourbonnais. 



inhabitants), Quingey (with 1,200 inhabitants), Pontarlier (with 5,200 inhabi- 
tants), Ornans (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Baume les Dames (with 3,000 
inhabitants). In the vicinity of Pontarlier lies on a steep and high rock the 
little fortress of Joux, which formerly served as state-prison. (About the 
town of Montbeliard in this department, see below.) 29. The Jura Depart- 
ment contains : -j- Lons le Saulnier, chief town on the Vaille, 46 miles 
south-south-west of Besancon, with 8,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
department are : St Claude (with 5,600 inhabitants), St Amour (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Septmoncel (with 3,000 inhabitants), Morez (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), Dole (with 10,500 inhabitants), Poliyny (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Arbois (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Salins (with 8,500 inhabitants). 30. The 
Upper Marne Department contains : -j-Vesoul, chief town on the Drugeon, 
northward and 28 miles distant from Besancon, with 6,200 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this department are : Jussey (with 3,000 inhabitants), Gray (with 
7.000 inhabitants), LuxeuU (with renowned warm baths, and 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Lure (with 3,100 inhabitants). 

Within the limits of the Doubs Department is situated the former county, 
or principality, of Mompelgard (in French, Montbeliard), whose first sove- 
reigns became extinct with Count Henry, in 1395. Henry's only daughter 
and heiress, Harriet, being married to Count Everard of Wirtemberg, the 
house of Wirtemberg became possessed of the principality of Mompelgard 
and retained it until the first French revolution, when the French seized it 
without any further ceremony. By the treaty of peace, concluded at Lune- 
ville in 1801, it was formally ceded to France. It contains: Mompelgard, or 
(in French) Montbeliard, the former capital of the principality, in the Doubs 
Department, and on the Alaine, north-eastward and 42 miles distant from 
Besancon, and south-westward and 138 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 
watch and other manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Montbeliard is the 
birth-place of the celebrated late naturalist Cuvier. Hericourt, a town, with 
1.000 inhabitants. 

XII. Bourbonnais. — This province, situated at the south-western boundary 
of Burgundy, was foi-a long time ruled by barons of several families, until 
since the year 132*7 the descendants of Robert of Clermont, youngest son of 
King Louis IX. of France, were invested with it by the title of a duchy, 
called either the duchy of Bourbonnais, or Bourbon. Duke Louis of Bourbon 
had two sons, of whom Peter was the ancestor of the house of Bourbon, 
reigning in France since the accession of Henry IV. (see History of France), 



204 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Bourbonnoia, Nivernais and Berry. 

while the other, James, propagated the collateral line of the dukes of Bourbon. 
Charles, duke of Bourbon, having revolted against King Francis I., the duchy 
of Bourbonnais was reunited with the crown. Bourbonnais comprises at 
present : — 81. The Allier Department, containing : ~\- Modlins, formerly the 
capital of the duchy, on the Allier, south- eastward and 115 miles distant from 
Orleans, and north-westward and 92 miles distant from Lyons, with manufac- 
tures of cutlery, and 16,000 inhabitants. Bourbon jl'Archambault (in the 
days of the first French revolution called Bourges les Bains), a town, with 
3,300 inhabitants, is noted for its warm baths, much resorted to. Other towns 
of this department are : St. Pourcain (with 4,000 inhabitants), Gannat (with 
5,500 inhabitants), Montlucon (with 5,500 inhabitants), and La Palisse (with 
2,400 inhabitants). The town of St. Amand (or St. Amand Montrond), 
with 7,800 inhabitants, belongs likewise to Bourbonnais, but is situated within 
the limits of the Cher Department (see below, under the head of Berry). 

XIII. Nivernais. — This province, situated to the north of Bourbonnais, 
was since the end of the 9th century a county, which by King Francis I. was 
raised to a duchy, whose dukes bore the title of dukes of Nevers. It com- 
prises at present: — 32. The Nievre Department, containing: -{-Nevers for- 
merly the capital of Nivernais, at the junction of the Nievre river with the 
Loire, r south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Orleans, and north-westward 
and 1 15 miles distant from Lyons, with an ancient Gothic castle, once the 
residence of the dukes of Nevers, a magnificent cathedral, an extensive guu- 
foundry, and 17,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Pouilly 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), La Charite (with 5,500 inhabitants), Clamecy (with 
6,000 inhabitants), Chateau- Chinon (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Oosne (with 
6,500 inhabitants). 

XIV. Berry. — This province, situated in the centre of France, and at the 
southern frontier of Orleanais, was ruled by counts, subsequently viscounts, 
who in 1094 sold it to Philip I., and since that time royal princes have fre- 
quently been invested with it. The last prince, who bore the title of duke of 
Berry, was the youngest son of Charles X. Berry comprises at present two 
departments, viz. : the Cher Department (chief town Bourges), and the Indre 
Department (chief town Chateauroux). 33. The Cher Department contains : 
-j-Bourges, the former capital of Berry, at the junction of the Auron and 
Evre, 64 miles south-south-east of Orleans, with a remarkable ancient castle, 
town walls built by the ancient Romans, a magnificent cathedral, and 26,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Sancerre (with 3,700 in- 



FRANCE. 205 

The Provinces of Berry and Orleanais. 

habitants), Vierzon (with 7,500 inhabitants), Henrichemont (with 1,600 inhab- 
itants), Gray le Pre (with iron-works), and Boisbelle. (St. Amand in this 
department belongs to Bourbonnais, and has for this reason already been de- 
scribed above.) 34. The Indre Department contains : -4-Chateauroux, chief 
town on the Indre, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Bourges, with 
cloth manufactures and 14,500 inhabitants. Valenc/ai, a town on the Nahon, 
60 miles south-south-west of Orleans, with 3,000 inhabitants, and a palace, 
which belonged to the well-known prince of Talleyrand, and where Ferdinand 
VII. of Spain and his brother, Don Carlos, were retained as prisoners in the 
period from 1808 to 1814. Other towns of this department are: Issoudun 
(with 12,500 inhabitants), La Chatre (with 4,800 inhabitants), Le Blanc (with 
5,200 inhabitants), and Levroux (with 3,000 inhabitants). To Berry belongs 
also, but is situated within the limits of the Loir and Cher Department (see 
below), the town of St. Aignan, with cloth manufactures, and 3,000 inhabi- 
tants. 

XV. Orleanais, at the southern frontier of Isle de France, was ever be- 
longing to the crown, that, however, frequently invested royal princes with 
this province. The princes then bore the title of a duke of Orleans, as it 
was the case with Louis Philip before his accession in 1830. The province of 
Orleanais comprises at present 3 departments, viz. : the Loiret Department 
(chief town Orleans), the Lure and Loir Department (chief town Chartres), 
and the Loir and Cher Department (chief town Blois). 35. The Loiret De- 
partment contains : -{-Orleans, the former capital of Orleanais, on the Loire, 
southward and 69 miles distant from Paris, with a beautiful G-othic cathedral, 
considerable trade and 42,000 inhabitants. Montargis, a town on the Loing, 
with a mountain-castle, cotton manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of tins department are: Beaugency (with 5,000 inhabitants), Clery 
(with a church containing the sepulchre of Louis XL, and 2,000 inhabitants), 
Meung or Mehun (with 5,000 inhabitants), Gien (with 5,500 inhabitants), 
Pithiviers (with 4,200 inhabitants), and Briare (with 2,000 inhabitants). 
36. The Eure and Loir Department contains : -{-Chartres, chief town on the 
Eure, 46 miles north-north-west of Orleans, with one of the finest Gothic 
cathedrals in France (the one steeple of which is 342 and the other 3*78 feet 
in height), important grain trade, and 15,500 inhabitants. Maintenon, a 
town on the Eure, with 2,000 inhabitants. As is known, the second consort 
of Louis XIV. bore the name after this town. Chateaudun, a town on the 
Loire, with 7,000 inhabitants. (The town of Dreux in this department be- 



206 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Orleanais, Touraine and Anjou. 

longs to Isle de France, and has been described under this head ; while about 
Nogent le Rotrou, also in this department, see below under the head of 
Perche.) 37. The Loir and Cher Department contains : -|-Blois, chief town 
on the Loire, south-westward and 37 miles distant from Orleans, has 14,500 
inhabitants, and is noted for its ancient castle, where in 1588 the duke of 
Guise and his brother were murdered by order of King Henry III. Not 
far from here is the celebrated Gothic palace of Chambord, containing 440 
apartments, and reared in the beginning of the 16th century by Francis I. 
The park, belonging to it, is 18 miles in circuit. In 1821 it was bought at 
the price of 1,542,000 francs by a society of French, and given to the duke of 
Bordeaux in the name of the French nation. This prince bears at present 
the title of a count of Chambord. Vendome, a town on the Loire, is noted 
for its glove manufactures, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other tow T ns of this 
department are: Romorantin (with 7,500 inhabitants), and Savigny sur 
Braye (with 2,000 inhabitants). The town of St. Aignan, within the limits 
of the Loir and Cher Department, belongs to Berry, and is described above- 

XVI. Touraine, at the south-western frontier of Orleanais, and on the 
south bordering upon Poitou. Touraine, on account of its fertility and beauty 
of sceneries called the "garden of France," was in 1044 annexed to the 
county of Anjou, and in 1202 united with the French crown, and comprises 
at present: — 38. The Indre and Loire Department, containing: -[--Tours, 
ancient capital of Touraine, on the Loire, south-westward and 69 miles distant 
from Orleans, and eastward and 115 miles distant from Nantes, with a re- 
markable Gothic cathedral, various manufactures, and 27,500 inhabitants. 
Not far from here is situated the ancient, now much decayed, palace of Plessis 
lea Tours, where Louis XL spent the last days of his life, and died in 1483. 
Between Tours and Poitiers (see below) it was, where Charles Martell defeated 
the Moors, in 732. Amboise, a town on the Loire, with an ancient castle, or 
palace (where Louis XL instituted the equestrian order of St. Michael, and 
Charles VIII. died in 1498), and 5,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
department are : Loches (with 5,000 inhabitants), La Haye (with 2,100 inhab- 
itants), and Chinon (noted for its mustard, with 7,400 inhabitants). About 
the town of Richelieu within this department, see below. 

XVII. Anjou, on the west bordering upon Brittany, and on the east upon 
Touraine, was in 1356 raised to a duchy and held in fee by several royal 
princes, among them Henry III., before his accession to the throne. The 
province of Anjou comprises at present : — 39. The Maine and Loire Depart- 



FRANCE. 207 

The Provinces of Anjou, Maine and Perche. 

mad, containing: -[-Angers, ancient capital of Anjou, on the Mayenne, 50 
miles east-north-east of Nantes, with a remarkable cathedral, and 87,000 
inhabitants. In the neighborhood are celebrated slate-quarries. Other towns 
of this department are : Pont de Ce (with 4,000 inhabitants), Chalonnes (with 
5,500 inhabitants), Ingrande (with 1,200 inhabitants), Ghateauneuf (with 1,500 
inhabitants), Doice (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chollet (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
Durtal (with 3,000 inhabitants), Segre (with 2,200 inhabitants), Chemille (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Beauge (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pouance (with 1,600 
inhabitants), Beaufort (with 6,500 inhabitants), and Beaupreau (with 3,200 
inhabitants). Saumur, formerly the chief town of a government of the same 
name, which comprised parts of Anjou and Upper Poitou, is situated on the 
Loire, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Angers, and has 12,500 inhab- 
itants. To this government belonged also the town of Richelieu (formerly a 
village, but in 1637 raised to a town by the cardinal of Richelieu, has at 
present 3,200 inhabitants), at present situated within the limits of the Indrc 
and Loire Department (see above). 

XVIII. Maine and Perche, two former counties between Orleanais and 
Brittany, forming, together with the county of Laval, one government, until 
the first French revolution. Maine, definitively united with the crown in 1584, 
and the former county of Laval (that belonged to the house of Tremouille 
until the first French revolution) comprise at present 2 departments, viz. : the 
Sarthe Department (chief town Le Mans), and the Mayenne Department 
(chief town Laval). 40. The Sarthe Department contains : -}-Le Mans, former 
capital of Maine, on the Sarthe, eastward and 83 miles distant from Rennes, 
and south-westward and 115 miles distant from Paris, with a remarkable 
Gothic cathedral, important poultry trade, noted wax- and linen-bleacheries, 
and 24,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Sable (with 
4,000 inhabitants), Mamers (with 6,000 inhabitants), St. Calais (with 4,000 
inhabitants), La Ferte Bernard (with 3,000 inhabitants), Chateau du Loir 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), and La Fleche (with 6,800 inhabitants). 41. The 
Mayenne Department contains : -j-Laval, formerly the capital of the county 
of Laval, on the Mayenne, between Le Mans and Rennes, is noted for its linen 
manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Mayenne, a town on the Mayenne 
river, with important linen manufactures, and 10,500 mhabitants. Chateau- 
Gonthier, a town on the Mayenne river, is noted for its flax- and hemp-yarn, 
and has 6,500 inhabitants. 

The former county of Perche, reunited with the French crown in 1226, 



208 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Perche and Brittany. 

comprises at present parts of the Orne Department (see under the head of 
Normandy), containing : Mortagne (ancient capital of Perche, with important 
linen trade, and 6,000 inhabitants ; in its vicinity is situated the celebrated 
convent of Cistercians La Trappe, founded in 1140) ; and of the Eure and Loir 
Department (see above, under the head of Orleanais), containing : Nogent le 
Rotrou, a town on the Huisne, with various manufactures, and 1,000 inhabi- 
tants. 

XIX. Brittany, or (in French) La Bretagne. — This province, comprising 
the great western peninsula of France, has derived its name from the ancient 
Britons, who in the middle of the 5th century emigrated from their native 
country (see History of Europe, § 4) to this Gaulic peninsula, at that time 
called Armorica, but which name was since transmuted into that of Brittany, 
or rather Little Brittany. Towards the end of the 5 th century the country 
was subdued by King Clovis, but since the death of Charlemagne it was 
ruled by independent dukes. The sole heiress of Brittany, duchess Ann, was 
married first to Charles VIII. and then to Louis XII., and moreover her 
daughter Claudia was married to King Francis I. of France ; and in this way 
Brittany was annexed to the French crown. It comprises at present 5 de- 
partments, viz. : the Hie and Vilaine Department (chief town Rennes), the 
North Coasts Department (chief town St. Brieux), the Finisterre Department 
(chief town Quimper), the Morbihan Department (chief town Vannes), and 
the Lower Loire Department (chief town Nantes). 42. The Hie and Vilaine 
Department contains : -[-Rennes, ancient capital of Brittany, at the junction 
of the Ille and Vilaine, 202 miles west-south-west of Paris, with important 
butter trade, and 36,500 inhabitants. In a neighboring ancient feudal castle 
the celebrated Bertrand du Guesclin (-(- in 1380) was born in 1313. St. 
Malo, a fortified maritime town on the English Channel, with numerous 
docks where merchant vessels are built, and 10,500 inhabitants. Not far 
from here is situated the maritime town of St. Servan, with 10,000 inhabi- 
tants. Between this town and the coast of Normandy is the Bay of Oancale, 
noted for its oysters. The town of Cancale has 5,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this department are: Fougeres (with 10,000 inhabitants), La Guerche 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), Vitre (with 9,500 inhabitants), Redon (with 5,000 
inhabitants), Montfort (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Paimpont (with 4,000 in- 
habitants). 43. The North Coasts Department contains : -|-St. Brieuc, or St. 
Brieux, chief town near the coast, north-westward and 60 miles distant from 
Rennes, with 11,800 inhabitants, and a seaport at the village of Legue St. 



FRANCE. 209 



The Province of Brittany. 



Brieuc. The town of Lamballe, noted for its parchment, and containing 
4,000 inhabitants, was until the first French revolution the capital of the 
duchy of Penthievre. Other towns of this department are : Binic (with 
2.000 inhabitants), Quintin (with 4,000 inhabitants), Guingamp (with 6,200 
inhabitants), Boudeac (with 7,000 inhabitants), Lannion (with 5,700 inhabi- 
tants), Treguier (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Binan (with 8,200 inhabitants). 
44. The Finisterre Bepartment contains : -j-Quimver, or Quimper Corentin, 
chief town near the south coast of Brittany, westward and 115 miles distant 
from Rennes, with a fine cathedral and 10.500 inhabitants. Brest, a fortified 
maritime town and chief naval station of France, on the Atlantic, 322 miles 
west-south-west of Paris, with a very fine harbor, a magnificent arsenal, and 
31,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Quimperle (with 
5,400 inhabitants), Carhaix, or Keraes (with 2,000 inhabitants), Morlaix 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), St. Pol de Beon (with 6,300 inhabitants), Concar- 
neau (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chdteaulin (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ban- 
dernau (with 5,000 inhabitants). The islatids of Ouessant (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), and of Sein (with 500 inhabitants), are also belonging to this depart- 
ment. 45. The Morbihan Bepartment contains : -4-Vannes, chief town on the 
southern coast of Bretagne, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Brest, 
with 12,000 inhabitants. Lorient, a fortified maritime town and great naval 
station, westward and 23 miles distant from Vannes, with 20,000 inhabitants. 
The former French East Indian Company had its seat in Lorient. Other 
towns of tlus department are : Port Louis (with 2,1)00 inhabitants), Sarzeau 
(with 6,400 inhabitants), Auray (with 4,000 inhabitants), Quiberon (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Hennebon (with 4,900 inhabitants), Ploermel (with 5,600 
inhabitants), and Pontivy (with important linen trade and 6,000 inhabitants). 
Pontivy was before the first French revolution the chief town of the princi- 
pality of Rohan. The islands of Belle Isle (with 7,000 inhabitants, and the 
chief town Palais), of Groix, or Grouaix (with 2,500 inhabitants), of Houat 
and Hordic, are belonging to this department. 46. The Bower Boire Bepart- 
ment contains: -[-Nantes, chief town on the Loire, south-eastward and 165 
miles distant from Brest, and south-eastward and 230 miles distant from 
Paris, carries on a very important commerce to all parts of the world, and 
has 90,000 inhabitants. Nantes is moreover noted for an edict of Henry IV. 
(issued in 1598), respecting the Protestants, which was revoked in 16S5. 
The seaport of Nantes is at Paimboeuf, a town near the mouth of the Loire, 
and at 25 miles distance from Nantes, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns 



210 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The, French Provinces of Brittany and Poitou. 



of this department are : Bourgneuf (with 3,000 inhabitants), Querande, or 
Guerande (with 8,000 inhabitants), Le Grosic (with 2,000 inhabitants), St. 
Nazaire (with 4,000 inhabitants), Savenay (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chateau- 
briand (with 4,000 inhabitants), Nozay (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ancenis 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), and St. Philibert (with 3,000 inhabitants). 

XX. Poitou, between Bordeaux and Nantes, along the coast of the Atlantic. 
Poitou was by Charlemagne raised to an earldom, whose heiress, Eleanor, was 
married to King Henry II. of England (reigning from the year 1154 to 1189), 
who thus became possessed of it. Not before the year 1371 was Poitou 
definitively reunited with the French crown. It comprises at present 3 
departments, viz.: the Vienne Department (chief town Poitiers), the Two 
Sevres Department (chief town Niort), and the Vendee Department (chief town 
Bourbon- Vendee). 47. The Vienne Department contains : -j-Poictiers, ancient 
capital of Poitou, south-eastward and 92 miles distant from Nantes, with a 
beautiful cathedral, and 24,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the battle- 
field of Maupertuis, where in 1356 King John of France was defeated by the 
prince of Wales (the so-called Black Prince) and taken prisoner. The town 
of Lusignan was the ancestral seat of the last king of Jerusalem, subsequently 
king of Cyprus, Guido of Lusignan (towards the end of the 12th century). 
Chatelleraut, a town on the Vienne, is noted for its manufactures of cutlery, 
and has 10,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Civray 
(with 2,300 inhabitants), Loudun (with 5,300 inhabitants), Montmorillon (with 
4,200 inhabitants), St. Savin (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Tremouille (with 
1,200 inhabitants). 48. The Two Sevres Department contains : -j-Niort, chief 
town, on the Sevre Niortaise, 42 miles west-south-west of Poitiers, with 18,500 
inhabitants. Other towns of this department are: Parthenay (with 4,500 
inhabitants), Bressuire (with 2,000 inhabitants), Melle (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Tkouars (with 2,400 inhabitants), St. Maixent (with 4,500 inhabitants), and 
Mauze (with 2,000 inhabitants). 49. The Vendee Department contains : 
-[-Bourbon-Vendee (before the first French revolution called Roche sur Yon), 
chief town on the Yon, southward and 37 miles distant from Nantes, with 
5,400 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Fontenay le Comte 
(with 8,000 inhabitants), Lucon (with 4,000 inhabitants), Beauvoir sur Mer 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), and Sables d'Olonne, or Les Sables d'Olonne (with 
5,200 inhabitants). To Poitou and the Vendee Department are also belonging 
the islands of Noirmoutier (with 6,000 inhabitants), of Dieu, or d' Yeu (with 
2,000 inhabitants), of Pilicr, and Bouin. To Poitou belongs, moreover, the 



FRANCE. 211 



The Provinces or Aunis, Saintonge and Angouraais. 



town of Rochechouart, with 4,400 inhabitants, situated within the limits of 
the Upper Vienne Department (see under the head of Limousin). 

XXL Aunis and Saintonge. — These two provinces, situated between Poitou 
and Guyenne, and separated from each other by the Charente river, were, 
together with Poitou, reunited with the French crown by King Charles V. 
(see History of France). Before the first French revolution, Aunis formed a 
government by itself, while Saintonge was conjointly with Angoumais (see 
below) under the administration of another governor. At present, Aunis and 
Saintonge comprise in substance : — 50. The Lower Charente Department, 
containing : -J-La Rochelle, ancient capital of Aunis, on the Atlantic, between 
Bordeaux and Nantes, is strongly fortified, and has 16,000 inhabitants. La 
Rochelle is noted in history for its siege of thirteen months, sustained in 1627 
and 1628. At the outside of the harbor of La Rochelle lies the island of Re 
(area: 64 square miles ; population: 18,000 inhabitants). Rochefort, a for- 
tified town on the Charente, 14 miles south-south-east of La Rochelle, was 
founded in 1664 by Louis XIV., is noted for its naval depot, and has 16,500 
inhabitants. In Rochefort it was where Napoleon in 1815, after the battle of 
Waterloo, embarked, and then fell into the power of the English. Before the 
mouth of the Charente, lies the island of Oleron, with 16,000 inhabitants, and 
the town of Chateau du Bourg. On the Sevre Niortaise is situated the town 
of Marans, with 4,600 inhabitants. Saintes, formerly the capital of Saintonge, 
on the Charente, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Rochefort, with 
10,800 inhabitants. Other towns of Saintonge and the Lower Charente 
Department are: Marennes (with 5,000 inhabitants), Brouage (with 1.000 
inhabitants), Ionzac (with 3,000 inhabitants), Royan (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Tonnay- Charente (with 3,000 inhabitants), and St. Jean d'Angely (with 6,200 
inhabitants). To Saintonge belongs also the town of Barbezieux, noted for 
its linen cloth, capons, and truffles, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is situated within 
the limits of the Charente Department (see below). 

XXII. Angoumais, along the eastern frontier of the two last-named prov- 
inces, and at the northern frontier of Guyenne, was united with the French 
crown by King Charles V., and comprises at present: — 51. The Charente 
Department, containing : -j-Angoulehie, former capital of Angoumais, on the 
Charente, 72 miles north-north-east of Bordeaux, with a remarkable cathedral, 
important wine and brandy trade, and 1 8,000 inhabitants. Cognac, a town 
on the Charente, is noted for its brandy, and has 4.000 inhabitants. Jarnac, 
a village in the vicinity of Cognac, is noted in history for the battle of the 



212 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of La Marche, Limousin and Auvergne. 

year 1569, in which the prince of Conde was killed. Ruffec (with 3,000 
inhabitants), Oonfolens (with 3,000 inhabitants), Aubeterre (with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants), and La Rochefoucauld (with 2,700 inhabitants), towns in this depart- 
ment, within whose limits lies, moreover, Barbezieux, belonging to Saintonge 
(see above). 

XXIII La Marche. — This province, situated near the centre of France 
and the southern frontier of Berry, has since the year 1531 been united with 
the French crown, and comprises at present : — 52. The Creuse Department, 
containing : -j-G-ueret, formerly the capital of La Marche, near the head of 
the Gartempe river, southward and 115 miles distant from Orleans, with 
5,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Ahun (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Bourganeuf (with 3,200 inhabitants), Aubusson (with 6,000 inhab- 
itants), Felletin (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Roussac (with 1,000 inhabitants). 
The towns of Bellac (with 3,000 inhabitants) and Dorat (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), situated within the limits of the Upper Vienne Department, do likewise 
belong to La Marche. 

XXIV. Limousin, situated at the north-eastern frontier of Ouyenne, and 
once an earldom, was by King Henry IV. united with the French crown, and 
comprises at present 2 departments, viz. : the Upper Vienne Department (chief 
town Limoges), and the Correze Department (chief town Tulle). 53. The 
Upper Vienne Department contains : -["Limoges, formerly the capital of the 
Limousin, on the Vienne river, north-eastward and 115 miles distant from 
Bordeaux, is noted for its horse-marts, and has 30,500 inhabitants. Near the 
town of Chalus (with 1,500 inhabitants) was in the middle ages a castle, in 
the siege of which King Richard of the Lion Heart was killed by an arrow 
in 1199. Other towns of this department are: St. Leonard (with 6,000 
inhabitants), St Junien (with 6,400 inhabitants), St. Yrieix (with 7,500 inhabi- 
tants), Eymoutiers (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Magnac-Laval (with 3,000 
inhabitants). 54. The Correze Department contains : -{"Tulle, chief town on 
the Correze, south-eastward and 46 miles distant from Limoges, is noted for 
its manufactures of point net, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Drive la Gaillarde, 
a town on the Correze, with important truffle trade, and 9,500 inhabitants. 
The little town of Turenne is noted for its ancient castle, one of the oldest and 
most important fortresses in France. The fine palace in the village of Pom- 
padour was the property of the well-known marchioness of Pompadour. The 
town of Ussel is situated on the Sarsonne, and has 4,300 inhabitants. 

XXV. Auvergne, — This province, once an earldom, which was in 1360 



FRANCE. 213 



The Provinces of Auvergne and Lyonnais. 



raised to the rank of a duchy, and in 1531 united with the crown, comprises 
at present 2 departments, viz. : the Puy de Dome Department (chief town 
Clermont), and the Cantal Department (chief town Aurillac), both named 
after the highest peaks of the mountains of Auvergne (see Introduction, or 
General View of Europe, § 7, h). 55. The Puy de Dome Department con- 
tains : -[-Clermont, surnamed en Auvergne, ancient capital of Auvergne, at 
the foot of Mount Puy de Dome, westward and 83 miles distant from Lyons, 
consists properly of two towns, lying near each other, viz. : Clermont and 
Montf errand, which since the first French revolution are united by the common 
name of Clermont-Ferrand. This united city has 34,000 inhabitants, and is 
noted for the council, or synod, held here in 1095, which gave the principal 
cause to the crusades. Riom, a town with 13,000 inhabitants, is situated 
northward and 9 miles distant from Clermont, in the beautiful and fertile 
plain known by the name of Limagne. The town of Aigueperse, with 3,200 
inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the duchy of Montpensier. Other 
towns of this department are : Volvic (with 3,000 inhabitants), Pont du 
Chateau (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vodable (with 900 inhabitants), Issoire (with 
6,200 inhabitants), Sauxillanges (with 2,000 inhabitants), Besse (with 2,000 
inhabitants), Billom (with 5,800 inhabitants), Ambert (with 8,500 inhabitants), 
Arlant (with 4,000 inhabitants), Marsac (with 3,000 inhabitants), Ihiers (with 
11,000 inhabitants, and important manufactures of paper and cutlery), #£. Remy 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), and Maringues (with 4,000 inhabitants). 56. The 
Cantal Department contains : -j- Aurillac, chief town, on the Jourdane, south- 
westward and 46 miles distant from Clermont, with various manufactures, trade 
with mules, and 11,500 inhabitants. The town of Chaudes-Aigues, with 2,300 
inhabitants, is noted for its warm mineral baths. Other towns of this depart- 
ment are : St. Flour (with 6,500 inhabitants), Murat (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Vic sur Cere (with 2.000 inhabitants), Maurs (with 3,000 inhabitants), Mauriac 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), and Salers (with 1,800 inhabitants). The towns of 
Brioude (with 5,500 inhabitants) and Langeac (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
situated within the limits of the Upper Loire Department (see under the 
head of Languedoc), do likewise belong to Auvergne. 

XXVI. Lyonnais. — This province is situated between Auvergne and Dau- 
phiny. It did at first form part of the primary kingdom of Burgundy (see 
above, under the head of Bourgogne), and was since under the Frankish sway 
ruled by governors who, in the course of time, made themselves independent, 
assuming the title of earls. Since the year 1173 they possessed only the dis- 



214 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Lyonnais and Gnyenne. 



tricts of Forez and Beaujolais, while the archbishop of Lyons exercised the 
sway over Lyonnais proper. These three districts were united with the 
French crown respectively by King Philip IV., and in the years 1369 and 
1531. The province of Lyonnais comprises at present 2 departments, viz. : 
the Rhone Department (chief town Lyons), and the Loire Department (chief 
town Montbrison). 57. The Rhone Department contains : '-(-Lyons, once the 
capital of Lyonnais, at the confluence of the Saone and Rhone, south-eastward 
and 270 miles distant from Paris, and northward and 166 miles distant 
from Marseilles, is the second French city in population and manufactures, 
and has (including the suburbs of la Guillotiere and la Croix Rousse) 210,000 
inhabitants. Its 40,000 silk-looms employ 80,000 men, and are annually pro- 
ducing silks at the value of 100 million francs. The town of Villefranche 
(noted for its cattle-fairs, and having 8,000 inhabitants) was formerly the cap- 
ital of Beaujolais (see above). Other towns of this department are : St. Genis- 
Laval (with 2,000 inhabitants), Givors (with 5,000 inhabitants), Tarare (with 
7,000 inhabitants), Oondrieu (with 5,000 inhabitants), Belleville (with 2,300 
inhabitants), and Beaujeu (with 1,800 inhabitants). 58. The Loire Depart- 
ment contains : -[-Montbrison, formerly the capital of the province of Forez 
(see above), on the Vizezy, westward and 37 miles distant from Lyons, with 
6,500 inhabitants. The city of St. Etienne is noted for its extensive manu- 
factures of fire-arms, hardware, and silk riband, and has 54,000 inhabitants. 
Roanne, a town on the Loire, with 10,500 inhabitants, is the centre of the 
inland trade between Marseilles, Lyons, and Paris. Other towns of this 
department are : St. Galmier (with 2,500 inhabitants), St. Symphorien de Lay 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), St. diamond (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Rive de 
Gier (with 10,500 inhabitants). 

XXVII. Guyenne. — This province, on the north side of the Garonne, 
formed before the first French revolution one government together with 
Gascony lying on the south side of this river, and was by the Romans called 
Aquitania, on account of its mineral waters (aquae). In the 5th century the 
Visigoths settled here and founded an empire, whose capital was Toulouse. 
During a short period in the 8th century the name of Septimania was used 
instead of Aquitania. In 778 Charlemagne appointed his son Louis king of 
Aquitania, which however subsequently was divided into the duchies of 
Guyenne (Aquitania) and Gascogne, and in 1155, by way of marriage, came 
under the sway of the English kings, who remained in possession for almost 
300 years. In 1453 both duchies were united with the French crown. It 



FRANCE. 215 



The Province of Guyenne. 



must be still observed that Guyenne was divided into six districts, viz. : Bour- 
delois (capital Bordeaux), Perigord (chief town Perigueux), Agenois (chief 
town Agen), Quercy (chief town Cahors), Rouergue (chief town Ehodez), and 
Bazadois (chief town Bazas). At present Guyenne is divided into 6 depart- 
ments, which in substance correspond to those districts. 59. The Gironde 
Department contains : -(-Bordeaux, formerly the capital of Guyenne, on the 
left bank of the Garonne, is the emporium of the south-west provinces and 
chief seat of the French wine trade, is handsomely built, and has 1 20,000 
inhabitants. Previous to the first French revolution, the annual export of 
wines from Bordeaux was 100,000 tons, while in 1831 only 24,000 tons of 
this staple were exported. The district of Medoc is noted for its wines, and 
contains the towns of Lesparre (with 1.000 inhabitants), Medoc ox St. Laurent 
de Medoc (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Paidliac (with 3,000 inhabitants). The 
towns of Barsac (with 2,700 inhabitants), Langon (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
and Podensac (with 1,600 inhabitants), are likewise noted for their wines. 
Blaye, a fortified town on the Gironde, with 4,000 inhabitants, and a citadel 
where the duchess of Berry was kept prisoner from 1832 to 1833. Other 
towns of this department are : Bucli or La Teste de Buch (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Castres (with 1,000 inhabitants), Bourg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Cou- 
tras (with 3,200 inhabitants), Libourne (with 10,500 inhabitants), Castillon 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), La Reole (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Bazas 
(formerly the chief town of the district of Bazadois, with 4,600 inhabitants). 
60. The Dordogne Department contains : -{-Perigueux, formerly chief town 
of Perigord, on the Isle, north-eastward and 69 miles distant from Bordeaux, is 
noted for its truffles, and has 1 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- 
ment are: Riberac (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mucidan (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
Bergerac (with 9,500 inhabitants), Exideuil (with 1,000 inhabitants), Sarlat 
(with 6,200 inhabitants), and Nontron (with 3,700 inhabitants). 61. The Lot 
and Garonne Department contains: -[-Agen, chief town on the Garonne, 
south-eastward and 74 miles distant from Bordeaux, is noted for its prunes, 
and has 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Tonneins 
(with 8,000 inhabitants), Aiguillon (with 3,700 inhabitants), Marmande (with 
7,000 inhabitants), and Villeneuve d'Agen (with 11,500 inhabitants). 62. The 
Lot Department contains : -(-Cahors, formerly the capital of Quercy (see 
above), on the Lot, 115 miles east-south-east of Bordeaux, is noted for its 
wines, and has a remarkable ancient cathedral, and 13,500 inhabitants. 
The village of Lamothe -Fenelon is the birthplace of the renowned archbishop 



216 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Guyanne and Gascony. 



Fenelon (born in 1651), and lies near Souillao, a town on the Dordogne, with 
3,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Gourdon (with 5,000 
inhabitants), Rocamadour (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Figeac (with 6,800 in- 
habitants). 68. The Tarn and Garonne Department contains : -(-Montauban, 
chief town, on the Tarn, northward and 32 miles distant from Toulouse, with 
a cathedral founded in 739, considerable inland trade, and 25,000 inhabitants. 
Moissac, a town on the Tarn, with important inland trade, and 11,000 inhabi- 
tants. (Castel Sarrazin, within the limits of this department, belongs to 
Languedoc.) 64. The A veyron Department contains : -f-P 0DEZ > formerly the 
capital of Rouergue (see above), on the Aveyron, 166 miles east-south-east 
of Bordeaux, is noted for its beautiful cathedral with a steeple 290 feet high, 
and has 10,000 inhabitants. St. Geniez, or St. Geniez de Rivedolt, a town 
on the Lot, with numerous manufactures of cloth, etc., and 4,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this department are : Guiole (with 2,000 inhabitants), Milhaud 
(with 11,000 inhabitants), Aubin (with 3,100 inhabitants), Espalion (with 
4,000 inhabitants), St. Affrique (with 6,400 inhabitants), and Villefranche 
(with 10,000 inhabitants). 

XXVIII. Gascony. — The name of this province, situated between the 
Garonne and the Pyrenees, is derived from the ancient Gasconians, or Vas- 
conians, whose descendants are the Basques (see Introduction, § 12), and who 
from their primitive seat on the south side of the Pyrenees, partly emigrated 
to the present province of Gascony at the end of the 6th century. Since the 
11th century Gascony shared the fate of Guyenne (see above). Previous to 
the first French revolution Gascony was divided into the districts of Armag- 
nac (chief town Auch), Labour, or the Country of the Basques (chief town 
Bayonne), Landes (comprising the duchy of Albret), Condomois (chief town 
Condom) and Marsan (chief town Mont de Marsan). At present Gascony 
comprises 3 departments, viz. : the Gers Department (chief town Auch), the 
Upper Pyrenees Department (chief town Tarbes), and the Heaths Department 
(chief town Mont de Marsan). 65. The Gers Department contains ; -(-Auch, 
ancient capital of Gascony, south-eastward and 106 miles distant from Bor- 
deaux, with a splendid cathedral, and 11,000 inhabitants. Condom, formerly 
chief town of Condomois (see above), with 7,000 inhabitants. Other towns 
of this department are : Lectoure (with 6,700 inhabitants), Mirande (with 
2,700 inhabitants), Lombez (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Eauze (with 3,500 
inhabitants). 66. The Upper Pyrenees Department contains: -(-Tarbes, 
chief town, on the Adour, 115 miles south-south-east of Bordeaux, with a 



FRANCE. 217 



The Province of Gascony. 



valuable stud, and 13,000 inhabitants. The towns of Lourdes (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), Argeles (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Lus (with 2,200 inhabitants), 
are situated in the romantic valley of Lavedan. The not less romantic valley 
of Campa/i contains the towns of Campan (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Bag- 
neres, surnamed de Bigorre (with 8,500 inhabitants). The village of Bareges, 
in the valley of the same name, is noted for its mineral baths and its webs 
of silk and wool, known by the name of Bareges. The village of Cauterets, 
in the Pyrenees, is noted for its warm mineral baths. 67. The Heaths De- 
partment contains : ^{-Mqnt de Marsan, chief town, on the Douze, north-east- 
ward and 60 miles distant from Bayonne, with 4,200 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this department are : Roquefort de Marsan (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Aire (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Sever (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Dax 
(with 5,000 inhabitants). To Gascony belong moreover several towns lying 
within the limits of other departments. First, from the Lower Pyrenees De- 
partment (see below) : Bayonne, a fortified maritime and commercial town, 
near the mouth of the Adour, 115 miles south-south-west of Bordeaux, is 
noted for its smoked hams, carries on an important trade, especially with 
Spain, and has 16,000 inhabitants. In 1679 the bayonets were invented here. 
The palace of Marrac, where in 1808 the royal family of Spain resigned in 
favor of Napoleon, has been destroyed by fire. St. Jean de Luz, a maritime 
town near the Spanish frontier, with 3,800 inhabitants. Not far from here is 
in the Bidassoa river the little Pheasant, or Conference Island, where the 
treaty of peace of the year 1659 was concluded between France and Spain. 
Hasparon, or Hasparren, an industrious town with 5,000 inhabitants. Mau- 
leon, a town on the Gave, with. 1,400 inhabitants. Secondly, from the Lot 
and Garonne Department (see above, under the the head of Guyenne) : 
Nerac, formerly the capital of the ancient duchy of Albret, on the Baise, 
18 miles west-south-west of Agen, is noted for its truffle-pies, and has 7,000 
inhabitants, and an old palace, once the residence of the kings of Navarre 
and the dukes of Albret, and where also King Henry IV. resided for a time 
with his consort Margaret of Valois. From the town of Albret the duchy 
had derived its name. Thirdly, from the Upper Garonne Department (see 
below, under the head of Languedoc) : Muret, a town on the Garonne, south- 
westward and 18 miles distant from Toulouse, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this same department are : St. Gaudens (with 6,500 inhabitants), 
St. Martory (with 1,600 inhabitants), St. Beat (with 1,500 inhabitants), and 
St. Bertrand de Comminges (with 1,200 inhabitants). Finally, belongs to 

10 



218 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The French Provinces of Navarre, Beam and Foix. 



Gascony the town of St. Girons, with 4,500 inhabitants, situated within the 
limits of the Ariege Department (see below under the head of Foix). 

XXIX. Navarre and Bearn, along the Pyrenees, and surrounded by 
Gascony. In the description of Spain, it has already been related (page 197) 
that the ancient kingdom of Navarre was since 1234 in the possession of the 
French descendants of Count Theobald of Champagne, and that in 1512 King 
Ferdinand of Aragon wrested from them the southern part of it. The heiress 
of the northern part was in 1548 married to the Duke Anton of Bourbon (see 
Bourbonnais), and from this matrimony sprung King Henry IV., who inherited 
at the same time the principality of Beam, connected with the duchy of 
Albret. From Navarre and Beam has been formed : — 68. The Lower Pyre- 
nees Department, containing : -{-Pau, formerly the capital of the principality 
of Beam, on the Gave, 55 miles east-south-east of Bayonne, with an ancient 
palace, where Henry IV. Avas born in 1553, and 13,000 inhabitants. The 
town of Pontac is noted for its wines, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Oloron, or 
Oleron, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, carries on an important trade with 
timber and lumber. The towns of Orthez (with 8,000 inhabitants) and Salies 
(with 6,800 inhabitants) are noted for their hams, Laruns for its sulphur 
baths, and Moneins (with 5,500 inhabitants) for its wines. St. Jean Pied de 
Port, formerly the capital of the (French) kingdom of Navarre, on the high 
road from France to Spain, south-eastward and 28 miles distant from Bayonne* 
with a strong citadel, and 4,000 inhabitants. St. Palais, a town on the 
Bidouse, with 1 ,200 inhabitants. La Bastide de Clarence, a town with 2,000 
inhabitants. (The other towns within the limits of this department, viz. : 
Bayonne, St. Jean de Luz, Biaritz, Hasparren, and Mauleon, are already 
described under the head of Gascony, to which they belong.) 

XXX. The earldom of Foix, at the foot of the Pyrenees, was since the 
11th century ruled by counts or earls, and in 1589 united with the French 
crown by Henry IV., whose ancestors had inherited it. At present it forms : — 
69. The Ariege Department, containing: -[-Foix, the ancient capital of the 
earldom, on the Ariege, southward and 46 miles distant from Toulouse, with 
5,000 inhabitants. The town of Ax, situated in a romantic valley of the 
Pyrenees, is noted for its mineral waters, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Damiers 
and Tarascon, towns, with respectively 7,400 and 2,000 inhabitants. 

Between the French province of Foix and the Spanish province of Catalonia 
lies, in the Pyrenees, the neutral country of Andorra, or Andorre, occupying a 
tract of only 192 square miles, with 16,000 inhabitants, and forming from old a 



FRANCE. 219 

The Provinces of Rousillon and Languedoc. 

kind of republic, whose independence has ever been respected by France and. 
Spain. On the 7th of November, 1846, a new code of law was solemnly 
promulgated. It comprises 54 villages, among which the capital, bearing the 
name of Andorre la vielle. 

XXXI. Roussillon, the most southern province of France, between Foix 
and the Mediterranean. The Frankish governors, appointed here since 196, 
made themselves independent in the course of time, and assumed the title of 
earls. The last of them bequeathed the earldom to King Alphonso of Aragon, 
in 1173. King John II. of Aragon mortgaged Roussillon, in 1463, to King 
Louis XL of France, for the sum of 350,000 gold dollars, which sum was not 
repaid, so that in the treaty of 1659, Roussillon was formally ceded to France. 
It forms at present : — 70. The East Pyrenees Department, containing : -4-Per- 
fignan, the ancient capital of Roussillon, near the Mediterranean, south-west- 
ward and 138 miles distant from Marseilles, is the most southerly town of 
France, and has 20,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : 
Port Vendre (with 2,300 inhabitants), Rivesaltes (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
Collioure (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Laurent de Cerdans (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), Prades (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ceret (with 3,000 inhabitants). 
The little town of Mont-Louis, founded in 1681, has only 400 inhabitants, but 
is strongly fortified, and was formerly the capital of the French Cerdagne, 
which in 1660 was ceded to France by the Spanish crown. 

XXXII. Languedoc, between G-uyenne and Provence, on the south bounded 
by the Mediterranean, has an area of 17,679 square miles, and derived its 
name from a French idiom, in the middle ages. Languedoc, since the 5th 
century possessed by the Visigoths, and in the 8th by the Moors, was by 
Pepin the Little brought under the sway of the Franks. In the 9th century, 
the governors of Languedoc assumed their independence and the title of earls 
of Toulouse, and ruled for a long while over a great part of Provence likewise. 
In 1361, Languedoc was united with the French crown. It comprises at 
present 8 departments, whose preliminary enumeration would take up too 
much room here. 71. The Upper Garonne Department contains : -{-Toulouse, 
ancient capital of Languedoc, on the Garonne, south-eastward and 138 miles 
distant from Bordeaux, with many remarkable ancient buildings (among them, 
especially, the city hall and the cathedral), numerous manufactures, and 80,000 
inhabitants. The town of Bagneres de Luchon, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted 
for its warm mineral baths. Villefranche, a town, with 3,000 inhabitants. 
(Other towns within the limits of this department, as St. G-audens, Muret, etc., 



220 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Province of Languedoc. 

belonging to G-ascony, are already described there.) 72. The Tarn Depart- 
ment contains : -f- Alby, chief town, on the Tarn, north-eastward and 42 miles 
distant from Toulouse, with a beautiful cathedral, and 12,500 inhabitants. 
Here, and in the surrounding country, called Albigeois, the Albigenses (who 
in some points had the same religious creed as the Waldenses mentioned under 
the head of Italy) had their chief seat. Castres, a town on the Agout, is 
noted for its cloth manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this department are : Gaillac (with 9,000 inhabitants), Soreze (with 2,900 
inhabitants), Lavaur (with 1,700 inhabitants), Mazamet (with 7,000 inhabi- 
tants), Graulhet (with 5,000 inhabitants), Rabastens (with 7,000 inhabitants), 
Hautpoul (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Lautrec (with 3,600 inhabitants). 
73. The Aude Department contains: -(-Carcassonne, chief town on the Aude, 
south-eastward and 54 miles distant from Toulouse, is renowned for its cloth 
manufactures, and has a remarkable cathedral, and 19,500 inhabitants. The 
city of Narbonne (with various remarkable ancient buildings, and 11,500 
inhabitants) was in the middle ages the emporium of Languedoc, and in the 
8th century the seat of a Moorish governor. Castelnaudary, a town on the 
South canal, with cloth manufactures, and 11,000 inhabitants. Other towns 
of this department are : La Grasse (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sijean (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Leucate (with 1,500 inhabitants), Alet (with 1,200 inhabi- 
tants), Limoux (with 7,500 inhabitants). 74. The Herault Department con- 
tains : -j-Montpellier, chief town, near the Mediterranean, eastward and 1 24 
miles distant from Toulouse, was in the middle ages the seat of a renowned 
medical school, is at present the resort of invalids for its salubrious air, and 
has 37,000 inhabitants. As the seaport of Montpellier is to be considered 
Cette, a maritime town on the Mediterranean, is noted for its wines and salt- 
works, and has 11,000 inhabitants. The towns of Frontignan (with 2,000 
inhabitants) and Lunel (with 6,000 inhabitants), are noted for their excellent 
wines. Lodeve, a town at the foot of the Sevennes, is from old renowned for 
its cloth manufactures, and has 11,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
department are : Ganges (with 4,500 inhabitants), Clermont- Lodeve, or Cler- 
mont V Herault (with 6,000 inhabitants), Agde (with 8,500 inhabitants), Pezenas 
(with 9,000 inhabitants), Beziers (with 17,500 inhabitants), Bedarieux (with 
6,000 inhabitants), and St. Pons, surnamed de Tomiers (with 7,500 inhabitants). 
75. The Gard Department contains : -j-Nimes, chief town, pleasantly situated 
north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Montpellier, has numerous manu- 
factures of silks, woollen, etc., and 45,000 inhabitants, and is noted for a 



FRANCE. 221 



The Province of Languedoc. 



highly remarkable aqueduct, called Pont du Gard, and reared by the ancient 
Romans. Beaucaire, a town on the Rhone, north-westward and 54 miles 
distant from Marseilles, is noted for its important annual fair, and has 10,000 
inhabitants. Aigues Mortes, a town near the Mediterranean, with 3,000 in- 
habitants, salt-works, and a seaport, where Louis IX. embarked for the 6th 
and 1th crusade, in 1248 and 1269. Other towns of this department are: 
Uzes (with 7,000 inhabitants), St. Gilles (with 6,000 inhabitants), Sommieres 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), Villeneuve d' Avignon (with 3,600 inhabitants), Roque- 
maure (with 4,000 inhabitants), Alais (with 14,500 inhabitants), Bagnols, or 
Baignols (with 5,200 inhabitants), Pont St. Esprit (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
Remoulins (with 1,000 inhabitants), Anduze (with 5,000 inhabitants), St. 
Hippolyte (with 5,800 inhabitants), and Le Vigan (with 5,000 inhabitants). 
16. The Lozere Department contains : -J-Mende, chief town, on the Lot, north- 
eastward and 138 miles distant from Toulouse, with manufactures of serge, 
and 6,200 inhabitants. Other towns of this department are : Marvejols (with 
4,200 inhabitants), Florae (with 2,400 inhabitants), Langogne (with 3,000 inhab- 
itants), and C'hateauneuf de Random (with 2,500 inhabitants). The towns of 
Villefort and Violas are noted for their lead mines. 77. The Ardeche Depart- 
ment contains : -4-P RIVAS > chief town, on the Ouveze, southward and 69 miles 
distant from Lyons, with 4,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this department 
are : Tournon (with 4,300 inhabitants), St. Peray (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Vernoux (with 1,500 inhabitants), La Voulte (with 1,500 inhabitants), Anno- 
nay (with 9,500 inhabitants), Largentieres (with 3,100 inhabitants), Aubenas 
(with 5,500 inhabitants), Vals (with 2,000 inhabitants), Villeneuve de Berg 
(with 2,400 inhabitants), Bourg St. Andeol (with 4,000 inhabitants), and 
Rochemaure (with 1,500 inhabitants). Viviers (on the Rhone, with 2,000 
inhabitants) was formerly chief town of the district of Vivarais. 78. The 
Upper Loire Department contains : -|-Le Put, surnamed en Velay, chief town, 
near the Loire, north-eastward and 164 miles distant from Toulouse, and 
south-westward and 65 miles distant from Lyons, with a beautiful cathedral, 
various manufactures, and 15,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- 
ment are : Tence (with 6,000 inhabitants), Monistrol (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Yssingeaux, or Issengeaux (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Polignac (with the 
ruins of the ancestral seat of the princes of Polignac). To Languedoc belongs 
likewise the town of Castel Sarrazin, on the Garonne, 35 miles north-north- 
west of Toulouse, with 7,700 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the 
Tarn and Garonne Departments (see above, under the head of Guyenne). 



222 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The French Provinces of Languedoc and Dauphiny. 



The towns of Brioude and Langeac, within the limits of the Upper Loire 
Department, belonging to Auvergne, are already described there. 

XXXIII. Dauphiny, between the Rhone and Italy, on the south bordering 
upon Provence. At first forming part of the Burgundian kingdom, Dauphiny 
was subsequently ruled by earls, who since the beginning of the 11th century 
bore the title of Dauphins of Viennois. The last of them, Humbert II., be- 
queathed in 1343 the country to King Philip VI. of France, upon the condi- 
tion that every French crown-prince should bear the title of Dauphin. This 
custom has been observed until 1830. Dauphiny comprises at present 3 de- 
partments, viz. : the Isere Department (chief town Grenoble), the Upper Alps 
Department (chief town Gap) and the Drome Department (chief town Va- 
lence). 79. The Isere Department contains: -{-Grenoble, ancient capital of 
Dauphiny, on the Isere, south-eastward and 54 miles distant from Lyons, i3 
noted for its manufactures of gloves, and has 30,000 inhabitants. About 13 
miles north of Grenoble is situated in a dreary mountainous tract the princi- 
pal monastery of the Carthusians, called Grande Chartreuse, and founded in 
1084 by the holy Bruno. Vienne, a town on the Rhone, southward and 13 
miles distant from Lyons, is noted for its high antiquity and for its many rem- 
nants of Roman architecture, and has 17,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this department are: Sassenage (with 1,500 inhabitants), Vif (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), Vizille (with 3,000 inhabitants), Rives (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Voiron (with 8,500 inhabitants), Allemont (with 3,000 inhabitants), St. Mar- 
cellin (with 3,100 inhabitants), La Tour du Pin (with 2,600 inhabitants), 
Bourgain (with 4,000 inhabitants), Pont Beauvoisie (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
and La Balme (with 1,200 inhabitants). 80. The Upper Alps Department 
contains : -{-Gap, chief town, at the confluence of the Bonne and Luie, 50 
miles south south-east of Grenoble, with a remarkable cathedral, and 8,000 
inhabitants. Brianc/on, a town near the head of the Durance and in a tract 
of the Alps, which is elevated 7,374 feet above the sea, is noted for its strong 
fortifications, and has 3,600 inhabitants. Mont Dauphin, a town and fortress, 
with 500 inhabitants. Embrun, a town on the Durance, with a remarkable 
ancient cathedral, and 3,400 inhabitants. 81. The Drome Department con- 
tains: -(-Valence, chief town, on the Rhone, southward and 54 miles distant 
from Lyons, with a remarkable cathedral, and 11,500 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this department are : Die (with 4,000 inhabitants), Tain (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Romans (with 7,300 inhabitants), Dieu le Fit (with 4,000 
inhabitants), Montelimart (with 8,400 inhabitants), Chabeuil (with 4,000 



FRANCE. 223 



The Provinces of Dauphiny and Provence. 



inhabitants), Crest (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Nyons (with 3,500 inhabi- 
tants). 

To the government of Dauphiny did also belong the principality of Orange, 
which lies between Dauphiny and Provence along the Rhone. Since the 11th 
century it was under the sway of earls, who assumed the princely title, and 
became extinct in 1531 with Prince Philibert, who bequeathed the country 
to his nephew, Renatus of Nassau. Since that time the at present, in Hol- 
land, reigning line of the house of Nassau has been called Nassau-Orange, or 
the house of Orange. In the treaty of peac e concluded at Utrecht in 1713, 
the principality was ceded to France by the king of Prussia, who had inher- 
ited it from the prince, William III., of Orange (and king of England). At 
present the principality of Orange forms part of the Vaucluse Department 
(see below), and contains the towns of Orange (formerly its capital, near the 
Rhone, northward and 16 miles distant from Avignon, with 9,500 inhabitants), 
and Courteson (with 2,500 inhabitants). 

XXXIV. Provence, along the Mediterranean, between the Rhone and 
the Sardinian continent. About its history, see under the head of Bourgogne, 
or Burgundy ; and it needs only to be remarked that in 1481 Provence was 
definitively united to the French crown. At present it comprises 3 depart- 
ments, viz. : the Rhone-mouths Department (chief town Marseilles), the Var 
Department (chief town Draguignan) and the Lower Alps Department (chief 
town Digne). 82. The Rhone-mouths Department contains : Aix, the ancient 
capital of Provence, on the Arc, northward and 13 miles distant from Mar- 
seilles, with a remarkable cathedral, and 26,000 inhabitants. -{-Marseilles, 
the capital of the department and, in some respect, the first commercial city 
of France, on the Mediterranean, between the mouths of the Rhone and 
Toulon, has 160,000 inhabitants, a great many fine houses and public build- 
ings, is the seat both of literary institutions and manufactures, and its com- 
merce with the Levant is very extensive. Marseilles was founded 600 years 
before the Christian era by Greek colonists. Arles, a town on the Rhone, 
north-westward and 46 miles distant from Marseilles, has 22,000 inhabitants, 
and many remarkable ancient buildings, and was since 933 the capital of the 
kingdom of Arelat (see History of Burgundy above). Other towns of this 
department are : Martigues (with 7,800 inhabitants), Berre (with 2,000 inhab- 
itants), St. Chamas (with 3,000 inhabitants), Salon (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Lambesc (with 4,400 inhabitants), Istres (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tarascon 
(with 12,000 inhabitants), St. Remy (with 6,000 inhabitants), La Ciotat (with 



224 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Provinces of Provence and Avignon. 

5,000 inhabitants), Cassis (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aubagne (with 6,000 in- 
habitants), Auriol (with 5,000 inhabitants), Gardanne (with 3,000 inhabitants) 
Organ (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Chateau-Renard (with 3,600 inhabitants). 
83. The Var Department contains : -j-Draguignan. chief town, at the foot of 
the Alps, 60 miles north-north-east of Marseilles, with 10,500 inhabitants. 
Toulon, a strongly fortified town and chief naval station, on the Mediterra- 
nean, with one of the finest harbors in Europe, great naval stores, etc., and 
37,000 inhabitants. On the 16th of August, 1793, an English fleet under ad- 
miral Hood took possession of Toulon, which however was reconquered on 
the 18th of December, of the same year. Other towns of this department 
are : Seyne, or La Seyne (with 7,000 inhabitants), Brignolles (with 6,500 in- 
habitants), St. Barjols (with 4,000 inhabitants), St. Maximin (with 4.000 in- 
habitants), Grasse, or La Grasse (with 13,500 inhabitants), Ollioules (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Frejus (with 3,300 inhabitants), St. Tropez (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), Antibes (with 6,000 inhabitants), Cannes (with 4,500 inhabitants), 
St. Laurent Us Var (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Hyeres (with 8,000 inhabi- 
tants). Near the coast lie the Hyerian and Lerinian Islands. On the isle 
of Sainte Marguerite (belonging to the latter) it was, where the mysterious 
man with the iron mask was kept prisoner from the year 1661 to 1691. He 
died in 1704 in the Bastile of Paris, and it is presumed that he was a twin 
brother of Louis XIV. 84. The Lower Alps Department contains : -{-Digne, 
chief town, on the Blcone, and at the foot of the Alps, north-eastward and 
72 miles distant from Marseilles, with 6,600 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
department are : Colmars (with 1,300 inhabitants), Sisteron (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), Forcalquier (with 3,300 inhabitants), Riez (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Manosque (with 6,000 inhabitants), Barcelonette (with 2,400. inhabitants), 
Entrevaux, (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Castellane (with 2,200 inhabitants). 
The town of Apt, with 6,400 inhabitants, situated within the limits of the 
Vaucluse Department, belongs likewise to Provence. 

XXXV. Avignon and Venaissin, along the Rhone, and surrounded by 
Provence. In the history of the States of the Church (page 194) it has 
already been related, in which way the Apostolic See became possessed of 
the city of Avignon and the county of Venaissin. . The popes resided in 
Avignon during the period from 1305 to 1377. Since the year 1791 Avignon 
and Venaissin have continued to form a constituent part of France, and are 
comprised by : — 85. The Vaucluse Department, containing : -["Avignon, chief 
town, on the left bank of the Rhone, north-westward and 54 miles distant 



FRANCE. 225 



The Provinces of Avignon and Corsica. 



from Marseilles, with numerous remarkable ancient buildings, important mad- 
der trade, and 32,500 inhabitants. In the 14th century, when the pope re- 
sided here, the population amounted to 100,000 inhabitants. Garpentras, 
formerly the capital of the county of Venaissin, north-eastward and 13 miles 
distant from Avignon, with 10,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this depart- 
ment are : Venasque (with 1,800 inhabitants), Vaison (with 2,900 inhabitants), 
Cavaillon (with 7,000 inhabitants), and L'lsle (with 6,000 inhabitants). 

XXXVI. Corsica. — This island (area: 3,791 square miles; population: 
221,800 inhabitants), in the Mediterranean Sea, at about 90 miles distance 
from the coast of Provence, was since the year 237 B. C. under the sway of 
the Romans, and subsequently changed hands until first in 806, and then in 
1284 the Genuese took possession of it and kept it for nearly 500 years. The 
Genuese treated in a very despotic manner the Corsicans, who since 1729 re- 
volted at several times, and in 1735, declaring their independence, eleoted a 
German baron, Theodor of Neuhof, their king. But he was not able to main- 
tain himself, and died in England in 1756. The Corsicans meanwhile con- 
tinued to revolt, so that at last the Genuese republic thought it best to cede 
the island to France, which oceurred in 1768. In 1790 the govermnent of 
the island was transformed into: — 86. The Department Corsica, containing: 
-j-Ajaccio, chief town, on the western coast, is remarkable as the birth-place 
of Xapoleon, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Bastia was formerly the capital 
of Corsica, and has 13,500 inhabitants. Other towns on the island are: 
Corte (with 4,000 inhabitants), Calvi (with 2,200 inhabitants), San Fiorenzo, or 
St. Florent (with 600 inhabitants), Aleria (with 800 inhabitants), Sartene (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Porto Vechio (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Bonifacio (with 
3,300 inhabitants). 

The French Colonies are the following : — 

1. In Africa: Algeria (area estimated at 191,700 square 
miles, and population at 3,500,000 inhabitants), the island of 
Bourbon (area: 2,386 square miles; population: 110,000 inhabi- 
tants), settlements on the Senegal, etc. 

2. In Asia : The cities and towns of Pondichery, Karikal, 
Make, and Chandenagor. occupying together 532 square miles, 
with 180,000 inhabitants. 

3. In America : French Guyana, or Cajenne (with 30,000 

10* 



226 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The French Colonies. 

inhabitants), the West Indian islands of Guadeloupe (682 square 
miles, and 120,000 inhabitants), Martinique (362 square miles, 
and 1 16,000 inhabitants), etc., and the isles of St. Pierre, Miquelon, 
and Langley, near Newfoundland. 

4. In Polynesia, the French government has assumed a mock 
protectorate over Otaheite and other islands, but nowhere estab- 
lished a regular colony. 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

Area: 11*7,921 square miles. 
Population : 28,500,000 inhabitants. 

The united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland (as it is 
officially styled) comprises two large islands (with several groups 
of smaller ones), lying right opposite to the middle part of con- 
tinental Europe, and separated from it by the Strait of Dover. 

The largest of the two islands, embracing England (with Wales) 
and Scotland, is called Great Britain since the year 1603, when, 
by the accession of King James VI. of Scotland to the English 
throne, both kingdoms were united. 

The other and smaller of the two islands is Ireland, which in 
1172 was conquered by the English, and ever since has formed a 
constituent part, first of the kingdom of England, and since 1603 
of the united kingdom. 

About the seas, bays, etc., washing the shores of the British 
islands, see Introduction, § 8, pages 19 and 20. 

According to the census of 1841, the total population was 
26,861,464 inhabitants ; and according to that of 1845, the popu- 
lation of Great Britain (exclusive Ireland) amounted to 19,572,574 
inhabitants. The nation is divided into three classes : the 
nobility, gentry, and commonalty. The first comprises dukes, 
marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons ; the second, all who are 
distinguished for wealth, education, talents, or office ; and the 
third, tradesmen, artificers, and laborers. With regard to reli- 
gious concerns, the Church of England is established by law ; its 



228 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. 



supreme head is the sovereign, and under him are 2 archbishops, 
25 bishops, 60 archdeacons, and more than 10,000 deans, vicars, 
rectors, etc. The members of other churches are called dis- 
senters, and they comprise Methodists, Baptists, Independents, 
etc. This has, however, regard only to England (and Wales). 
In Ireland, there are four fifths of the people Roman Catholics, 
and nearly one half of the other fifth Presbyterians. On the 
other hand, in Scotland the established religion is Presbyterian- 
ism, the fundamental principle of which is the equality of the 
clergy, in opposition to Episcopacy and Prelacy. Lately a divi- 
sion has taken place, one half of the preachers having seceded, 
and formed the " Free Church of Scotland," in which the min- 
isters are elected by their hearers. 

About the principal mountain ranges in Great Britain, see 
Introduction, § 7, Tc. While thus Wales and most of the western 
counties of England are mountainous, the rest of England is 
diversified with beautiful hills, vales, and plains ; as it is for the 
most part also the case with Ireland, where, however, about an 
eighth part of the surface is covered with bogs, while in the south- 
west are mountains of about 3.000 feet high. Scotland is divided 
into the Highlands and Lowlands, which latter embrace the 
counties south of the rivers Forth and Clyde, and some tracts 
north of them. 

About the principal rivers, see Introduction, § 10. England is 
intersected by numerous canals, which extend about 2,800 miles 
in length. Most of them are of the most costly and perfect 
construction. In Scotland and Ireland are likewise excellent 
canals. At present England is, as it were, covered with a net of 
rail-roads, many of which have also been constructed in Ireland 
and Scotland. 

The climate is generally healthful, though moist in England 
and Ireland, and cold in the Highlands of Scotland. In Ireland 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 229 

The Products of England and Scotland. 

it is more mild than in England, and produces there a beautiful 
and continued verdure. The soil is, upon the whole, fertile, 
though, especially in the Scotch Highlands, generally poor. 

With the exception of timber and wine, the British islands are supplied 
with natural products in such quantities that, in case of necessity (as was the 
case in the period of the continental system from 1806 to 1813), they can dis- 
pense with any importation from the European continent. But, on the other 
hand, there are but few articles of this kind, which can be exported without 
prejudice to the home consumption. Until the last quarter of the last century, 
England, indeed, was enabled to export, upon an average, about two million 
bushels of grain annually; but since the year 1793 it could never afford that, 
although agriculture is conducted here with a skill almost unrivalled, and most 
of the grain is raised here. The chief products of England, in this and similar 
other respects, are, wheat, barley, oats, hops, etc. In Scotland, oats are the 
staple agricultural production. In Ireland, agriculture is in a less improved 
state than in England or Scotland ; barley, oats, wheat, and flax, are exten- 
sively cultivated ; but potatoes are the chief product, and form the principal 
food of the poor. The rearing of cattle is in a high state of perfection 
throughout most parts of the islands. There are about 11,500,000 head of 
cattle, more than 50,000,000 sheep of more or less improved breed, about 
2,250,000 horses, etc. In Ireland, grazing and the dairy are the best managed 
parts of husbandry. The British coal mines may be considered as inexhausti- 
ble. The tin mines of Cornwall have been renowned ever since the days of 
the Phoenicians. The lead mines of Cornwall yield, beside the lead, from 
12,000 to 20,000 marks of silver annually. Other productions from the mineral 
kingdom are, copper (Cornwall, Wales, and Anglesea island), iron (of which 
in 1842 about 1,500,000 tons were produced in England and Scotland), and 
black lead. 

England 'and in some respects, Scotland too) is the first man- 
ufacturing country in the world. The chief articles are cotton 
and woollen goods, hardware, earthen ware, silks, and leather. 
These six articles give employment to about 2,000,000 persons, 
who manufacture them to the value of about $500,000,000 an- 
nually. In Scotland, the principal manufactures are fine cotton 



230 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Commerce — Education, etc. 

goods, and coarse linens ; and in Ireland, it is linen, which, for 
instance, in Ulster is made in almost every village and family. 
In 1844, the aggregate value of the exported English cotton goods 
was estimated at £18,823,402. In the years 1840 and 1841 there 
were imported respectively 50,002,979 and 53,130,446 pounds of 
wool, and exported woollen goods at the value of respectively 
£5,780,810 and £6,276,888 ; and in 1844 this value had increased 
to more than £9,300,000. The value of other articles exported 
in the years 1840 and 1841, was more than £3,300,000 for linen, 
respectively £1,349,137 and £1,625,191 for hardware, respectively 
£792,648 and £786,066 for silks, respectively £573,184 and 
£590,772 for porcelain and earthen ware, respectively £417,178 
and £421,271 for glass wares, etc. 

The commerce is superior to that of any other nation, and 
extends to all quarters of the world. The capital vested in it is 
estimated at £1,500,000,000, or at more than $6,000,000,000. In 
1844, the exports were in value of £50,615,265. The commerce 
with the colonies was, in 1840, in value of £17,852,600. The 
British merchant vessels (exclusive those of the colonies) were 
on the 1st of January, 1845, 23,253 in number (among them, 897 
steam vessels), of the burthen of 2,995,196 tons. In the colonies, 
were 3,579 merchant vessels, of the burthen of 214,878 tons, in 
1837. 

With regard to the means of education, there are, upon the whole, 
8 universities, viz. : 3 in England, 1 in Ireland, and 4 in Scotland. 
About the English universities of Oxford and Cambridge, it has 
already been observed in the History of Europe (§ 17, /), that 
they were founded in a very early period of the middle ages ; yet, 
commonly, the years 1249 (for Oxford) and 1279 (for Cambridge) 
are considered as those when they were first formally and per- 
manently organized. In 1841, Oxford numbered 5,204, and 
Cambridge 5.530 students. In 1828, a third English university 



GREAT BRITAIN" AND IRELAND. 231 

Government and Finances of Great Britain. 

was founded in London, but on a different system than the other 
two; in 1842, it was frequented by- 886 students. The Irish 
university, founded in 1591, is in Dublin, and numbered 1,350 
students in 1841. The annual revenues of the universities of 
Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, amount to £834,038. The 
Scotch universities are, St. Andrews (founded in 1411, and in 
1841 with 200 students), Glasgow (founded in 1454, and in 1841 
with 1,570 students), Aberdeen (founded in 1471, and in 1841 with 
510 students), and Edinburgh (founded in 1581, and in 1841 
with 2,140 students). The higher seminaries of learning are 
numerous ; but the common schools are by far not in so high a 
state of improvement as, for instance, in Germany. Those of 
Scotland are in general better arranged and managed, than those 
of Ireland, and even England. 

The government is a limited hereditary monarchy, the supreme 
power being vested in a King (at present, a Queen), and Parlia- 
ment. The Parliament consists of two houses, viz. : a House of 
Lords, composed of bishops (i. e., of the established church), and 
hereditary peers of the above-stated five different ranks, and a 
House of Commons, composed of more than 600 representatives 
elected by the people. 

In the financial year, from the 5th July, 1845, to the 5th 
July, 1846, the public expenditure amounted to 49,895,800 pounds 
sterling, and the revenue to £52,715,871, which yielded a surplus 
of nearly £3,000,000. But since, in consequence of political 
events and other circumstances, the revenue has in the same 
degree decreased, as the expenditure has increased ; so that, upon 
the whole, the ratio of the public charges is thus, that every 
inhabitant of the united kingdoms has to contribute to them about 
$9 00 annually. The public debt had, on the 5th of January, 1844, 
attained the enormous height of 790,576,393 pounds sterling, the 
interest of which amounted to £28,161,959. 



232 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Early History of England. 

The army comprises about 122,000 men. inclusive more than 
30,000 which the government keep in India, besides the troops 
of the East Indian Company. The navy numbered in 1845, upon 
the whole, 680 vessels, 125 of which were steamers, 99 were ships 
of the line, 80 frigates, etc. 

The British orders of honor, are the following: — 1. The garter, 
instituted in 1349 by Edward III. ; it is the highest order of 
English knighthood. 2. The order of Bath, instituted in 1399 by 
Richard II., and renewed in 1725 by George I., in 3 classes since 
1815. 3. The Scotch thistle order, or order of St. Andrew, from 
the year 787, but renewed in 1540 by James V. of Scotland, and 
in 1703 by Queen Anne. 4. The Irish order of St. Patrick, insti- 
tuted in 1783. 5. The order of St. Michael and GWrg-e, instituted 
in 1818, only for Malta. 6. The order of British India, insti- 
tuted in 1837, only for officers in India. 

History. — About the early part of British history, see History of Europe, 
§§ 4 and 15. William the Conqueror reigned from 1066 to 1087, and was 
succeeded by two of his sons, first by William II (1087-1 100), then by Henry I. 
(1100-1135). After the death of Henry I. — who left an only daughter mar- 
ried to Godfrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou — a civil war broke out on account 
of Henry's nephew, Stephen of Blois, having mounted the English throne, in- 
stead of Henry's grandson (son of his daughter), Henry Plantagenet. At 
last a conciliation was brought about, and in 1 154 Henry Plantagenet mounted 
the throne by the name of Henry II He in 1172 conquered Ireland, died 
in 1189, and was succeeded by his son Richard I, surnamed of the Lion 
Heart, who died in 1199, and was succeeded by his brother John (surnamed 
without land). John was as weak and feeble as cruel, and was in 1215 com- 
pelled by the English barons to sign the Magna Charta, the foundation of 
the British constitution. He died in 1216, and his successors of the principal 
line of the house of Plantagenet were the following kings : Henry HI (1216- 
1272), Edward I (1272-1307), Edward II (1307-1327), Edward III (1327- 
1377), and Richard II (1377-1399). The last-named king, son of the Black 
Prince and grandson of Edward III., was by his cousin, Henry of Lancaster 
(likewise a grandson of Edward HI), taken prisoner and compelled to resign, 



GREAT BRITAIN" AND IRELAND. 233 

Historical Sketch of England. 

after which his cousin mounted the throne by the name of Henry IV. (1399- 
1413). He was succeeded by his son, Henry V. (1413-1422). Against his 
son Henry VI (1422-1461), rose his cousin, the duke Richard of York (great- 
grandson of Edward III.), pretending that he had nearer claims upon the 
throne than Henry. Thus began (in 1455) the war of the Roses, or between 
the Yorkists (wearing white roses as emblems) and the Lancastrians (wearing 
red roses) Richard of York was killed in a battle, but his son mounted the 
throne by the name of Edward IV. (1461-1483). The whole house of Lan- 
caster was exterminated, with the exception of Henry Tudor, earl of Rich- 
mond, who made his escape to France. Edward IV. died in 1483, and was 
succeeded by his eldest son, Edward V., who however, together with his 
younger brother, was murdered by his uncle, the duke Richard of Gloucester, 
who mounted the throne by the name of Richard III. but only reigned until 
1485, when he was subdued and killed in the battle of Bosworth by Henry 
Tudor, the last descendant of the house of Lancaster. Henry ascended the 
throne by the name of Henry VII. He died in 1509, and has the following 
successors from the house of Tudor (Lancaster) : Henry VIII. (1509-1547), 
Edward VI. (1547-1553), Mary (1553-1558), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). 
With Elizabeth the house of Tudor became extinct, and as her father's 
(Henry VlII.'s) sister Margaret had been married to James IV. of Scotland, 
the great-grandson of the latter, James VI. of Scotland (son of Mary Stuart), 
ascended the English throne by the name of James I. (1603-1625), and thus 
united both kingdoms. He died in 1625, and was succeeded by his son, 
Charles I, who after a very troublesome reign leading to a civil war, was be- 
headed on the 30th of January, 1649. The government was now called a 
republic, although Oliver Cromwell exercised an almost absolute power until 
his death, which occurred in 1658. His son Richard succeeded him in the 
dignity of a Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, but resigned 
spontaneously, upon which the eldest son of Charles I. ascended the throne 
by the name of Charles II. (1660-1685). He died in 1685, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother James II, who only reigned until 1688, when he was 
dethroned, and his sister Mary, or rather her consort William of Orange, in- 
vested with the royal power. After William's death (in 1702) his sister-in- 
law, Anne, ascended the throne, and when she died (in 1714), she was suc- 
ceeded by George I, elector of Hanover and great-grandson of James I. 
(whose daughter Elizabeth, married to the elector of the Palatinate, had a 
daughter who was the mother of George I.). George I. died in 1727, and 



234 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

England: its Geographical Divisions 

has had until now the following successors: George II. (1727-1760), George 
III. (1760-1820), George IV. (1820-1830), William IV. (1830-1837), and 
Victoria, who is still reigning. 

The British empire proper embraces the three united king- 
doms of England (inclusive Wales), Scotland, and Ireland, which 
are divided into counties, or shires (as they in England and Scot- 
land are called by preference). The capitals of the counties will 
be found marked with a cross (+). 



A.— THE KINGDOM OF ENGLAND. 

It comprises the southern half of the great eastern island, and 
consists of two unequal parts, the greater of which being England 
proper, and the by far smaller part constituting what is called 
Wales. The total area amounts to 58,468 square miles — England 
having an extent of 51,205 square miles, and Wales of 7,263 
square miles. The total population is about 17,000,000 inhabi- 
tants— 15,975,000 in England, and 1,000,000 in Wales. England 
proper contains 40 counties or shires. 

1. Middlesex, on the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -{-London, 
the metropolis of the British empire, and greatest city in Europe, on the 
Thames, 40 miles from its mouth, had in 1844 a population of 2,007,550, and 
at present more than 2,250,000 of inhabitants. The number of the houses is 
estimated at more than 300,000 ; that of the streets, lanes, etc., at 14,000. 
London embraces, besides the city proper, where the chief shops and ware- 
houses are, Westminster (containing the royal palaces, houses of Parliament, 
the grand Gothic edifice known by the name of Westminster Abbey, etc.), 
and Southwark (on the south side of the Thames, and containing the usaul 



GREAT BRITAIN" AND IRELAND. 235 

England : its Geographical Divisions. 

residence of the archbishop of Canterbury, called Lambeth palace, King's Bench, 
etc.), and numerous other districts with distinct names, covering a space of 
nearly 50 square miles. The most remarkable public buildings are, besides 
Westminster Abbey, especially, St. Paul's cathedral (next to St. Peter's at 
Rome, the greatest structure in Christendom), the Tower, the Bank of England, 
St. James' palace (royal residence in the period from 1695 to the beginning 
of the present century), Mansion house, Guildhall, etc. The bridges of London 
are seven in number, all built of stone, except one, which is constructed of 
iron ; one of these is a suspension bridge. The Tunnel under the Thames, is 
one of the most remarkable works of the age. London, which was already 
in the days of the Roman emperor Nero, a considerable trading town, became 
the capital of England during the reign of King Alfred. The ancient royal 
palace of Hampton Court, in the vicinity of London, was reared by the cardinal 
Wolsey, and in 1516 ceded by him to King Henry VIII. Another royal 
palace is at Kensington, a town, with 24,000 inhabitants. Above London, on 
the Thames, is Chelsea, a town, with 36,000 inhabitants, and containing the 
great national asylum for invalid soldiers. 

2. Berkshire, at the western frontier of Middlesex, and on the south side of 
the Thames, containing : -{-Reading, a town, with 20,000 inhabitants. Windsor, 
a town 22 miles from London, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated for its 
castle, which was originally erected nearly 8 centuries ago, and has been 
the chief and favorite residence of most of the sovereigns of England. Newbury 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), and Isley (noted for its sheep fairs), towns. 

3. Bucks, or Buckinghamshire, separated from the former shire by the 
Thames, containing : -(-Buckingham, a town on the Ouse, with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants. Eton, a town on the Thames, right against Windsor, is noted for its 
college, and has 4,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the village of 
Slough, where the renowned astronomer Herschel had his observatory, and 
died in 1822. Aylesbury, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 

4. Surrey, between Berkshire and Greenwich, containing : -{-Guildford, a 
town on the Wye, with 5,000 inhabitants. The village of Epsom (with 4,000 
inhabitants) is noted for its culture of hops, and that of Addiscombe for its 
military school of the British East Indian Company. At Kingston (a town 
with 5,000 inhabitants), the Saxon kings used to be crowned. The town of 
Croydon has 13,000 inhabitants. That above-mentioned part of London, called 
Southwark, containing 150,000 inhabitants, is situated within the limits of this 
shire. 



236 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

England : its Geographical Divisions. 

5. Kent, the most extensive and finest of the southern counties, contains : 
-(-Canterbury, the ecclesiastical metropolis of England, on the Stour, north- 
westward and 14 miles distant from Dover, and 92 miles east-south-east of 
London, with a highly remarkable cathedral, and 15,000 inhabitants. Green- 
wich, a town on the Thames, is famous for its naval hospital for infirm seamen, 
and its observatory, from which longitude is reckoned, and has 76,000 inhabi- 
tants. Dover, a town on the Straits of Dover (here 21 miles wide), has 
25,000 inhabitants, is the station of packets for France, and one of the so-called 
Cinque Ports, to which, moreover, belong the towns and seaports of Sandwich 
(with 9,000 inhabitants), Romney, and Hythe (the four others : Winchelsea, 
Rye, Hastings, and Seaford, are situated within the limits of Sussexshire). 
Other remarkable towns of this county are : Maidstone (with 33,000 inhabi- 
tants), Tunbridge (with 8,000 inhabitants, and the watering-place, Tunbridge 
Wells), Deptford (with 26,000 inhabitants, noted for its naval depot), Woolwich 
(noted for its immense train of artillery, has 18,000 inhabitants), Chatham 
(noted for its great arsenal of the navy, has 18,000 inhabitants), Gravesand 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), Rochester (with 10,000 inhabitants), Ramsgate (with 
9,000 inhabitants), and Margate (with 11,000 inhabitants). 

6. Sussex, on the English Channel, containing: -(-Chichester, a town on the 
Levant, eastward and 18 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 9,000 inhabi- 
tants. The towns and seaports of Hastings (with 11,000 inhabitants, and 
noted for the battle in 1066), Winchelsea (with 8,000 inhabitants), Rye (with 
6,000 inhabitants), and Seaford (which, however, is to be considered as a part 
of Hastings), belong to the above-mentioned Cinque Ports. Brighton, a 
splendid city since the days of George IV., whose favorite residence it was, 
has 50,000 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for sea-bathing. 

*7. Essex, along the northern bank of the Thames, containing : -[-Chelms- 
ford, a town 32 miles east-north-east of London, with 6,000 inhabitants. 
Harwich, a maritime town on the North Sea, formerly the station of packets 
for Sweden, Hamburg, and Holland, has 18,000 inhabitants. Colchester, a 
maritime town, noted for its oysters, has 20,000 inhabitants. 

8. Suffolk, on the north side of Essexshire, containing : -(-Ipswich, a town 
near the mouth of the Orwell, with 22,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this 
county are: Bury St. Edmunds (with 15,000 inhabitants), Lowestoff (with 
12,000 inhabitants), Sudbury (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Woodbridge (with 
4,000 inhabitants). 

9. Norfolk, on the north side of Suffolkshire, containing : -(-Norwich, the 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 237 

England: its Geographical Divisions. 



finest city in the east of England, on the Winsder and Yare, north-eastward 
and 129 miles distant from London, is noted for its ancient and beautiful ca- 
thedral, and its woollen goods, and has 62,000 inhabitants. Yarmouth, a 
maritime town, is noted for its herring fishery, and has 24,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this county are: Lynn Regis (with 17,000 inhabitants), Swajf- 
ham (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Downham (with 2,000 inhabitants). 

10. Cambridgeshire, bordering upon the two former counties, and contain- 
ing : -j-Cambridge, a town on the Cam, northward and 50 miles distant from 
London, is celebrated for its university, and has 25,000 inhabitants. New- 
market, a town with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for horse-races, and Ely, a 
town with 6,000 inhabitants, for its splendid cathedral, whose steeple is 400 
feet in height. .Wisbeach, a town with 7,000 inhabitants. 

11. Huntingdonshire, partly surrounded by Cambridgeshire, contains: 
-[-Huntingdon, a town on the Ouse, northward and 40 miles distant from 
London, with 4,000 inhabitants. Cromwell was born here hi 1599. St. Ives 
is a fine village, or town, on the Ouse, with 3,000 inhabitants. 

12. Lincolnshire, between Cambridgeshire and the Humber, containing : 
-f-LiNCOLN, a city on the Witham, northward and 119 miles distant from 
London, is celebrated for its venerable cathedral with 3 high steeples, and 
has 36,500 inhabitants. Another beautiful Gothic church is in the town of 
Boston, at the mouth of the Witham into the Wash, with 35,000 inhabitants. 
In the neighboring village of Woolsthorpe the celebrated Sir Isaac Newton 
(+1727) was born in 1642. Grimsby, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
Humber, with 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Spalding 
(with 7,000 inhabitants), Gainsborough (with 7,000 inhabitants), and Stam- 
ford (with 6,000 inhabitants). 

13. Hertfordshire, between Cambridge and London, containing : -{-Hert- 
ford, a town northward and 23 miles distant from London, with 6,000 in- 
habitants, and an institution where civil officers of the East Indian Company 
are instructed and prepared for their future destination in India. St. Albans, 
a town with a remarkable Gothic church and 6,000 inhabitants. 

14. Oxfordshire, bordering upon Middlesex, and containing: -[-Oxford, a 
town on the Thames, is celebrated for its university, and has 22,000 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns of this county are : Woodstock (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
and Banbury (with 6,000 inhabitants). 

15. Bedfordshire, between Oxford and Cambridgeshire, con taming : -{-Bed- 
ford, a town on the Ouse, 23 miles west-south-west of Cambridge, with 8,000 



238 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

England: its Geographical Divisions. 

inhabitants. Woburn, a borough with 2,000 inhabitants, and the splendid 
mansion of the family of Russell, called Woburn Abbey. 

16. Hants or Hampshire, between Berkshire and the English Channel, con- 
taining: -f- Winchester, a city on the Itching, south-westward and 65 miles 
distant from London, with a cathedral reared by the Saxon kings, and 10,000 
inhabitants. During part of the middle ages Winchester was the capital of 
England, and is at present noted for its college. Portsmouth, a strongly 
fortified city on the southern coast, has 64,000 inhabitants, and the best har- 
bor in Great Britain, is the great arsenal and rendezvous of the navy, and 
situated near the famous roadstead of Spithead. The maritime town of 
Southampton, with 27,500 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade with 
the Norman islands and the south of France, and is much resorted to for sea- 
bathing. Gosport (with 14,000 inhabitants), and Chrislchurch (with 5,000 in- 
habitants), boroughs. The fertile Isle of Wight (192 square miles, and 
86,000 inhabitants) is noted for it beautiful and romantic sceneries. 

17. Dorsetshire, on the southern coast, contains : -[-Dorchester, a town on 
the Frome, westward and 65 miles distant from Portsmouth, with 5,000 in- 
habitants. Other towns of this county are : Weymouth (with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), Bridport (with 5,000 inhabitants), Poole (with 7,000 inhabitants), and 
Shaftsbury (with 4,000 inhabitants). The fertile Bill of Portland is noted 
for its quarries. 

18. Devonshire, between Dorsetshire and Cornwall, contains: -(-Exeter, a 
city on the mouth of the Exe, westward and 115 miles distant from Portsmouth, 
and north-eastward and 42 miles distant from Plymouth, with a magnificent 
cathedral, and 32,000 inhabitants. Plymouth, a fortified city on the English 
Channel, with 76,000 inhabitants, is one of the great naval stations, and noted 
for its breakwater, which cost more than $5,000,000. The city embraces at 
present Plymouth proper, Devonport (formerly called Plymouth Dock), and 
Stonehouse. At about 14 miles distance from the roadstead of Plymouth 
on a solitary cliff, stands the well-known lighthouse of Eddystone. There are 
many beautiful and splendid country-seats in Devonshire, among them Mount 
Edgecombe and Ugbrook. Remarkable towns are, among others : Tavistock 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), Dartmouth (with 5,000 inhabitants), Teignmouth (with 
6,000 inhabitants), Barnstable (with 8,000 inhabitants), Tiverton (with 10,500 
inhabitants), Biddeford (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Sidmouth (with 3,000 
inhabitants). 

19. Cornwall, forming a peninsula at the south-western extremity of Eng- 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 239 



England : its Geographical Divisions. 



land, is celebrated, even since the time of the Phoenicians, for its tin, and 
since the middle ages, for its copper also. At an early period it was ruled 
by earls, but at the beginning of the 9th century subdued by King Egbert. 
Edward III. promoted the county of Cornwall to the rank of a duchy, in 
favor of his son, the renowned Black Prince ; and since that time the first- 
born royal prince assumes the title of a duke of Cornwall, after which he is 
created prince of Wales. It contains : -[-Launceston, a town on the Tamar, 
with 5,000 inhabitants. Falmouth, a maritime town at the mouth of the 
Pal, 46 miles west south-west of Plymouth, is a stopping place of steamers 
for Spain and the West Indies, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
Cornwall are : Truro (with 8,000 inhabitants), Penzance (with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Penryn (with 5,000 inhabitants). The south-western extremity 
of Cornwall is known by the name of Land's End, and its southern extremity 
by that of Cape Lizard, or Lizard Point. Not far from Land's End are lying 
in the Atlantic Ocean the Scilly Isles, six of which are inhabited, having a 
total population of 3,000 inhabitants. To the Phoenicians and other people of 
antiquity they were known by the name of Cassiterides, or Tin-Mands. 

20. Wilts, or Wiltshire, towards the interior, containing : -{-Salisbury, a city 
on the Avon, 70 miles west-south-west of London, is celebrated fpr its elegant 
Gothic cathedral, the spire of which is 410 feet high, and has 10,000 inhabi- 
tants. Bradford, a town on the Avon, with 12,000 inhabitants, is noted for 
its manufactures of fine cloth. Other towns are : Wilton (with 8,000 inhabi- 
tants) and Chippenham (with 6,000 inhabitants). Near Wilton is the splendid 
country seat of Lord Pembroke, called Wiltonhouse. Another one, belonging 
to the family of Radnor, and called Longford, is noted for its fine collection 
of pictures. 

21. Somersetshire, between Wilts and the Bristol Channel, containing : 
-{-Bristol, a city on a branch of the Severn, westward and 115 miles distant 
from London, has 120,000 inhabitants, and is the third commercial town in 
England. About 9 miles from here is Bath, a city, with 70,000 inhabitants, 
is noted for its hot mineral waters, and visited by persons (sometimes to the 
number of 8,000 in the season) in quest of health and pleasure. The Gothic 
cathedral of Bath is very remarkable, as is also that of Wells, a town, with 
7,000 inhabitants. Other towns of Somerset, for the most part noted for their 
woollen manufactures, are : Calne (with 5,000 inhabitants), Froome (with 
25,000 inhabitants), Taunton (with 33,500 inhabitants), and Bridgewater (with 
10,000 inhabitants). The town of Glastonbury is noted for the ruins of a 



240 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

England : its Geographical Divisions. 

monastery which covered sixty acres, and whose foundation was laid in a very 
early period of the Christian era ; at least, King Arthur, son of Uther Pen- 
dragon, who reigned from 516 to 542, was buried here. 

22. Gloucestershire, bordering upon Oxfordshire, contains: -f- Gloucester, a 
city on the Severn, north-eastward and 37 miles distant from Bristol, with a 
remarkable ancient cathedral (where William the Conqueror and Edward II. 
are buried), manufactures of pins, and 27,000 inhabitants. Cheltenham, noted 
for its mineral waters, and Stroud, for its cloth manufactures, are towns, with 
respectively 40,500 and 10,000 inhabitants. Tewkesbury, a town, with 8,000 
inhabitants, has a Gothic church with the sepulchres of the English king of 
the house of Plantagenet. Berkeley, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is remark- 
able as the birth-place of the renowned Dr. Jenner. 

23. Monmouthshire, between Wales and Gloucestershire, contains: -|-Mon- 
mouth, a town in a romantic situation, northward and 23 miles distant from 
Bristol, with 6,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity are the highly interesting 
ruins of Tintern Abbey, and of Ragland Castle, which latter was once the 
residence of the dukes of Beaufort. Chepstow (with 6,000 inhabitants), Newport 
(with 8,000 inhabitants), and Abergavenny (with 5,000 inhabitants). 

24. Herefordshire, at the northern frontiers of Gloucestershire, containing: 
-(-Hereford, a city on the Wye, northward and 42 miles distant from Bristol, 
with a remarkable cathedral, and 34,500 inhabitants. Leominster, or Lempster, 
a town on the Lugg, with 6,000 inhabitants. Ross, a borough on the Wye, 
with 4,000 inhabitants. Here lived Pope's " man of Ross." 

25. Worcestershire, towards the interior, containing : -(-Worcester, a city on 
the Severn, north-westward and 105 miles distant from London, is noted for 
its porcelain, and has a highly remarkable cathedral, and 27,500 inhabitants. 
Kidderminster, a manufacturing town on the Stour, with 30,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this county are : Stourbridge (with 7,000 inhabitants), Dudley 
(with 24,000 inhabitants), and Droitwich (with 3,000 inhabitants). 

26. Warwickshire, at the northern frontier of Oxfordshire, containing : 
-(-Warwick, a town on the Avon, north-westward and 82 miles distant from 
London, with 9,500 inhabitants. Near it lies on a rock Warwick Castle, 
belonging to the earl of Warwick, and reared in the middle ages. Coventry, 
a manufacturing town, noted for its watches and ribbons, has 31,500 inhabi- 
tants. Kenilworth, a borough, with 3,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the 
once so renowned castle of the same name, reared in the 12th century by King 
Henry I. Stratford, a town on the Avon, with 6,000 inhabitants, is remark- 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 241 

England : its Geographical Divisions. 

able as the birth-place of Shakspeare. The borough of Leamington, with 
6,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to on account of its mineral baths. Rugby, 
a town, with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its college. Birmingham, a city, 
with 183,000 inhabitants, about half way between Liverpool and London, is 
the great centre of the manufacture of hardware, including fire-arms, steam 
engines, locks, screws, buttons, and such a variety of small articles that it has 
been styled the " toy-shop of Europe." Similar manufactures are at Soho, 
which is considered as a suburb of Birmingham, though it is situated within 
the limits of Staffordshire. 

27. Staffordshire, at the northern frontier of the former, contains : -{-Staf- 
ford, a town, north-westward and 23 miles distant from Birmingham, with 
8,000 inhabitants. Burslem, a town on the Great Trunk Canal, with 14,000 
inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of earthen ware, and is at the same 
time the centre of the so-called Potteries, a district comprising numerous 
villages (among them, that of Etruria), where the Wedgewood ware is fabri- 
cated. Burton, surnamed upon Trent, a town on the Trent, is noted for its 
excellent ale, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Lichfield, a town, with 8,000 inhab- 
itants, and a renowned college, instituted by Edward VI. Wolverhampton, 
a city, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 50,000 inhabitants, is noted for 
its hardware, and Bradley for its iron works. Other towns of this oounty 
are: Walsall (with 16,000 inhabitants), Wednesbury (with 9,000 inhabitants), 
Newcastle under Lyne (with 9,000 inhabitants), Bilston (with 16,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Tamworth (with 8,000 inhabitants). 

28. Northamptonshire, on the northern side of Oxfordshire, containing : 
-{-Northampton, a town on the Nen, 64 miles north-north-west of London, 
with 28,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is Althorp, the ancestral seat 
of the earl of Spencer. Peterborough, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, and a 
remarkable cathedral, where the unfortunate Scottish queen, Mary Stuart, 
lies buried. She was beheaded on the 8th of February, 1587, in the neigh- 
boring castle of Pothering ay, which, by order of her son, James I., was 
entirely demolished. Stamford, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants. 

29. Rutland, northward from Northamptonshire, containing : -{-Oakham, a 
town in the fertile valley of Cathross, 92 miles north-north-west of London, 
with 4,000 inhabitants. Uppingham, a town with 2,500 inhabitants. 

30. Leicestershire, on the western side of Rutland, containing : -^Leicester, 
a city on the Sour, 37 miles east-north east of Birmingham, with manufac- 
tures of stockings, and 51,000 inhabitants. The borough of Lutterworth if. 

li 



242 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 

England: its Geographical Divisions. 



remarkable as the birth-place of Wickliffe ; and Belvoir is the splendid coun- 
try-seat of the duke of Rutland. Loughborough (with 25,000 inhabitants), 
and Melton Mowbray (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. 

31. Shropshire, or Salop, at the frontier of Wales, containing: -{-Shrews- 
bury, a town on the Severn, southward and 56 miles distant from Liverpool, 
with the beautiful remains of an ancient castle, and 22,000 inhabitants. 
Other towns of this county are : Ludlow (with 8,000 inhabitants), Broseley 
(with 5,000 inhabitants), Bridgenorth (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Oswestry 
(with 10,000 inhabitants). The borough of Shiffnall (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
and the extensive village of Colebrookdale are noted for their iron- works. 

32. Cheshire, or the Palatinate of Chester, at the frontier of Wales, and 
northward from Shropshire, containing: -{-Chester, a city on the Dee, 
southward and 14 miles distant from Liverpool, is noted for its cheese, and 
has a remarkable cathedral, and 23,000 inhabitants. The town of Mac- 
clesfield (with 25,000 inhabitants), is noted for its silks. Other towns of 
this county are : Northwich (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nantwich (with 6,000 
inhabitants), and Stockport (with numerous manufactures, and 86,000 inhabi- 
tants). 

33. Nottinghamshire, between Cheshire and Leicester, containing : -(-Not- 
tingham, a city on the Trent, south-eastward and 10 miles distant from Liver- 
pool, is noted for its stockings and ale, and has 54,000 inhabitants. Another 
manufacturing town is Newark, with 10,000 inhabitants. The town of 

Worksop (with 6,000 inhabitants) may be considered as the chief place of 
the so-called Bakeries, comprising many country-seats, among others, Work- 
sop Manor (the property of the duke of Norfolk), Clumber Park (of the 
duke of Newcastle), Welbeck Abbey (of the duke of Portland), and Newstead 
Abbey (formerly belonging to Lord Byron). Mansfield, a borough with 11,000 
inhabitants. 

34. Derbyshire, at the northern frontier of Nottinghamshire, containing: 
-|-Derby, a town on the Derwent and Trent, westward and 14 miles distant 
from Nottingham, with various manufactures and 35,500 inhabitants. Other 
towns of this county are : Chesterfield (with 6,000 inhabitants), Castleton 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), Buxton (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Matlok (with 
4,000 inhabitants). Chatsivorth is the splendid country-seat of the duke of 
Devonshire. 

35. Lancashire, or the Palatinate of Lancaster, at the northern frontier of 
Wales, and comprising part of the English west coast, contains: -{-Lancaster, 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 243 



England: its Geographical Divisions. 



a town on the Lancaster Bay, northward and 46 miles distant from Liverpool, 
with 36,000 inhabitants. Liverpool, a city with 295,000 inhabitants, and 
nearly 25,000 houses, on the river Mersey, near its mouth, is next to London 
in commerce, the great depot of the trade with America and Ireland, and 
notecFfor the most costly docks in the world. In 1833 the custom-house of 
Liverpool had a revenue of not less than 3,555,955 pounds sterling. There 
are many splendid public edifices in this city, which in the 16th century was 
yet an insignificant place. Manchester, a city on the Irrwell, eastward and 
30 miles distant from Liverpool, is the great centre of the cotton manufacture, 
and has 310,000 inhabitants. The following cities and towns are also more 
or less noted for their cotton manufactures : Blackburn (with 75,000 inhabi- 
tants), Bolton (with 98,000 inhabitants), Oldham (with 68,000 inhabitants), 
Rochdale (with 60,000 inhabitants), Wigan (with 66,500 inhabitants), Bury 
(with 78,000 inhabitants), Preston (with 77,500 inhabitants), Warrington 
(with 32,000 inhabitants), and Ashton under Line (with 130,500 inhabitants, 
inclusive the parish). The town of Prescot (with 8,000 inhabitants) is noted 
for its manufactures of watch-wheels, clock-works, etc., and the borough of 
St. Helen's for its manufactures of looking-glasses. 

36. Yorkshire, along the eastern coast, is the most extensive county of 
England (5,985 square miles, and 1,600,000 inhabitants), and subdivided into 
three districts, or Ridings, viz. : North Riding, East Riding, and West Riding, 
containing : -[-York, the second city of the kingdom in rank, being the resi- 
dence of the archbishop of York, is situated in an extensive plain on the 
Ouse, northward and 184 miles distant from London, is noted for its splendid 
cathedral (reared in the 12 th, but not completed before the 14th century), and 
has 36,000 inhabitants. To East Riding belong the following cities and 
towns : Hull (noted for its trade to the Baltic, and the whale fishery, has 
50,000 inhabitants), Goole (with 12,000 inhabitants), Beverley (with 10,000 
inhabitants), Bridlington (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Howden (with 2,000 
inhabitants). North Riding comprises : Scarborough, a maritime and com- 
mercial town on the North Sea, with 10,000 inhabitants ; Whitby, another 
commercial town, with 12,000 inhabitants, much engaged in the coal trade. 
The town of Richmond (with 6,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines, 
and the borough of Gisborough (with 2,500 inhabitants) for its canvass manu- 
factures, and alum works. West Riding comprises the following manufac- 
turing cities and towns : Leeds (famous for its manufactures of cloth and other 
woollen goods, with 170,000 inhabitants, Hvddersfield and Halifax (each with 



244 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

England: its Geographical Divisions. 

110,000 inhabitants, and both noted for their cloth manufactures), Wakefield 
(also with important cloth manufactures, corn and cattle fairs, and 46,000 
inhabitants); Sheffield (noted for cutlery and plated goods, with 85,000 
inhabitants), Bradford (with 14,000 inhabitants), and Keighley (with 68,000 in- 
habitants, both noted for their manufactures of woollen goods), and finally 
Kiiaresborough (noted for its linen, and mineral waters, with 8,000 inhabitants). 
The village of Harrowgate is likewise r esorted to for its mineral waters. 

3*7. Durhamshire, at the northern frontier of Yorkshire, containing : -{-Dur- 
ham, a city on the "Wear, 54 miles north-north-west of York, with a remark- 
able cathedral (reared in the 11th century), manufactures of carpets, etc., and 
39,000 inhabitants. The towns of Sunderla?id and Wearmouth, situated on 
opposite sides of the Wear at its mouth, are joined together by a very 
remarkable iron bridge, are largely engaged in the coal trade, and have a total 
population of 57,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Stockton, 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), and Darlington (with 9,000 inhabitants). 

38. Northumberland, the most northerly county, containing : -{-Newcastle, 
surnamed upon Tyne, a city on the Tyne, south-eastward and 92 miles distant 
from Edinburgh, is famous for its coal-pits, various manufactures, and the 
whals fishery, and has 72,000 inhabitants. The town of Shields (with im- 
portant coal trade, and 30,000 inhabitants) consists properly of two parts, viz. ; 
North Shields in Northumberland, and South Shields in Durham. Berwick, 
a town on the Tweed, and at the frontier of Scotland, with 16,000 inhabi- 
tants, was by James VI. (of Scotland) declared neutral territory, though a 
Scotch county bears its name. Other towns of Northumberland are : Tyne- 
mouth (with 25,000 inhabitants), Hexham (with 6,000 inhabitants), Morpeth 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), and Alnwick (with 6,000 inhabitants, and a splendid 
Gothic castle of the duke of Northumberland). 

39. Cumberland, on the west coast, and bordering upon Scotland, contains : 
-{-Carlisle, a city on the Eden, westward and 54 miles distant from Newcastle, 
with a remarkable cathedral, various manufactures, and 36,500 inhabitants. 
"Whitehaven, a maritime town, largely engaged in the coal trade, has 30,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Workington (with 7,000 inhabi- 
tants), Maryport (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Penrith (with 5,000 inhabi- 
tants). The borough of Keswick (with 3,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead 
pencils. 

40. Westmoreland, between Cumberland and Lancashire, containing : -{-Ap- 
pleby, a borough on the Eden, northward and 80 miles distant from Liverpool, 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 245 

Wales : its Geographical Divisions. 

with 3,000 inhabitants. Kendal, a town, with numerous manufactures of 
woollen and other goods, and 35,000 inhabitants. 

The principality of Wales (area : 7,263 square miles ; popula- 
tion : 1,000,000 inhabitants) forms indeed a constituent part of 
the kingdom of England, but is in all public acts denominated 
discriminately. It comprises that part of the English west coast 
situated between Bristol and Liverpool, is inhabited by descend- 
ants of the ancient Britons, and continued to be an independent 
kingdom for several centuries, until in 1282 it was subdued by 
the English king Edward I., though first since the year 1536 it 
has permanently been united with England. The eldest son of 
the sovereign of England, is styled Prince of Wales. Most of 
the people talk the Welsh language, and excel chiefly in the 
manufacturing of flannel. Iron, lead, copper, and coal, abound. 
Wales is divided into 12 counties, 6 of which are in South Wales, 
and 6 in North Wales. 

South Wales comprises the following six counties : — 

41. Pembrokeshire, containing: -f-P EMBR0KE ) a town on the Milford Haven, 
with 8,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of a remarkable ancient castle, reared 
in the beginning of the 11th century. St. David's, the ecclesiastical capital 
of South Wales, with 4,000 inhabitants. Haverfordwest, a town, with 6,000 
inhabitants. Milford, sl borough noted for its fine harbor, with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants. 

42. Caermarthenshire, containing : -j-Caermarthen, an important commer- 
cial town on the Tawey, with 10,000 inhabitants. Llanelly and Kidwelly, 
towns on the Bristol Channel, with respectively 4,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 

43. Glamorganshire, containing : -j-Cardiff, a town at the mouth of the 
Severn, with 7,000 inhabitants. Swansea, an important commercial town at 
the mouth of the Tawey, is at the same time a noted resort for sea-bathing, 
and has 40,000 inhabitants. Merthyr Tydvil, a town, with 30,000 inhabi- 
tants, is noted for its iron works and mines, and coal-pits. Llandajf, the resi- 
dence of a bishop, with 2,000 inhabitants. Neath, a town on the river of the 
same name, with coal-pits, iron and copper mines, and 8,000 inhabitants. 



246 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Wales: its Geographical Divisions. 



44. Brecon, or Brecknockshire, containing : -{-Brecknock, a town on the 
Uske, with manufactures of cloth and stockings, and 8,000 inhabitants. 
Crickhowel, a borough, with flannel manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants. 

45. Radnorshire, containing : -{-Presteign, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. 
Radnor, or properly New Radnor, a town with 2,500 inhabitants. 

46. Cardiganshire, containining : -[-Cardigan (with coasting trade and 
3,000 inhabitants), and Aberystwith (with sea-bathing, and 5,000 inhabitants), 
towns on the Cardigan Bay. 

North Wales comprises the following six counties : 

47. Montgomeryshire, containing : -(-Montgomery, a town at the frontier 
of Shropshire, with the ruins of an ancient castle, and 2,000 inhabitants. 
Welshpool, a town with 6,000 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of 
flannel. Llanydloes, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. 

48. Merionetshire, containing : -{-Bala, a town on the Pimple lake, or Bala 
pool, with fishery, manufactures of flannel, and 2,500 inhabitants. Dolgelly 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), and Harleigh, or Harlech (with 2,500 inhabitants). 

49. Flintshire, containing : -{-Flint, a town on the Dee, with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants, and the ruins of a castle, where Richard II. was in 1399 kept prisoner 
and killed. Flint is much resorted to for sea-bathing. The neighboring town 
of Holywell (with 10,000 inhabitants) is noted for its lead mines, brass- and 
copper- works. St. Asaph is the residence of a bishop, and has 4,000 inhabi- 
tants. Near the town of Mold (with 8,000 inhabitants) are lead mines and 
coal-pits. 

50. Denbighshire, containing : -[-Denbigh, a town near the Cluyd, and in a 
highly fertile valley, with a remarkable castle and 5,000 inhabitants. Wrex- 
ham, a town with 7,000 inhabitants, is noted for its flannel and iron- and brass- 
works. Ruthin, a town with 4,000 inhabitants. 

51. Caernarvonshire, containing: -[-Caernarvon, a town on the Menai 
Strait, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its stately castle, reared in the 
13th century by Edward I. Bangor and Aberconway, towns with respectively 
5,000 and 2,000 inhabitants. 

52. Anglesea, a county comprising the island of this name, which has 
186 square miles in extent, and a population of 50,000 inhabitants, and is 
separated from Wales by the Menai Strait. This strait is crossed by the 
Menai bridge, one of the most remarkable of the kind in the world ; it con- 
sists of strong iron chains, which connect arches of masonry, 560 feet apart ; 
thus forming a safe and useful structure. The island of Anglesea, rioted for 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 247 

The Isle of Man, the Norman Islands, and the Isle of Heligoland. 

its copper mines, contains : -(-Beaumaris, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. In 
its vicinity is the romantically situated mansion of Baron Hill. The 
borough of Holyhead (with 5,500 inhabitants) is a chief station of packets 
for Ireland. 

To England, but to none of its counties, belong the following 

islands : 

(a.) The isle of Man (224 square miles, and 45,000 inhabitants), lying in the 
Irish Sea, at about equal distance from each of the three united kingdoms. 
Its natives are called Manxmen, and their language is very similar to that of 
the native Irish. Their ancestors were subdued in the 10th century by the 
Danes, and in the 11th by the Normans (from Normandy). In the 13th een- 
tury the Scotch, and in the 14th the English conquered the island, with which 
in the 15th century the earls of Derby were invested, and since styled kings. 
In the 16th century, however, the duke of Athol became possessed of the 
island, which in 1765 was purchased by the British government, in order to 
put an end to the smuggling which was carried on here upon the largest 
scale. The capital of the island is Castleton, on the southern coast, with 
3,000 inhabitants. It was formerly called Sodor. The residence of the 
ancient kings of Man was in Castle Rushen. The most important town of 
the isle is Douglas, residence of a bishop, with 7,000 inhabitants. Another 
town is Ramsay, with 2,000 inhabitants. 

(b.) The Norman Islands (total area: 266 square miles ; total population: 
80,000 inhabitants), situated in the English Channel, near the French coast 
of Normandy. They are the only possession left to the English of what 
they formerly had wrested from France. They have a mild climate and a 
fertile soil, and are the following: — 1. Jersey (149 square miles, and 41,000 
inhabitants), containing, among others, the towns of St. Helier (with 22,000 
inhabitants), and St. Aubin (with 2,000 inhabitants). 2. Guernsey (96 square 
miles, and 34,000 inhabitants), containing, among others, St. Pierre, or St. Peter's 
Port (with 20,000 inhabitants). 3. Alderney, or Aurigny (16 square miles, 
and 4,000 inhabitants), containing the borough of the same name, with 1,000 
inhabitants. 4. Sark (5 square miles, and 1,000 inhabitants), is in French 
called Cers, or Sereg, and contains the fortified seaport of Longy. 

(c.) The Scilly Isles (see above, under the head of Cornwall). 

The Isle of Heligoland (5 square miles, and 3,500 inhabi- 



248 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Scotland: its History. 

tants), lying in the North Sea, before the mouths of the Weser, 
Elbe, and Eider, is inhabited by descendants of the ancient 
Friselanders, was in 1714 subdued by the Danes and annexed 
to the duchy of Sleswick, and in 1814 ceded by Denmark to 
the British crown. Heligoland is much resorted to for sea- 
bathing. 



R— THE KINGDOM OF SCOTLAND. 

It comprises the northern smaller half of the great eastern 
island, has 31,268 square miles in extent, and a population of 
2,840,000 inhabitants. Little is known about the aborigines of 
Scotland ; they were called Caledonians by the Romans, who 
conquered a part of the country. The Picts, mentioned at a later 
period, seem to have been identical with the Caledonians ; while 
the Scots had their primitive home in Ireland, from whence they 
emigrated at an early period of the Christian era. They sub- 
dued, in 836, the Picts, and became since the ruling people, 
though since the 8th century intermingled with the Angles and 
Saxons. From the 9th to the 13th century, they were ruled by 
kings of the house of Kenneth, which became extinct in 1289. 
Now a long struggle arose for the crown between the two mighty 
families of Baliol and Bruce, when finally the latter became 
possessed of it. In 1371, it was transferred to Robert Stuart, a 
nephew of King David of the house of Bruce. That James VI., 
son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English throne in 1603, thus 
uniting both kingdoms, is already related in the British history. 

Scotland is, by the Grampian hills, divided into the Highlands 
and Lowlands, and politically into 32 shires, or counties, inclusive 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 249 



Scotland : its Geographical Divisions. 



numerous islands. The latter, however, we shall describe sepa- 
rately, in order to get a clearer view of them. 
The Loivland counties are the following : — 

1. Mid- Lothian, or Edinburghshire, containing : -[-Edinburgh, the metrop- 
olis of Scotland, quite near the Frith of Forth, 396 miles north by west of 
London, with about 13,000 houses, and 190,000 inhabitants (including Leith). 
The new town, on the north, regularly laid out and built of freestone, is one 
of the most beautiful towns of Europe. The most remarkable public edifices 
of the city are, Holyrood, once the residence of the Scottish kings (the rooms 
inhabited by Mary Stuart are left in their former condition and arrangement), 
and Edinburgh Castle, likewise conspicuous in Scottish history. Edinburgh 
has but few manufactures, yet it has long been noted for its science and learn- 
ing, and especially its university is distinguished. Leith, its seaport, was 
formerly 2 miles distant, but is now joined to Edinburgh by continuous ranges 
of buildings. Musselburgh (with 10,000 inhabitants) and Dalkeith (with 7,000 
inhabitants), towns. 

2. West Lothian, or Linlithgowshire, containing : -(-Linlithgow, a town 
about 5 miles distant from the Frith of Forth, with 6,000 inhabitants, and an 
ancient royal palace, where Mary Stuart was born in 1542. Borrowstownness 
(in common life, Bo'ness) and Bathgate, towns, with respectively 8,000 and 
4,000 inhabitants. 

3. East Lothian, or Haddingtonshire, containing : -[-Haddington, a town 
on the Tyne, with 6,000 inhabitants. Dunbar, a maritime town, 32 miles 
east-north-east of Edinburgh, is noted for the battle on the 3d of September, 
1650, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Prestonpans, a town noted for a battle in 
1145, has 3,000 inhabitants. 

4. Berwickshire, or Mersc, containing : -(-Greenlaw, a borough on the Black 
Adder, with 2,000 inhabitants. The town of Dunse, with 4,000 inhabitants, 
is noted for its cattle fairs. The renowned scholar of the middle ages, 
Duns Scotus (-(- 1308), was born here in 1274. Coldstream, a borough on the 
Tweed, with 3,000 inhabitants. The British Coldstream Regiment bears its 
name from this place. 

5. Roxburghshire, or Teviotdale, containing : -(-Hawick, a town on the Teviot, 
with 6,000 inhabitants. The village of Melrose is noted for an ancient Gothic 
monastery, founded in the 12th century by David I. Kelso, a borough, with 
6,000 inhabitants. Jedburgh, a town, with 7,000 inhabitants. 

11* 



250 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 

6. Selkirkshire, containing : -[-Selkirk, a borough on the Ettrick, with 4,000 
inhabitants. Galoshields, a village on the Galowater, with 1,500 inhabitants. 

7. Peeblesshire, or Tweeddale, containing: -{-Peebles, a borough on the 
Tweed, with 3,000 inhabitants. The villages of Innerleithen and Newlands, 
are noted for their mineral waters. 

8. Dumfriesshire, containing : -[-Dumfries, a town on the Nith, southward 
and 64 miles distant from Edinburgh, is noted for its cattle fairs, and has 
15,000 inhabitants. The borough of Moffat, on the Evan, with mineral waters, 
and 3,000 inhabitants, is much resorted to as a bathing place. Other boroughs 
of tliis county are : Langholm (with 3,000 inhabitants), Sanquhar (with 3,500 
inhabitants), and Wanlockhead (with lead mines). The village of Gretna 
Green, in the extreme south, on the English border, is famous for marriages 
of runaway lovers from England. Annan, a town on the Solway frith, with 
6,000 inhabitants. 

9. Kirkcudbrightshire, or East Galloway, containing: -[-Kirkcudbright, a 
town at the mouth of the Dee, and on the Solway frith, with 5,000 inhabi- 
tants. New Galloway (with 1,500 inhabitants) and Oreetown (with 3,000 
inhabitants), boroughs. 

10. Wigtonshire, or West Galloway, containing: -{-Wigton, a town on the 
"Wigton Bay, with 3,500 inhabitants. Port Patrick, a borough on the 
North Channel, is a station of packets for Ireland, and has 4,000 inhabitants, 
Stranrawer, or Stranraer (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Newton Stuart (with 
4,000 inhabitants), towns. 

11. Ayrshire, containing: -{-Ayr, a town on the Frith of Clyde, with con- 
siderable leather manufactories, and 9,000 inhabitants. In the time of 
Wallace and Bruce, viz.: at the end of the 13th, and in the beginning of the 
14th century, Ayr was the scene of great events. Newton upon Ayr, a 
borough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Kilmarnock, a town on the Irwin, is noted 
for its carpets, and has 18,000 inhabitants. Irwin (with 7,000 inhabitants), 
Androssan (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Saltcoats (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
boroughs. 

12. Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, containing : -[-Lanark, a town on the Upper 
Clyde, with 9,000 inhabitants, and an important wool-spinning factory at New 
Lanark Glasgow, a city on the Clyde, westward and 46 miles distant from 
Edinburgh, has 280,000 inhabitants, and is thus the largest city in Scotland, 
and at the same time the first in commerce and manufactures, and especially 
noted for fine cotton goods. Its university is celebrated, and its cathedral ia 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 251 



Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 



the best preserved specimen of Gothic architecture in Scotland. In the 
neighborhood are the celebrated Clyde Iron Works, and the lead mines 
known by the name of Leadhills, which belong to the earl of Hopetoun. 
Cambusneath, a borough with 4,000 inhabitants. Hamilton, a town on the 
Clyde, with 10,000 inhabitants, and a splendid palace of the duke of Hamilton. 

13. Renfrewshire, containing : -[-Renfrew, a borough on the Clyde, with 
3,500 inhabitants. Paisley, a manufacturing town, on the Cart, with 60,000 
inhabitants, is especially noted for the manufacture of the finest cotton goods, 
and for the intelligence of her operative weavers. Once there was a celebra- 
ted abbey here. Greenock, a maritime town, near the mouth of the Clyde, 
is the principal seaport of the Scotch west coast, and has 36,000 inhabitants. 
Port Glasgow is the seaport of Glasgow. The villages of Kilbarchan (with 
4,500 inhabitants), Johnstown (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Eaglesham (with 
2,500 inhabitants), are noted for their cotton manufactures. 

14. Stirlingshire, containing : -(-Stirling, a town, on the Forth, 32 miles 
west-north-west of Edinburgh, is noted for its castle, anciently one of the 
bulwarks of the kingdom, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is 
Bannockburn, where on the 14th of June, 1314, King Edward II. of England 
was totally defeated by the Scotch under Robert Bruce. Falkirk, a town, 
on the Carron, is noted for its cattle fairs, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Near 
Falkirk are the considerable iron- works in the village of Carron. The 
borough of Grangemouth, at the mouth of the Carron, has 4,000 inhabitants, 
Buchanan, a beautiful country-seat of the duke of Montrose. 

15. Dumbartonshire, containing: -{-Dumbarton, a town, on the Clyde, 14 
miles west-north-west of Glasgow, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
castle, the ancient stronghold of the Scots, towering on the summit of a per- 
pendicular rock 500 feet in height. The village of Helensburgh (with 1,200 
inhabitants), is noted for sea-bathing. 

16. Clackmannanshire, containing: -[-Clackmannan, a town, on the Forth, 
with 5,000 inhabitants. Alloa, or Alloway, a town, on the Forth, with 7,000 
inhabitants. Tillicoultry, a romantically situated village, on the Devon, with 
1,500 inhabitants. 

11. Fife, or Fifeshire, containing : -[-Cupar, a town, on the Eden, with linen 
manufactures, and 1,000 inhabitants. St. Andrews, a city on the coast, be- 
tween the friths of Forth and Tay, with a remarkable cathedral, a university, 
canvass and linen manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants Before the reforma- 
tion St. Andrews was the ecclesiastical metropolis of Scotland. The neigh- 



252 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Scotland : its Geographical Divisions. 



boring town of Dunfermline (with 20,000 inhabitants), is noted for its cotton 
and linen manufactures, and was anciently very often the residence of the 
Scottish kings. Kirkaldy, a town, on the Frith of Forth, with linen manufac- 
tures, sea-bathing, and 6,000 inhabitants. Burntisland, a borough, on the 
Frith of Forth, with 3,500 inhabitants. 

18. Kinross-shire, containing : -[-Kinross, a town, with linen and cotton 
manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants, is romantically situated on the Lochleven, 
a lake with an isle, on which are the ruins of a castle where Mary Stuart 
was in 1561 kept prisoner for a while. 

19. Buteshire, comprising the following islands in the frith of Clyde, hav- 
ing a total area of 213 square miles, and a population of 18,000 inhabitants : 
the small but fertile isle of Bute, containing Rothsay, with 5,000 inhabitants, 
much resorted to for sea-bathing ; the larger isle of Arran, where Ossian 
shall have lived, containing Lamlash, a borough, with a fine harbor, and 
6,000 inhabitants ; — Ailsa and the Cumbrays, very small isles. 

20. Forfaxshire, or Angus, containing : -j-Forfax, a town on a lake of the 
same name, northward and 23 miles distant from Dundee, with 9,000 inhabi- 
tants. Dundee, a city on the frith of Tay, northward and 46 miles distant 
from Edinburgh, has 64,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its sail-cloth and 
other manufactures of hemp and coarse linen. Dundee is at the same time 
one of the principal seaports of Scotland, as is also Montrose, a town at the 
mouth of the Esk, with various manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Bre- 
chin, a town on the Esk, with 7,000 inhabitants. Arbroath, or Aberbrothik, 
a maritime town, with 8,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of a once stately 
abbey. In the vicinity is a celebrated light-house, on the solitary rook 
called Bellrock. 

21. Kinkardine, or Mearns, containing : -{-Stonehaven, a maritime town, 
between Aberdeen and Montrose, with 5,000 inhabitants. Bervie, or Inver- 
bervie, a borough, with 1,500 inhabitants. Laurencekirk (with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Finnan, villages. 

22. Aberdeenshire, containing : -f- Aberdeen, the largest city on the north 
side of the Forth, at the mouth of the Dee, 100 miles north -north-east of 
Edinburgh, has 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, and as the chief 
ship-building port in Scotland. Peterhead, a maritime town, with 8,000 inhabi- 
tants, mineral-waters, sea-bathing, and herring fishery. Frasersburgh, a 
borough, with 3,000 inhabitants, is situated near Kinnaird's Head, where the 
Scettieh coast takes a westerly direction. 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 253 

Scotland: its Geographical Divisions. 

23. Banffshire, containing : -["Banff, a town on the North Sea, 42 miles 
north-north-west of Aberdeen, is noted for its linens, and herring fishery, and 
has 8,000 inhabitants. St. Fergus (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Garmouth 
(with 2,500 inhabitants), boroughs on the North Sea. Other boroughs are 
Portsoy, Cullen, Fochabers, and Findhorn. 

24. Elginshire, or Moray,. containing : -{-Elgin, a town on the Lossie, with 
an ancient, yet very remarkable Gothic cathedi'al, and 8,000 inhabitants. 
Forres, a borough, with 4,000 inhabitants. 

25. Nairnshire, containing: -[-Nairn, a town on the Murray frith, with 
4,000 inhabitants, and sea-bathing. 

The Highland counties are the following : — 

26. Perthshire, containing : -[-Perth, a town on the Tay, westward and 23 
miles distant from Dundee, is noted for its schools, and for its cotton and linen 
manufactures, and has 22,000 inhabitants. In the ancient castle of Scone, 
about 5 miles distant from Perth, the Scottish kings used to be crowned. The 
ancient castle of Glammis is supposed to be that where King Duncan was 
murdered by Macbeth, while the latter shall have resided in the castle of 
Dunsinan. The lake known by the name of Loch Katerine, has become 
celebrated by "Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. Dunkeld, a borough on the 
Tay, with 1,500 inhabitants, was anciently the capital of the Caledonian king- 
dom, and is the pride of Scotland for grand and picturesque scenery. The 
borough of Abernetht, on the Tay, was once the capital of the Picts. 

21. Inverness-shire, containing : -(-Inverness, considered as the capital of the 
Highlands, is situated at the head of Murray frith, and noted for its schools, 
and manufactures of tartans, linen, and cotton goods ; its population is 18,000 
inhabitants. Inverlochy Castle shall once have been the residence of the 
Caledonian kings. About the Hebrides, the middlemost isles of which belong 
to this county, see below. 

28. Argyleshire, or the Western Highlands, containing : -4-Inverary, a town 
on the Loch Fyne, north-westward and 46 miles distant from Glasgow, with 
3,000 inhabitants, herring fishery, and the splendid palace of the duke of 
Argyle. Appin, a borough on the Loch Linnhe, with 2,500 inhabitants. 
Campbelltown, a commercial town, with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its 
herring fishery, and situated on the long and narrow peninsula of Cantyre. 
The beautiful valley of Coe, or Glen-Coe, was, according to a tale of ancient 



254 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Scotland : its Geographical Divisions and its Islands. 

times, the birth-place of Ossian. About the Hebrides, whose southernmost isles 
belong to this county, see below. 

29. Cromarty, containing : -{--Cromarty, a town on the Murray frith, north- 
ward and 23 miles distant from Inverness, is noted for its fishery, and has 
5,000 inhabitants. 

30. Ross, containing: -|-Dingwall, a town on the Cromarty frith, with 
4,000 inhabitants. Tain, a town on the Dornoch frith, with 3,500 inhabi- 
tants. About the Hebrides, whose northernmost isles belong to this county, 
see below. 

31. Sutherland, containing : -(-Dornoch, a town on the frith of the same 
name, with 3,000 inhabitants. Edderachyllis, a borough, with 1,800 inhabi- 
tants. 

32. Caithness, the northernmost county of Scotland, containing : -j-Thurso, 
a maritime and the northernmost town of the British main land, with 6,000 
inhabitants. John o' Groat's house is the most northern residence on this main 
land. The maritime town of Wick (with 10,000 inhabitants), is noted for the 
herring fishery. 

The chief groups of the Scottish islands, are the following : — 

(a.) The Hebrides, or Western Islands, between 200 and 300 in number, with 
a total population of 90,000 inhabitants, who, for the most part, are Roman 
Catholics. In the 9th century, the Hebrides were conquered by the Norwe- 
gians, but subsequently subjected to the sway of the Scottish kings. The 
most remarkable of the islands are : Islay, or Isla (the southernmost, 84 square 
miles in extent, and with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its black-colored 
cattle, and linen manufactures) ; Jura (only with 1,200 inhabitants) ; Mull 
(341 square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in hus- 
bandry) ; Staff a (only half a mile in diameter, but remarkable for one of the 
greatest curiosities in nature, called FingaTs Cave, which is more than 200 
feet long, and, at its opening, 42 feet wide : on each side it is bounded by 
splendid basaltic columns in perpendicular ranges, supporting at the top a 
roof, 66 feet above the water, and formed by the broken ends of other basaltic 
columns ; the cave was accidentally discovered in 1712, by an Irishman) ; Iona, 
or Icolmkill (near Staffa, is noted in history as the residence of monks, who 
lived in a monastery founded by St. Columban about the middle of the 6th 
century, and diffused the light of learning and Christianity through many 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 255 

Scottish Islands. 

parts of northern Europe) ; Coll (with 1,300 inhabitants) ; Tye.ee (with 3,200 
inhabitants) ; Skye (188 square miles, but only with 20,000 inhabitants, and 
the neighboring little isles of Rum and Canna) ; Lewis (894 square miles, yet 
with not more than 15,000 inhabitants, and the borough of Stomoway) ; North 
TJist, and South Uist (with respectively 4,000 and 5,000 inhabitants); St. 
Kilda (a solitary isle, 21 square miles in extent, and inhabited by about 150 
industrious islanders, who are much engaged in catching sea-fowl). 

(b.) The Orkney Islands, separated from the northern extremity of Scottish 
main land by the Pentland Frith. They are 67 in number, 29 of which are 
inhabited, with a total population of 40,000 inhabitants. These islands are 
the resort of vast numbers of sea-fowl, which the islanders catch by descend- 
ing with ropes, from the high cliffs to which the birds resort. The Orkneys 
were in the 9 th century conquered by the Norwegians, and subsequently ruled 
by native earls, until they became subjected to the crown of Scotland. The 
principal island is Pomona (213 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), whose 
capital, Kirkwall (with 2,500 inhabitants), was anciently the residence of the 
sovereign earls of the Orkneys. Stromness is the chief seaport of the island. 

(c.) The Shetland Islands, north-eastward from the former, 86 in number 
(yet only 40 are inhabited), with a total area of 980 square miles, and a 
total population of 30,000 inhabitants. The little horses of Shetland, known 
by the name of ponie9, are of great use in mountainous districts. The wool- 
len stockings knitted by the islanders, are an article much in demand. The 
Shetland Islands, conquered by the Norwegians in the 9th century, were 
given in dowry to a Norwegian princess, who towards the end of the 15th 
century was married to King James III. of Scotland. The principal island 
is Shetland, or Mainland, with 16,000 inhabitants, and the borough and sea- 
port of Lerwick (with 1,200 inhabitants). The most fertile and beautiful 
island is Yell (149 square miles, and 2,000 inhabitants). The northernmost 
is Unst (43 square miles, and 2,400 inhabitants). 



256 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Ireland : Historical Sketch and Geographical Divisions. 



a— THE KINGDOM OF IRELAND. 

It comprises the great island of the same name, lying west of 
Grreat Britain, has an area of 28,095 square miles, and a popu- 
lation of 8,600,000 inhabitants. The Romans did never set a 
foot on the Irish shore, and for this reason the early history of 
this country is but little known until the 4th century, when the 
Irish, in that period called Scots, began to make their inroads 
into Scotland. So early as in the beginning of the 5th century 
Christianity was introduced in Ireland, especially by Patricius, 
or St. Patrick. The country was then ruled by many chiefs; 
subsequently the four present provinces were independent king- 
doms. That Ireland in 1172 was conquered by the English, has 
already been related above. 

Ireland is divided into the 4 provinces of Leinster, Ulster, Con- 
naught, and Munster, which are subdivided into 32 counties. 

I. The province of Leinster, comprising the south-eastern part of Ireland, 
is divided into 12 counties, viz.: — 1. The county of Dublin, containing: 
-{-Dublin, the capital of Ireland, on both sides and at the mouth of the river 
Liffey, with 310,000 inhabitants, numerous and beautiful public edifices (among 
which St. Patrick's Cathedral, the Bank of Ireland, the Exchange, and the 
Four Courts, are conspicuous), a university, 6 monasteries, 7 nunneries, many 
manufactures of linen, silks, cotton goods, etc., and an extensive commerce. 
With its seaport, Kingston, Dublin is connected by an atmospheric railway. 

2. The county of Wicldow, containing : -j-Wicklow, a maritime town, on the 
Irish Sea, with 3,500 inhabitants. Arklow, a town, with 2,000 inhabitants. 
Bray, and Rathdrum, boroughs with respectively 2,000 and 1,800 inhabitants. 

3. The county of Wexford, containing : -(-Wexford, a town on St. George's 
Channel, with mineral waters, and 12,000 inhabitants. Enniscorthy, and 
New Ross, towns with respectively 1,000 and 9,000 inhabitants. 4. The 
county of Kilkenny, containing : -{-Kilkenny, a town on the Norr, with 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 257 

Ireland : its Geographical Divisions. 

30,000 inhabitants, a stately castle of the earl of Ormond, and one of the 
finest cathedrals in Ireland. Moreover, Kilkenny is noted for its beautiful 
white and black marble. The borough of Castle Corner is noted for its coal. 
5. The county of Carlow, or Catherlagh, containing : -j-Carlow, a town on 
the Barrow, with a remarkable ancient abbey, and 10,000 inhabitants. Tul- 
low, a town on the Slaney, with 3,000 inhabitants. 6. The county of Kildare, 
containing : -{-Kildare, a town on the so-called Curragh of Kildare, is noted 
for horse-races, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : 
Athy (with 4,000 inhabitants), Naas (with an ancient castle, once the resi- 
dence of the kings of Leinster, and 3,500 inhabitants), and Maynooth (with 
a noted Catholic college, and 2,000 inhabitants. 7. Queen's County, contain- 
ing : -{-Maryborough, or Queenstown, a town south-westward and 60 miles 
distant from Dublin, with 4,000 inhabitants. This town bears its name in 
honor of Queen Mary, who reigned from 1553 to 1558. Other towns of this 
county are : Mount Mellick (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Mountrath (with 
5,000 inhabitants). 8. King's County, containing : -{-Philipstown, a town on 
the Grand Canal, bears its name in honor of King Philip of Spain, consort of 
the above-named Queen Mary, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Other towns of 
this county are : Tullamore (with 8,000 inhabitants), Banagher (with 3,000 
inhabitants), and Birr, or Parsonstown (with 6,000 inhabitants). 9. The 
county of West Meath, containing : -{-Mullingar, a town on the Royal Canal, 
with 6,000 inhabitants. Athlone, a town, with 12,000 inhabitants. 10. The 
county of East Meath, or Meath, containing: -{-Trim, a town on a branch of 
the Boyne, with 1,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Kelts 
(with 6,000 inhabitants), and Navan (with 7,000 inhabitants). 11. The 
county of Longford, containing : -{-Longford, a town on the Camlin, with 
6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Granard (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), and Lanesborough (with 5,000 inhabitants). 12. The county of 
Louth, containing : -{-Dundalk, a town on the bay of the same name, carries 
on a considerable commerce, and has 16,000 inhabitants. Drogheda, a town 
at the mouth of the Boyne, with considerable commerce, and 22,000 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns of this county are : Carlingford (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
and Ardee (Avith 4,000 inhabitants). 

II. The province of Ulster, comprising the northern part of Ireland, is 
divided into 9 counties, viz.: — 13. The county of Antrim, containing: -{-Car- 
rickfergus, a town on the Belfast Lough, with 4,000 inhabitants. Belfast, 
the emporium of the north of Ireland, and centre of the linen trade, at the 



258 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Ireland: its Geographical Divisions 



head of the Belfast Lough, northward and 92 miles distant from Dublin, has 
56,000 inhabitants. Antrim (with 3,000 inhabitants), Lisbum (with 7,000 
inhabitants), Balleyma (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lame (with 5,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Ballycastle (with 2,500 inhabitants), towns. Within the limits of 
this county is the Giants causeway, an astonishing work of nature, consisting 
of vast numbers of perpendicular columns of basaltic rock, from 200 to 400 
feet high, compacted together over a space 600 feet long by about 180 broad, 
and projecting into the sea an unknown distance. 14. The county of London- 
derry, or Berry, containing : -[-Londonderry, a considerable seaport town, at 
the mouth of the Foyle river, 115 miles north-north-west of Dublin, is strongly 
fortified (in 1690-1 it sustained a siege by the forces of James II.), carries on 
an important trade with America and the West Indies, and has 18,000 inhabit- 
ants. Coleraine, a town with 1,000 inhabitants. 15. The county of Donegal, or 
Tyrconel, containing : -(-Lifford, a town on the Foyle, with 2,500 inhabitants. 
Donegal, a town at the mouth of the Eask, with 4,500 inhabitants. The 
town of Ballyshannon (with 9,000 inhabitants) is noted for its linen manu- 
factures. 16. The county of Fermanagh, containing: -{-Enniskillen, a 
romantically situated town, near the Lough Erne, with linen manufactures, 
and 8,000 inhabitants. 17. The county of Tyrone, containing: -{"Omagh, a 
town on the Roe, with 4,000 inhabitants. Dungannon, a town on the Lough 
Neagh, has 7,000 inhabitants, and is the chief seat of the O'Neals, known by 
their animosity against the English. Strabane, a town on the Foyle, with 
8,000 inhabitants. 18. The county of Cavan, containing : -|-Cavan (with 
4,000 inhabitants), and Belturbet (with 4,000 inhabitants), towns. 19. The 
county of Monaghan, containing : -j-Monaghan, a town with linen manufac- 
tures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Carrichnacross, a town, with 3,500 inhabitants. 
20. The county of Armagh, containing : -{-Armagh, a town on the Callen, is 
the ecclesiastical metropolis of Ireland, and has 10,000 inhabitants, who are 
much engaged in the linen trade. The town of Lurgan (with linen trade, 
and 5,000 inhabitants), is sometimes called Little England. 21. The county 
of Down, containing : -j-Downpatrick, a town, with 5,000 inhabitants, is noted 
as the burial-place of St. Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland. Newry, a 
considerable seaport town, with 16,000 inhabitants. Donaghadee, a maritime 
town, with 5,000 inhabitants, and a ferry between it and Port Patrick in 
Scotland, the shortest route by sea to Great Britain. Bangor (with 4,000 
inhabitants), and Strang ford (with 1,800 inhabitants), towns. 

III. The province of Connaught, comprising the middlemost part of western 



GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 259 

Ireland: its Geographical Divisions. 

Ireland, is divided into 5 counties, viz. : — 22. The county of Galway, contain- 
ing: -f- Galway, a town on the Galway Bay, has 36,000 inhabitants, carries 
on a considerable trade, and is noted as a resort of the gentry for sea-bathing. 
Tuam, a town on the Clare, is the seat of an Anglican archbishop, and has 
6,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Loughrea (with linen 
trade, and 7,000 inhabitants), and Ballinasloe (noted for the greatest cattle 
fairs in Ireland, with 8,000 inhabitants). 23. The county of Mayo, containing : 
-(-Castlebar, a town near Lough Lanach, with linen manufactures, and 6,000 
inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Killala (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Ballinrobe (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ballina (with 7,000 inhabitants). 
24. The county of Sligo, containing : -4-Sligo, a considerable seaport town, on 
the bay of the same name, with 15,000 inhabitants. 25. The county of Leitrim, 
containing: -J-Carrick. on Shannon, a town on the Shannon, with 2,500 inhab- 
itants. The town of Leitrim (with 3,000 inhabitants) is also situated on the 
Shannon. 26. The county of Roscommon, containing : -(-Roscommon, a town, 
with 4,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : Boyle (with 6,000 
inhabitants), Athlone, or Etholone (with 10,000 inhabitants), and Castlereagh 
(with 2,500 inhabitants). 

IV. The province of Munster, comprising the south-western part of Ireland, 
is divided into 6 counties, viz. : — 27. The county of Cork, containing : -]-Cork, 
the second Irish city in population, having 130,000 inhabitants, is the emporium 
of the south of Ireland, and chief mart of the provision trade ; and its harbor, 
called the Cove, is strongly fortified and one of the best in the world. On 
the isle Great-Island, within the harbor, is the town of Coue, with 7,000 inhab- 
itants. Bandon, a town on the river of the same name, with linen and cotton 
manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this county are : 
Kinsale (with 8,000 inhabitants), Micheltown (with 4,000 inhabitants), Youghall 
(with 10,000 inhabitants), Mallow (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Fermoy (with 
6,000 inhabitants). 28. The county of Waterford, containing : -f- Waterford 
an import seaport town, 70 miles east-north-east of Cork, and 92 miles south- 
south-west of Dublin, has 60,000 inhabitants, and an extensive intercourse 
with England and Wales, and is noted for its trade in provisions, and New- 
foundland fishery. Dungarvan, the largest fishing town in Ireland, westward 
and 30 miles distant from Waterford, with 6,000 inhabitants. Lismore, a town 
on the Blackwater, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral, and a 
castle, reared in 1185 by King Henry II, and at present belonging to the 
duke of Devonshire. 29. The county of Tipper ary, containing: -j-Clonmel, 



260 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Ireland : its Geographical Divisions — The British Colonies. 

a town on the Suire, is the centre for the Irish butter trade, and has 18,000 
inhabitants. Tipperary, a town near the Suire, south-westward and 100 
miles distant from Dublin, with 8,000 inhabitants. Cashel, a town, with 9,000 
inhabitants, and the ruins of an ancient cathedral, where the kings of Munster 
were crowned. Other towns of this county are : Carrick on Suire (with 8,000 
inhabitants), and Thurles (with 6,000 inhabitants). 30. The county of Clare, 
containing : -{-Ennis, a town on the Fergus, is noted for its stately Gothic 
abbey, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Killaloe, a town on the Shannon, with 
2,500 inhabitants. 31. The county of Limerick, containing : -(-Limerick, an 
important commercial town, on the Shannon, north-westward and 70 miles 
distant from Water ford, has 70,000 inhabitants, is largely engaged in the 
provision trade, and was formerly noted for the strongest fortress in Ireland, 
and for its firm stand in the cause of the Catholics. 32. The county of Kerry, 
containing : -j-Tralee, a town on the Atlantic Ocean, with considerable fishery, 
and 10,000 inhabitants. Killarney, a town, with 8,000 inhabitants, is situated 
on the lake of Killarney, which is celebrated for the beauty and grandeur of 
its scenery. Dingle, a town, with 6,000 inhabitants. 

The British possessions and colonies are the following : — 

(a.) In Europe : 1. The isle of Heligoland (see above). 2. Gib- 
raltar (see under the head of Spain). 3. Malta (see under the 
head of Italy). 4. The Ionian Isles, which will be found described 
elsewhere in this work. 

(b.) In Africa : Settlements in Senegambia and Upper Guinea ; 
moreover, Cape Colony, St. Helena, Mauritius, etc. 

(c.) In Asia : Hindoostan, provinces in Farther India, Ceylon 
(belonging to the crown), Singapore, Hongkong, etc., etc. 

(d.) In Australia : The continent of Australia, Van Diemen's 
Land, New Zealand, and Norfolk Island. 

(e.) In America : British North America, Guiana, and many 
islands of the West Indies, Bahamas, etc. 

The total area of all these possessions and colonies is estimated 
at 4,686,000 square miles, and the total population at 131,000.000 
inhabitants. 



THE NETHERLANDS. 

Total area : 24,644 square miles. 
Total population : 7,558,000 inhabitants. 

Holland and Belgium, together, were from old styled the 
Netherlands, or Lowlands, on account of their level physical 
character, so that parts of their surface are even lower than the 
sea, which is prevented from overflowing the land by vast dikes, 
or embankments. Thus, while Holland and Belgium are political 
names, the Netherlands are a geographical name, like that of Italy, 
for instance. 

By first giving a general view of all Netherlands, in their 
common physical and natural character, we avoid, at the same 
time, the inconvenience of numerous repeatings. 

The Netherlands are a maritime country, at the north-western 
frontier of Germany, and on the north bounded by the North 
Sea. 

Since the revolution of 1830, they are divided into two kingdoms, 
the northernmost of which is styled the Kingdom of the Nether- 
lands* (until the year 1795, it was a republic known by the name 
of the United Provinces of the Netherlands), while the southern 
is styled the Kingdom of Belgium (till towards the end of last 
century, known by the name of Austrian Netherlands). 

* In common life, it is sometimes called the kingdom of Holland, but a 
kingdom of this name has never existed, except in the short period from 1806 
to 1810; and Holland has never been anything else than a province of the 
whole state. 



262 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Netherlands : Political Division, Climate, etc. 

Both were however united, first until the last quarter of the 
16th century, and then again in the period from 1815 to 1830. 
Of the above-stated total area and population — 

Square miles. Inhabitants. 

The kingdom of the Netherlands proper takes up . 11,832 2,926,000 
Its provinces of Luxemburg and Limburg, which 

politically belong to Germany, take up .... 1,395 282,000 

The Kingdom of Belgium takes up 11,417 4,350,000 



Total, 24,644 1,558,000 

The country, as has already been mentioned, is level, with the 
exception of a small part in the south-east, where low hills grad- 
ually rise to the Ardennes (see Introduction to Europe, page 6). 
Mostly there is no great variety in the scenery of the landscape ; 
especially in the North Netherlands, grass and cows, canals and 
wind-mills, and cleanly villages, or towns, invariably relieve one 
another with picturesque effect. 

About the Zuyder Zee, Dollart, the lakes and rivers, as the Meuse, 
Scheldt, etc., see pages 9, 11, and 16. The country is intersected 
by numerous canals, the most remarkable of which is the great 
canal of North Holland, extending from the Holder to Amster- 
dam, cost several million of florins, and will float a ship of the 
line. 

The climate is in general more moderate than in eastern coun- 
tries in the same parallels, but frequently moist. In the southern 
half of the Netherlands it is somewhat more wholesome than in 
the northern half. 

The more or less marshy soil is (with the exception of the 
North Netherland province of Drenthe, and the Belgian province 
of Luxemburg) extraordinary fertile. In North Netherlands is 
the rearing of cattle prevailing, and in Belgium agriculture which 
has attained here the highest pitch of improvement. 



THE NETHERLANDS. 263 

Geographical Features — History. 

Belgium abounds in iron and coal ; the kingdom of the Neth- 
erlands abounds in peat, which is almost the only fuel used there. 
The cattle is of an excellent breed, especially in the provinces of 
G-roningen, Utrecht and Holland, South Brabant, East and West 
Flanders. The horses too are of a good breed. Butter of fine 
quality is indeed raised in Belgium, but by far more in the king- 
dom of the Netherlands, where butter and cheese are largely 
exported, partly even to America and India. The most numer- 
ous flocks of sheep are to be found in the provinces of Luxem- 
burg, Flanders, Groningen, Friesland, and North Holland. The 
rearing of hogs is chiefly carried on in the provinces of Liege, 
Namur, Luxemburg, and Friesland. The waters abound in 
fishes of various kinds. Extensive forests are not to be found 
in the kingdom of the Netherlands, and are in Belgium very 
scarce, except in Luxemburg, and partly in Hainault, Liege, and 
Namur. The Belgian soil yields excellent wheat ; moreover, 
hemp and flax, rape-seed, hops, and tobacco. In the northern 
half of the Netherlands sufficient corn for home consumption is 
not raised, but so much the more vegetables (even largely ex- 
ported), rape-seed, etc. Besides this the province of Holland is 
several centuries since noted for its culture of flowers, especially 
of tulips. In this province are also raised vast quantities of ex- 
cellent strawberries. 

Of commerce, manufactures, etc., shall be treated separately 
below ; and we will now give an historical sketch of all Nether- 
lands until their separation during the reign of King Philip II. 
of Spain, their sovereign then. 

History. — In the days of the Romans, the southern half of the Netherlands 
was inhabited by the Belgians, and the northern half by the Batavians ; at 
the northern boundaries of the latter lived the Frieses, or Frieslanders. 
About the year 54 before the Christian era, Julius Caesar subdued the Bel- 
gians and Frieses, and entered upon friendly terms with the Batavians. Since 



264 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

. The Netherlands— Historical Sketch. 

the decay of the Roman empire the Netherlands came under the sway of the 
Franks ; and by the terms of the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see page 32) the 
northern, and after 887 also the remaining part of the Netherlands was an- 
nexed to the German empire. The German emperors appointed dukes and 
earls governors of the Netherlandish provinces ; yet gradually they made 
their office inheritable and themselves independent so early as in the 10th 
century. In this way arose the earldoms of Flanders, Holland, the duchy of 
Brabant, and other lordships. In 1369 Margaret, the only heiress of Flanders 
entered into marriage with Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus be- 
came possessed of that earldom (see History of Burgundy, page 200). At 
the same time the line of the ancient dukes of Brabant had become extinct, 
and the only heiress, Johanna of Brabant, bequeathed the duchy to her grand- 
nephew, Anton of Burgundy, the son of Philip the Bold. In the course of 
time other parts of the Netherlands were annexed to these possessions, and 
in the latter half of the 15th century, nearly the whole was under the sway 
of the duke of Burgundy. The last duke in the male line of this house, 
Charles the Bold, died in 1477, and his only daughter, Mary, inherited the 
Netherlands together with Burgundy proper. She was married to the Aus- 
trian archduke Maximilian ; and their son Philip was married with Johanna 
of Castile, the only heiress of the united crowns of Castile and Aragon. 
Philips and Johanna's eldest son, the renowned emperor Charles V., inherited 
all these immense possessions, and bequeathed the Netherlands, together with 
Spain, etc., to his son Philip II of Spain. During the reign of the latter the 
northern provinces of the Netherlands separated themselves from the south- 
ern provinces, as an independent state, by the name of the " Republic of the 
United Provinces." As such they were preliminarily acknowledged by Spain 
in 1609, and definitively in 1648. The southern provinces continued to be an- 
nexed to Spain, until by the terms of the treaty, concluded at Rastadt on 
the 7th of March, 1714, they were ceded to Austria, which in 1797 ceded 
them to France. In 1814 they were restored to Austria, that however re- 
nounced them in favor of an arrangement, by which the northern and southern 
provinces were reunited under the name of the " Kingdom of the Nether- 
lands." But, as has already been told, the revolution in 1830 separated them 
again ; and since that time the northern provinces have retained the name of 
a kingdom of the Netherlands, while the southern provinces are united to a 
" Kingdom of Belgium." 



THE NETHERLANDS. 265 



The Kingdom of the Netherlands. 



L— THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS* 

Area: 13,227 square miles. 
Population: 3,208,000 inhabitants. 

Of the here-stated area and population are to be deducted 1,395 
square miles, and 282,000 inhabitants, as belonging to the grand- 
duchy of Luxemburg and the Limburgian district of Roeremonde, 
which politically form part of Germany, though they are ruled by 
the sovereign of the Netherlands. Thus the kingdom of the 
Netherlands proper has 2,926,000 inhabitants, among whom the 
prevailing religion is Calvinism. But all religions are tolerated, 
and more than one third of the people are Catholics (according 
to the census of 1844, their number was 1,100,616, inclusive those 
of Luxemburg). In point of origin, the Netherlanders, or Dutch, 
belong to the great Germanic tribe. (See Introduction to Europe, 
page 19.) 

Beside the rearing of cattle and other branches of husband^, 
the chief means of sustenance is the commerce, that extends over 
all parts of the world. The emporiums are Amsterdam and 
Rotterdam. Some provinces are noted for their manufactures, 
especially of linen and paper. Yet, upon the whole, this kingdom 
is more a commercial than a manufacturing state. 

Concerning the means of education, there are 3 universities, viz. : 
at Ley den (instituted in 1575, and in 1846 frequented by 602 
students), at Groningen (instituted in 1616, and in 1846 frequented 
by 300 students), and at Utrecht (instituted in 1636, and in 1846 
frequented by 444 students). Three other similar institutions, 

* Frequently called Holland, but that a kingdom of Holland does not exist, 
has been already remarked. 
12 



266 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Kingdom of the Netherlands: Its Finances — Navy — Army. 



on a smaller scale, styled Athenaea, are in Amsterdam. Franeker, 
and Deventer. Beside these, there are 68 Latin schools, 9 
seminaries,* 70 secondary. 2,125 public schools, etc. 

The government is a constitutional monarchy, limited by rep. 
resentatives of the people in two chambers, styled General States. 

In 1847, the public revenue was estimated at 70,742,323, and 
the expenditure at 70,283,555 florins, which thus would have 
yielded a surplus of 458,768 florins. The public debt amounted 
to 1,232,961,71 1 florins, but inclusive more than 203,000,000 from 
the period 1815-1830, which are to be paid by Belgium. The 
Netherlandish colonies in India, yielded in 1844 a nett revenue 
of 2,123,424 florins. 

The army amounted, hitherto, to 43,000 men during peace, 
and to 76,000 during war, beside 25,000 men of Schutters, or 
militia, who could be increased to 80.000 men in case of neces- 
sity. Yet lately a reduction of the army has taken place. The 
navy consists of 9 ships of the line, 19 frigates, and 37 sloops of 
war, brigs, etc., 14 steamers, and 87 gun-boats. (About the year 
1790, the navy consisted of 24 ships of the line, and 40 other 
vessels of war, but the English seized nearly the whole of it.) 
The Netherlandish navy in the eastern colonies, consists of 1 
frigate, and 20 other vessels. 

There are the following orders of honor : — 1. The military order 
of William/m 4 classes, instituted in 1815. 2. The Netherlandish 
lion order, likewise in 4 classes, and instituted in 1815. 3. The 
Luxemburgian order of the oak crown, instituted in 1841. 

History. — In the history of the Netherlands, the above mentioned separa- 
tion of the northern provinces from the whole political body, was chiefly urged 
by the Prince William of Orange (see page 223), who by King Philip II. had 
been appointed governor of the provinces of Holland, Zealand, and Utrecht, 
and, filled with immoderate ambition and personal hatred against his sove- 

* About the signification of these terms, see the note; page 65. • 



THE NETHERLANDS. 267 



History of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. 



reign, instigated the people under the pretext of maintaining their rights. 
He, in 15*79, prevailed npon the just-mentioned three provinces and those of 
Geldern and Friesland, to declare their independence, if not directly, yet indi- 
rectly, by uniting themselves into the so-called Union of Utrecht, to which sub- 
sequently also acceded Groningen and Overyssel. These thus united seven 
provinces (Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Geldern, Friesland, Groningen, and 
Overyssel) chose the prince of Orange their chief, conferring upon him the modest 
title of a Stattholder, or vice-regent (to wit, of the king of Spain) ; because they 
would fain not to appear in the light of rebels, but of having only maintained 
their rights and privileges. Nevertheless, they actually established an independ- 
ent republic that became one of the most influential states, and whose navy was 
in the 17th century the most powerful for a while. Yet their own Stattholder, 
William III. of Nassau-Orange, having only in view his personal interest, and 
aiming at the British crown (see British History, page 233), set aside the 
interest of the republic, and gradually brought it down from its high pitch of 
power, in favor of England. To the renowned Netherlandish East Indian 
Company, established in 1602, all the important Netherlandish colonies in 
Asia, Africa, and America, did belong (though they were held in the name of 
the General States, or government), and the nett annual profit, earned by this 
company, was estimated at 3,000,000 ducats. In 1794, the French waged war 
against the republic, and transformed it into a so-called Batavian, Republic ; 
its last Stattholder, William V., fled to England, and was base enough to 
deliver over nearly the whole navy to the English. On the other hand, the 
French compelled the republic to share in their wars, and in this way the 
Netherlandish colonies were lost and conquered by the English. In 1806, 
Napoleon transformed the Batavian Republic into a Kingdom of Holland, of 
which he appointed king his brother Louis, who, however, abdicated in 1810, 
upon which this state was incorporated with the French empire. In 1813, the 
Netherlanders, or Dutch, proclaimed the son of William V. their sovereign; 
England restored most of the conquered colonies, but retained three of the 
most valuable ones, viz. : Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Demerara. For this loss, 
Netherland should have been indemnified by the above-stated arrangement of a 
reunion with the southern provinces. However, in 1830, it was again England 
that urged the separation, without caring in the least for that stipulation. 
William I., king of the Netherlands since 1813, abdicated in 1840, and was 
succeeded by his son William II., who died in 1849, and was succeeded by 
his son William III., born on the 19 th of February, 1817. 



268 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Kingdom of the Netherlands : its Geographical Divisions. 

The kingdom of the Netherlands is divided into 10 provinces. 
2 of which, North and South Holland, comprise the ancient 
province of Holland, while of the 8 others, Drenthe was formerly 
only a district, and North Brabant (conquered by the ancient 
republic) belonged to what was styled the " Generalty countries." 
(About Luxemburg aud the Limburgian district of Koeremonde, 
see under the head of Germany.) 

1. The province of Holland (2,007£ square miles, and, according to the 
census of 1846, with a population of 1,027,574 inhabitants), which anciently 
formed the chief constituent part of the earldom of Holland, that in 1299 
was inherited by the earls of Hainault, and in 1425 by the duke of Burgundy. 
At present it is divided into North and South Holland. North Holla7id 
(894^ square miles, and in 1846 with 468,737 inhabitants), contains : Amster- 
dam, the principal city and emporium of the kingdom, on the Amstel river, 
that disembogues here into the Y (as a branch of the Zuyder Zee is styled), 
with 225,000 inhabitants. The city is intersected by canals, over which there 
are 290 bridges, and which mostly are bordered by rows of trees. The 
houses and streets are kept remarkably clean, and the arrangements in the 
interior of the former give evidence of great comfort. Among the numerous 
public edifices, the most remarkable is the royal palace, formerly the city- 
hall, which was reared in the period from 1648 to 1655, at the expense of 
18 million florins. It has 282 feet in front, 235 in breadth, and 116 in height, 
while its magnificent cupola (containing the finest chime of bells in the Neth- 
erlands) rises 41 feet above the roof. It is built of freestone, and rests upon 
a foundation of 13,659 piles, or long timbers, driven into the ground. Am- 
sterdam was founded in the 12th century. Zaardam, or Saardam, formerly 
the largest village in Holland, at present a town, in the neighborhood of Am- 
sterdam, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its numerous windmills 
(more than 700) and docks, where the Russian emperor, Peter I. in 1697 suf- 
fered himself to be engaged as an apprentice, in order to get a practical 
knowledge of the art of ship-building. The village of Broek irit Waterland, 
the residence of rich inhabitants of Amsterdam, who have retired from busi- 
ness, is noted for the remarkable cleanliness of its houses and streets. No 
stranger is allowed to enter any house without having previously pulled off 
his boots and put on clean slippers.* Muiden, or Muyden, (with 1,800 inhabi- 



THE NETHERLANDS. 269 



The Province of Holland. 



tants), and JSTaarden (with 3,000 inhabitants), fortified towns on the Zuyder 
Zee. Medemblik, on the Zuyder Zee, with 2,800 inhabitants, is considered 
as the most ancient town in North Holland, and as the residence of the an- 
cient kings of Friesland. Other towns in North Holland are : Weesp (with 
3,200 inhabitants), Monnikendam (with 2,900 inhabitants), Purmerend (with 
3,300 inhabitants, largely engaged in the cheese trade), Edam (noted for its 
cheese, with 4,600 inhabitants), Alkmaar (also noted for its cheese, with 
10,000 inhabitants), Enkhuyzen (noted for its herring fishery, with 7,000 in- 
habitants), and Hoorn (with 10,000 inhabitants, who likewise are largely en- 
gaged in the butter and cheese trade). The village of Helder, at the entrance 
to Zuyder Zee, has 2,000 inhabitants, who for the most part consist of pilots, 
is noted for its excellent harbor, called Nieuwe Diep. Near Helder is the 
Island of Texel (53 square miles, and 5,000 inhabitants), noted for its sheep 
and cheese. Other smaller islands here are : Vlieland and Terschelling. 
The town of Haarlem, near the lake of the same name, westward and 12 
miles distant from Amsterdam, has 23,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
organ with 8,000 (or, according to other statements, only wdth 4,500) pipes 
and 64 registers, and its trade in flowers. South Holland (1,113 square miles, 
and in 1846 with 558,837 inhabitants) contains: the Hague (in Dutch also 
styled s' Graavenhaag), the capital of the kingdom and royal residence, near 
the North Sea, 28 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, with 66.000 inhabi- 
tants, is one of the most regularly and best built cities in Europe, and con- 
tains many handsome buildings. The neighboring village of Scheveningen 
(with 5,600 inhabitants) is much resorted to for sea-bathing. Near the 
Hague is also the village of Ryswiek, with an ancient castle, where the peace 
of Ryswick was concluded in 1697. Leyden, a town between the Hague 
and Haarlem, with 36,000 inhabitants, is celebrated for its university. Delft, 
a town situated between the Hague and Rotterdam, with 17,000 inhabitants, 
is remarkable as the burial-place of the princes of Orange, of the Admiral 
Tromp, etc. The prince, William I. of Orange, was murdered here in 1584. 
Rotterdam, a city on the Merwe (as the Meuse is called here, see page 16), 
52 miles south-south-west of Amsterdam, is next to Amsterdam the empo- 
rium of the kingdom, contains a great many stately houses and remarkable 
public edifices, and has 83,000 inhabitants. The renowned scholar Erasmus 
was born here, in 1467. In its neighborhood is the town of Dort, with im- 
portant commerce, and 21,500 inhabitants ; it is noted in history for the Synod 
(in 1618 and 1619), which condemned Arminianism. Other towns of South 

6* 



270 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Provinces of Holland and Zealand. 



Holland are : Oudewater (with 2,000 inhabitants), Gouda (noted for its earthen 
ware, especially tobacco pipes, has 14,000 inhabitants), Schiedam, (noted for 
its gin, and herring fishery, has 12,500 inhabitants), Maassluis (with 4,500 
inhabitants), Vlaardingen (with 8,000 inhabitants), Vianen (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Schoonhoven (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nieuwpoort (with 800 inhabi- 
tants), Asperen (with 800 inhabitants), Leerdam (with 1,900 inhabitants), and 
Gorkum (with 8,500 inhabitants). Between Dort and the sea, is the island 
of Voorne, with the towns of Helvoetsluis (formerly the station of the packets 
for England, with 2,600 inhabitants), and Briel (with 5,000 inhabitants, noted 
in history for its occupation by the so-called Watergeuses in 1572). Another 
island is Over-Flakke, or Zuyd- Voome, with the town of Goree (with 800 
inhabitants). 

2. The province of Zealand (649 square miles, and in 1846 with 157,062 
inhabitants), comprising islands formed by the mouths of the Scheldt, and a 
part of the main land, known by the name of Staatsflanders. It was anciently 
an earldom, which belonged to the earls of Holland, and in 1436 came under 
the swav of the dukes of Burgundy. Its chief islands are the following : — ■ 
a. The island of Walcheren, containing ; Middelburg, fortified capital of the 
province, has 16,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent town hall. 
Flushing, a strongly fortified town, the great naval depot of the kingdom, 
and station of the navy, with a fine and spacious harbor, and 8,500 inhabi- 
tants. The renowned Dutch admiral Ruyter, was born here in 1607. Other 
towns of this island are: Westkapellen (with 1,900 inhabitants), Veere (with 
1,500 inhabitants), Domburg (with 600 inhabitants), and Arnemuyden (with 900 
inhabitants), b. The island of Zuid-Beveland, the largest and finest of the 
province, containing : Goes, a town, with 5,500 inhabitants. Bath, a fort com- 
manding the entrance to the Scheldt, c. The island of Noord-Beveland, 
once the most beautiful and most fertile of Zealand, but in 1530 and 1532 
laid waste by terrible inundations, contains at present several villages, and 
the borough of Kortgene, with 700 inhabitants, d. The island of Schouwen, 
noted for its madder, and containing the towns of Zieriksee (with trade in 
madder, and 7,500 inhabitants) and Brouwershaven (with numerous breweries, 
and 1,000 inhabitants), e. The island of Tholen, containing the towns of 
Tholen (with 3,000 inhabitants) and St. Martensdyk (with 1,500 inhabitants). 
f. The continental part of Zealand, until 1648 belonging to the ancient earldom 
of Flanders, and since called Staats-F landers, or Dutch Flanders, contains 
the following towns: Sluis (in French, called Fcl use, strongly fortified, with 



THE NETHERLANDS. 271 



The Provinces of Zealand, Utrecht, and Geldern. 



2,100 inhabitants), Biervliet (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sas van Gent (with 
1,000 inhabitants), Axel (with 2,800 inhabitants), Hulst (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Ysendyk (with 1,300 inhabitants), Aardenburg (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
Oostbwrg (with 900 inhabitants), Ter Neuse (with 1,500 inhabitants), and 
Philippine (with 600 inhabitants). 

3. The province of Utrecht (532£ square miles, and in 1846 with 153,083 
inhabitants), situated between Holland and Geldern, on the north bounded by 
the Zuyder Zee, was since the year 695 the lordship of a sovereign bishop, 
and in 1528 purchased by the Emperor Charles V., who annexed it to the 
government of Holland. It contains : Utrecht, the capital of the province, 
on a branch of the Rhine, 20 miles south-south-east of Amsterdam, has 45,000 
inhabitants, and is noted for its university, its St. Martin's church, reared in 
the 14th century, whose steeple is 388 feet high, and for the peace concluded 
here in 1713. The neighboring village of Zeyst, settled by Moravian Brethren, 
is noted for its boarding school for young ladies, and has 2,000 inhabitants. 
Amersfoort, a town on the Eem, 12 miles east-north-east of Utrecht, with 
13,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Rhenen (with 3,000 
inhabitants, and the so called king's house, where the unfortunate Elector 
Frederic V. lived in 1621), Ysselsteia (with 3,000 inhabitants), Woerden (with 
2,800 inhabitants), Wyk, surnamed te, or by Duurstede (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
and Montfort (with 1,850 inhabitants). 

4. The province of Geldern, or Gelderland (2,007 1 square miles, and in 
1846 with 366.468 inhabitants), situated between the German frontier and the 
Zuyder Zee, did primitively belong to the German empire, and was in 1543 
annexed to the duchy of Burgundy. It contains : Arnheim, or Arnhem, the 
capital of the province, 37 miles east-south-east of Utrecht, is strongly fortified, 
has 15,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of the earls and dukes 
of Gelderland. Nimeguen, a fortified town on the Waal, southward and 9 
miles distant from Arnheim, has 19,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable for the 
peace concluded here in 1679. On the neighboring Heath of Mook, the 
adherents of the Prince William of Orange were in 1574 totally defeated by 
the Spaniards. Harderwyk, a town on the Zuyder Zee, with 5,200 inhabi- 
tants, was formerly noted for a university founded in 1648. Zutphen, a town 
on the Yssel, has 11,000 inhabitants, and was anciently the residence of sove- 
reign earls of Zutphen, and in the middle ages a member of the Hanseatic 
League. In its vicinity is the fine royal palace het Loo, with a beautiful 
garden and park. Other towns of this province are : Thiel (with 5,200 inhab- 



212 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Netherlandish Provinces of Overvssel and Friesland. 



itants), Bommel, or Salt-Bommel (with 5,000 inhabitants), Kuylenhurg (aviIIi 
5,300 inhabitants), Groenlo, or Grol (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lorkem (with 
1,800 inhabitants), Borkelo (with 1,200 inhabitants), Doesburg (with 3,500 
inhabitants), Deutichem (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wageningen (with 4,500 inhab- 
itants), Elburg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Nieuivkerk (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
Hattem (with 2,800 inhabitants), Zevenaer, or Sevenaer (with 1,000 inhabitants), 
and Huissen (with 1,100 inhabitants). 

5. The province of Ovekyssel (1,299 square miles, and in 1846 with 211.279 
inhabitants), was anciently, together with Utrecht, under the sway of a sove- 
reign bishop, and in 1528 purchased by Charles V. and annexed to the duchy 
of Burgundy ; it contains : Zwoll, strongly fortified capital of the province, 
near the Yssel and Vechte rivers, north-eastward and 52 miles distant from 
Utrecht, with 17,500 inhabitants. Deventer, a town on the Yssel, is noted 
for its honey-cakes, and has 15,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
are : Campen (with 10,000 inhabitants), Vollenhoven (with 2,200 inhabitants), 
Hasselt (with 1,500 inhabitants), Ahnelo (with 3,200 inhabitants), Ommen (with 
1,050 inhabitants), Hardenberg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Oldenzaal (with 4,800 
inhabitants), Enschede (with 4,400 inhabitants), and Steenwyk (with 2,500 
inhabitants). 

6. The province of Friesland (1,043| square miles, and in 1846 with 
245,266 inhabitants), situated on the North Sea and Zuyder Zee, and sepa- 
rated from East Friesland (belonging to Germany) by the province of Gronin- 
gen. Friesland, formerly by way of distinction frequently called West Fries- 
land (with reference to East Friesland), anciently formed part of the country 
inhabited by the Frieslanders, and was subsequently ruled by native princes. 
In the period from 1436 to 1523 it was gradually annexed to the duchy of Bur- 
gundy, or the Netherlands. It contains : Leeuwarden, the capital of the province, 
83 miles north-north-east of Amsterdam, carries on a considerable trade, and 
has 22,500 inhabitants. Franeker, a town, formerly noted for a university, has 
4,800 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Haarlingen (with 8,500 
inhabitants), DoJckum (with 3,800 inhabitants), Sneek (with 7,500 inhabitants), 

Workum (with 3,600 inhabitants), Hindelopen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sta- 
veren (once the largest town of Friesland, and the residence of its princes, 
but at present only with 1,800 inhabitants), Bohward (with 2,800 inhabitant*), 
and Heerenveen (with 1,900 inhabitants). Near the coast of Friesland are 
the isles of Ameland (with 3,300 inhabitants), and Schiermonnikoog (with 
2,000 inhabitants). 



THE NETHERLANDS. 273 

The Provinces of Groningen, Drtnthe and North Brabant. 

7. The 'province of Groningen (905| square miles, and in 1846 with 
189,714 inhabitants), situated between Friesland and the German frontier, on 
the north bounded by the North Sea, was primitively ruled by German 
governors, who in the course of time made themselves independent, and 
came in 1536 under the sway of the Netherlandish sovereign. It contains: 
Groningen, fortified capital of the province, half way between Leeuwarden 
and Emden (the latter town belongs to East Friesland), has 31,000 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its university, its town-hall, and St. Martin's church 
with high steeple and excellent organ. Delfzyl, a fortified town on the 
Dollart, with 3,700 inhabitants. The town of Dam, or Apingadam, with 3,600 
inhabitants, is noted for its horse marts. Winschoten, a fortified town on the 
Rensel, with 4,000 inhabitants. Rottum, a little island near the coast, with 
250 inhabitants. 

8. The province of Drenthe (958£ square miles, and in 1846 with 80,978 
inhabitants), situated between Overyssel and Gelderland, did for a long while 
belong to the German empire, and came in 1536 under the sway of the 
Netherlandish sovereign. In the time of the republic, Drenthe was not a 
province, but a territory under the immediate government of the General 
States. It contains : Assen, the capital of the province, on a canal connect- 
ing it with the Zuyder Zee, southward and 15 miles distant from Groningen, 
with 2,800 inhabitants. Frederiksoort is a settlement for the poor, who are 
engaged here, in husbandry and other branches of industry, and get in this 
manner amply the means of sustenance. Its population amounts to 2,500 
inhabitants. In the vicinity is situated the town of Meppel, with 6,500 in- 
habitants. Koevoerden, a fortified town near the frontier of Germany, with 
2,800 inhabitants. 

9. The province of North Brabant (1,970 square miles, and in 1846 with 
390,386 inhabitants), formerly a constituent part of the ancient duchy of Bra- 
bant, and in the beginning of the 17th century conquered by the Dutch, 
contains : Bois le Due (this is the French name, while the Dutch call it Herto- 
genbosch), strongly fortified capital of the province, in a plain, intersected by 
canals, 32 miles south-south-east of Utrecht, with a remarkable church and 
town-hall, numerous manufactures, considerable commerce, and 21,500 inhab- 
itants. Breda, a strongly fortified town, 23 miles west-south-west of Bois le 
Due, with 14,500 inhabitants, is noted for its principal church with 2 organs 
and the sepulchres of several earls of Nassau. By the terms of the treaty of 
peace concluded here on the 10th of July, 1668, the Netherlandish republic 

12* 



274 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Kingdom of the Netherlands: its Geographical Divisions and Colonies. 



ceded the city of New York (then called New Amsterdam) to England- 
Other more or less strongly fortified towns of this province are : Bergen op 
Zoom (with 8,000 inhabitants), Gertruidenberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Steenbergen (with 4,300 inhabitants), the Klundert (with 900 inhabitants), 
Willemstadt (with 2,000 inhabitants), Heusden (with 2,100 inhabitants), Grave 
(with 2,800 inhabitants), Ravensteen (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Workum 
(with 800 inhabitants). Eindhoven, a town on the Dommel, has 4,100 inhab- 
itants, and is noted for its manufactures of cotton goods, linen, etc. The town 
of Tilburg (with 13,500 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth manufactures; and 
the town of Helmond (with 3,200 inhabitants) for its linen manufactures. 
Osterhout, a borough, with numerous potteries, and 7,500 inhabitants. 

10. The duchy of Limburg has, as Netherlandish province, an extent of 852 
square miles, and a population of 198,000 inhabitants, but is divided into two 
districts, of which the one (viz. : the district of Roeremonde) is politically 
forming part of Germany, and, for this reason, to be described under that 
head ; while the other, viz. : the district of Maestricht (468| square miles, 
and in 1846 with 103,931 inhabitants), forms a constituent part of the king- 
dom of the Netherlands proper, and contains : Maestricht, the capital of 
this district, and one of the strongest fortresses in Europe, on the Meuse, has 
31,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its leather manufactures, and its quarry in 
St. Peter's hill containing not less than 20,000 horizontal galleries, which have 
been cut out here in a period of nearly 2,000 years. The town and fortress of 
Maestricht was conquered by the Dutch in 1632, and ceded to them formally 
in 1648. Venloo, a fortified town, on the Meuse, with 7,000 inhabitants. 

About Luxemburg, see under the head of Germany. 

To the kingdom of the Netherlands belong the following 
colonies : — 

1. In Asia : the islands of Java, Sumatra, Amboina, and other 
of the Spice Islands, etc., the greatest part of the island of Celebes, 
and settlements on Borneo, the total area of which is computed 
at 97,405 square miles, and the total population at 9,750,000 
inhabitants. 

2. In Africa : settlements on the coast of Upper Guinea, 
estimated at 2,790 square miles, with 200,000 inhabitants. 

3. In America: the colony of Surinam in Guiana, and the 



THE NETHERLANDS. 275 



Kingdom of Belgium. 



West Indian islands of Curacoa, St. Eustatius, and two smaller 
ones, the total area of which is estimated at 39,064 square miles, 
and the total population at 101,500 inhabitants. 

That Ceylon, Cape Colony, and Demerara, were likewise Neth- 
erlandish colonies, but ceded to England in 1814, is already 
mentioned above. 



II— THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. 

Area: 11,417 square miles. 
Population : 4,350,000 inhabitants. 

The population of this kingdom consists (with the exception 
of about 25,000 Protestants, etc.) of Roman Catholics, under the 
ecclesiastical direction of 1 archbishop (at Mechlin) and 5 bishops 
(at Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Namur, and Liege), and with nearly 
500 monasteries and nunneries. In point of origin, the majority 
of the people belongs to the great Germanic tribe, and is known 
by the name of Flemings, differing but little from the Dutch, in 
language, customs, and manners. The people in the south, or the 
Walloons, are, for the most part, descendants of the ancient Gauls, 
and speak the French language. 

It has already been remarked, that agriculture is on a high 
pitch of improvement in Belgium. However, the various branches 
of husbandry are, by far, not the only means of sustenance here, 
as the Belgians do also excel in manufactures; and, moreover, 
as Belgium is the most thickly settled country in Europe, the 



276 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Kingdom of Belgium: its Manufactures, Commerce, etc. 

ratio of population being 381 inhabitants on a square mile, suffi- 
cient corn for home consumption cannot be raised, so that, for 
instance, in the years 1842 and 1843 corn was imported at the 
value of 6,600,000 florins. 

The chief objects of manufacture are lace (renowned from 
old : the centres of its fabrication are Brussels and Mechlin ; 
other places noted for it are Bruges, Ghent, and St. Tron ; a 
pound of the finest twisted thread for bone-lace, costs about 2.000 
florins), cloth (especially in the province of Liege), linen (especially 
in Flanders, but also in Brabant and Hainault), cotton goods 
(Ghent, Brussels, etc.), fire-arms, cutlery, and steam engines (Liege, 
Namur, Charleroi), leather (Stablo, Liege, and Ghent), and carpets 
(Tournay, etc.). 

Though Belgium possesses, altogether, no more than 128 mer- 
chant vessels, beside some steamers, and therefore its own ship- 
ping is very insignificant, its commerce is of great importance. 
Thus, in 1843, the exports and imports were estimated at the 
value. of 516,738,461 francs, viz. : the imports at 294,584,180, and 
the exports at 222,154,281 francs. In 1845, the exports had 
increased by the value of nearly 26,000,000, and the imports (for 
a great part, transit goods and cotton for fabrication) by that of 
57,500,000 florins. 

The prevailing system of education, is more or less impregnated 
with the spirit of Catholicism ; at least, all Catholic schools are 
under the immediate control of the clergy, which, however, does 
not precisely prejudice the instruction itself. There are 3 uni- 
versities, viz. : at Louvain (founded in 1426, renewed in 1815 and 
1835, and in 1841 frequented by 660 students), at Ghent (founded 
in 1816, and in 1841 with 340 students), and at Liege (founded in 
1817, and in 1841 with 350 students). Beside these three 
bearing the Catholic stamp, there was founded in 1837 at Brussels 
a fourth university, as it were, in spite of the Catholic clergy, and 



THE NETHERLANDS. 211 



Kingdom of Belgium: its Finances, Army, and History. 



styled "Free University;" the number of its students, however, is 
very moderate. The number of the various other schools amounted 
in 1840 to 5,189, but 2.284 of them were private schools, which 
are, for the most part, very defective. 

The government is a constitutional monarchy, the sovereign 
power being vested in a king, a senate, and a chamber of repre- 
sentatives. 

The public revenue was in 1846 estimated at 126,681,575 francs, 
and the expenditure at 126,459,281 francs. The public debt 
amounted to 317,887,632 francs, on the 1st of January, 1845. 

The army consists of about 32,000 men on the peace, and of 
nearly 86,000 men on the war footing. Except some gun-boats, 
Belgium has no navy. 

In 1832, an order of honor was created by the name of Leopold 
order, for civil and military officers, in 5 classes. 

History. — The essential points of Belgian history are already stated above ; 
we will, therefore, only add some particulars. Since the establishment of the 
Netherlandish republic, towards the end of the 16th century, the southern 
provinces of the Netherlands, continuing to be under the sway of Spain, and 
retaining the Catholic creed, were for this reason commonly styled either the 
Spanish, or the Catholic Netherlands, and since 1714, when they were ceded 
to Austria, they were known by the name of the Austrian Netherlands. In 
1194, they were conquered by the French, and, by the terms of the treaty of 
peace, concluded at Campo Formio in 11 91, formally ceded to them. That 
they in 1814 were restored to Austria, but that this power renounced them 
in favor of the united kingdom of all Netherlands, and that finally this latter was 
dissolved again in consequence of the Belgian revolution of 1830, has already 
been mentioned. By the terms of an agreement brought about in 1839, the 
grand-duchy of Luxemburg was divided between the kingdoms of the Neth- 
erlands and of Belgium, the latter acquiring its western, and the former 
retaining the eastern half. In 1831, the Belgians elected Leopold duke of 
Saxe-Coburg (consort of the late British princess Charlotte, who died in 181*7), 
their hereditary king. 



278 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Kingdom of Belgium: the Province of South Brabant. 



The kingdom of Belgium, siuce the alterations and arrange- 
ments just mentioned, is divided into 9 provinces. 

1. The province of South Brabant (1,278 square miles, and, according to 
the census published on the 1st of January, 1844, with 654,758 inhabitants), 
towards the centre of the kingdom, bears the appellation of South, in order to 
distinguish it from North Brabant (see under the head of " Kingdom of the 
Netherlands"), though both these provinces were once constituent parts of 
the ancient duchy of Brabant, to which also belonged the greatest part of 
the present province of Antwerp. This duchy was since the days of the 
Prankish sway ruled by native dukes, who at first were vassals of the German 
empire, but made themselves independent in the course of time. About the 
remaining part of its history, see page 264. The province of South Brabant 
contains : Brussels, the metropolis of the kingdom, and royal residence, on 
the river Senne, westward and 76 miles distant from Aix la Chapelle, had in 
1846 a population of 124,781 inhabitants, exclusive of the suburbs, whose total 
population amounts to more than 40,000 inhabitants. Brussels ranks among 
the finest cities of Europe, and is noted not only for its extensive manufactures 
of lace, carpets, etc., but also for several of its public edifices, especially for 
its Gothic city hall (facing the chief market place, where in 1568 the counts of 
Egmont and Hoorn were executed), whose steeple is 364 feet high, and the 
St. Gudule church, containing pictures by Rubens and other masters of the 
Flemish school. Southward and 10 miles distant from Brussels, is situated 
the village of Waterloo (with 1,900 inhabitants), noted for the great battle 
fought on the 18th of June, 1815. Louvain, a town on the Dyle, 15 miles 
east-north-east of Brussels, with 28,000 inhabitants, is noted for its university, 
its churches, and town-hall. In the middle ages, Louvain was a city, with 
nearly 200,000 inhabitants, and remarkably flourishing by its cloth and other 
woollen manufactures, that gave employment to more than 150,000 operatives 
But the latter revolted in 1382, and having been punished for it, they mostly 
emigrated to England. The university of Louvain was in the 16th century 
sometimes frequented by 6,000 students. Other towns of this province are : 
Vilvorden (with 3,000 inhabitants), Tirlemont, or Tienen (with 8,500 inhabi- 
tants), Wavre (with 5,500 inhabitants), Nivelles, or JSfyvel (with 7,700 inhabi- 
tants), Haulx,ox Halle (with 6,000 inhabitants), Diest (with 8,000 inhabitants), 
Montaigu, in Flemish, Scherpenheuvel (with 1,800 inhabitants), Aerschot (with 



THE NETHERLANDS. 279 



The Belgian Provinces of Antwerp and East Flanders. 



4,000 inhabitants), and Hoegaerden (with 3,000 inhabitants). Tubize and 
Braine-Lalleu, boroughs, with respectively 2,000 and 3,000 inhabitants. 

2. The province of Antwerp (1,097 square miles, and in 1844 with 385,894 
inhabitants), anciently a constituent part of the duchy of Brabant, contains : 
Antwerp, fortified capital of the province, and the chief commercial city in 
Belgium, on the right bank of the Scheldt (which river is here 2,160 feet 
broad), northward and 28 miles distant from Brussels, has 80,000 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral (whose steeple is 444 feet 
high), its merchant's exchange (reared in 1531, and the most ancient and 
largest one in Europe), and its citadel (reared in 1567 by the duke of Alba, 
and valorously defended in 1832 by the general Chasse). Antwerp was 
towards the end of the 15th and during the greatest part of the 16th century 
the emporium of nearly all Europe. At a later period it was the residence 
of Rubens, and other eminent painters of the Flemish school. Lier, a town, 
10 miles east-south-east of Antwerp, is noted for its breweries, and has 
14,000 inhabitants. Herentah and Hoogstraten, towns, with respectively 
3,000 and 1,600 inhabitants. Arendonk (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Gheel 
(with 8,500 inhabitants), boroughs. Mechlin, a city on the Dyle, half way 
between Antwerp and Brussels, is the residence of the archbishop and Primas 
of Belgium, has a remarkable cathedral (founded in 1250, but not completed 
before the year 1475 ; its steeple is 348 feet high), and 26,000 inhabitants, 
and is celebrated for its lace, considered as the finest in Brabant. 

3. The province of East Flanders (1,150 square miles, and in 1844 with 
799,428 inhabitants), which once formed the eastern half of the ancient earl- 
dom of Flanders, whose first earl was Baldwin I., who lived in the 9 th cen- 
tury. Margaret, the daughter and heiress of the 24th earl, Louis II., was in 
1369 married to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who thus became pos- 
sessed of all Flanders. This province is the most thickly settled in Belgium, 
and noted for its linen. It contains : Ghent, the capital of the province 
(anciently also the capital of the earldom), on the Scheldt, 34 miles west- 
south-west of Antwerp, and north-westward and 34 miles distant from Brus- 
sels, has various remarkable ancient edifices, among them the cathedral, the 
palace where Charles V. was born in 1500, and a castle, once the residence 
of the earls of Flanders and of the dukes of Burgundy, and a population of 
90,000 inhabitants. Moreover, Ghent is the centre of the Belgian cotton man- 
ufactures, and is also noted for its trade in flowers. Jn 1814 the treaty of 
peace between the United States and Great Britain was signed here. Oude- 



280 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Belgian Provinces of East and West Flanders. 



naarde, a fortified town on the Scheldt, with a remarkable town-hall, and 
6,000 inhabitants. Dendermonde (in French, Tenremonde, or Termonde), a 
fortified town at the mouth of the Dender into the Scheldt, is noted for its 
flax and linen- bleacheries, and has 8,500 inhabitants. Other remarkable 
towns and boroughs of this province are: Alost, or Aaht (noted for its hops, 
has 16,000 inhabitants), Geerlvberghen, in French Grammont (with 1,700 in- 
habitants), Ronse, in French Renaix (with 13,00 inhabitants), Ninove (with 
5,000 inhabitants), Deynse (with 5,000 inhabitants), Eecloo (with 9,500 inhab- 
itants), Zele (with 11,000 inhabitants), Wetteren (with 9,500 inhabitants), 
Waerschot (with 5,500 inhabitants), Hamme (with 8,500 inhabitants), Loke- 
ren (with 16,500 inhabitants), Beveren (with 5,500 inhabitants), and Rupel- 
monde (noted for its bricks, has 2,500 inhabitants). The town of St. Nikolas 
(with 18,500 inhabitants, and numerous manufactures, especially of leather), 
is the chief place of the so-called Waesland, a tract of land noted for its 
highly cultivated soil and its fine flax. The above-stated boroughs of Hamme, 
Lokeren, Beveren, and Rupelmonde are also situated in this tract. The for- 
tified borough of Zwyndrecht (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the left bank of the 
Scheldt, right opposite Antwerp, is considered as the tete-de-pont of Antwerp, 
and is for this reason also named Tete de Flandres, or (in Flemish) Vlaamsch- 
Hoofd. 

4. The province of West Flanders (1,257 square miles, and in 1844 with 
659,270 inhabitants), which formed the western half of the ancient earldom 
of Flanders (see above), contains : Bruges, the capital of the province, north- 
westward and 28 miles distant from Ghent, has 45,000 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its cathedral (with the sepulchres of Charles the Bold and his 
daughter Mary), and its numerous manufactures of linen, lace, etc. In the 
14th and 15th centuries Bruges was famous for its commerce. Courtray (in 
Flemish, Cortryk), a town on the Lys, and near the French frontier, has 20,000 
inhabitants, and is noted for its linen of the finest quality. Commines, a town 
on the French frontier, has 2,700 inhabitants, and is by the river Lys divided 
into two parts, of which that on the right bank belongs to France since 1714. 
Roulers (in Flemish, Rousselaer), a town, with 10,000 inhabitants, is noted 
for its flax and linen. Ypern, in French Ypres, a fortified town on the little 
river Yperle, with a Gothic town-hall, a remarkable ancient cathedral, lace 
manufactures, and 17,500 inhabitants. Ostende, a fortified maritime town on 
the North Sea, is m#ch resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 12,500 inhabitants. 
Another fortified maritime town is Nieuport, or Nieuwport (with 3,300 in- 



THE NETHERLANDS. 281 



The Belgian Provinces of West Flanders, Hainault and Namur. 

habitants), noted in history for a battle in 1600 between the Dutch and Span- 
iards. V.eume (in French called Fumes), a town near the North Sea, carries 
on a considerable trade in corn and provisions, and has 4,800 inhabitants. 
Other towns and boroughs of this province are : Meenen, or Menin (is noted 
for its lace and linen, and has 8,000 inhabitants), Warneton, or Waesten (also 
noted for its lace, has 6,000 inhabitants), Werwick (with 5,800 inhabitants), 
Iseghem (with 9,000 inhabitants), Thielt (with 12,500 inhabitants), Meulebeke 
(with 9,000 inhabitants), Moorzele or Moorslede (with 4,400 inhabitants), 
Bixmuyden (with 3,500 inhabitants), Poperingen (with 11,000 inhabitants), 
Blankenberghe (with 2,000 inhabitants), Thorout (with 8,000 inhabitants), and 
Bichtervelde (with 7,000 inhabitants). 

5. The province of Hainault (1,449 square miles, and in 1844 with 679,536 
inhabitants), anciently an earldom of the same name, which, however, so early 
as in the 12th century came under the sway of the earls of Flanders, and 
subsequently under that of the dukes of Burgundy. It contains : Moxs (in 
Flemish it is named Bergen), fortified capital of the province, on the former 
high road between Brussels and Paris, is noted for its coal mines, and has 
24,000 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the village of Jemappes (with 3,000 
inhabitants), noted for a battle in 1792, between the French and the allied 
powers. Ath, a fortified town, on the Dender, is noted for its linen manufac- 
tures, and has 9,500 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are : Roidx 
(with 2,800 inhabitants), Soignies (with 7,000 inhabitants), Beuze (with 5,500 
inhabitants), Bessmes (with 5,000 inhabitants), Fnghien (with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), Braine le Comte (with 4,700 inhabitants), Binche (with 5,500 inhabi- 
tants), Fontaine VEveque (with 2,800 inhabitants), Beaumont (with 1,900 
inhabitants), Chimay (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Ligne (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants). Thuin, a town on the Sambre, with 4,000 inhabitants, did formerly 
belong to the sovereign bishopric of Liege. Charleroi, a fortified town, on 
the Sambre, with 7,500 inhabitants, is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms 
and hardware, and did anciently belong to the earldom of Namur. Tournay 
(in Flemish, Boornik), a fortified city, on the Scheldt, south-westward and 46 
miles distant from Brussels, is noted for its manufactures of carpets and 
porcelain, and has 30,500 inhabitants. The villages of Fontenay and Fleurus 
are noted for battles at different times. 

6. The province of Namur (1,422 square miles, and in 1844 with 251,326 
mhabitants), chiefly comprising the ancient earldom of Namur, which in 1421 
was sold by Earl John III. (who had no descendants) to Philip, duke of 
Burgundy. It contains : Namur (in Flemish and Dutch, named Nam-en), 



282 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The Belgian Provinces of Namur and Liege. 



fortified capital, on the Meuse, 35 miles south-south-east of Brussels, is noted 
for its fire-arms and cutlery, and has 24,500 inhabitants. Marienburg and 
Fhilippeville, little but fortified towns, with respectively 700 and 1,500 inhab- 
itants. Dinant, a town on the Meuse, is noted for its freestone and marble, 
and has 5,500 inhabitants. Other towns and boroughs of this province are : 
Bouvignes (with 1,600 inhabitants), Walcourt (with 1,100 inhabitants), Rochefort 
(with 1,200 inhabitants), Andenne (with 4,500 inhabitants), and Gembloux 
(with 2,000 inhabitants). The village of Ligny, 18 miles south-south-east of 
Waterloo, is noted for -a battle on the 16th of June, 1815 (but two days 
previous to the battle of Waterloo), in which the Prussians were defeated by 
the French. 

7. The province of Liege (1,123 square miles, and in 1844 with 425,758 
inhabitants), between South Brabant and the Prussian Rhenish province, com- 
prising in substance the territory of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Liege, 
which was established in the city of Liege in the beginning of the 8th century 
by St. Hubertus, and was an actual member of the German empire until 
towards the end of last century, when it was conquered by the French, 
together with the Catholic Netherlands, with which it has since continued to 
be united. It contains : Liege (in Flemish and Dutch, named Luik), the 
capital, at the junction of the Ourthe and Meuse, 54 miles east-south-east of 
Brussels, and 28 miles west-south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has a strongly 
fortified citadel, a remarkable cathedral, and 73,000 inhabitants, and is famed 
for its fire-arms, cannon foundry, iron works, and coal mines. The neighboring 
village of Seraing (with 3,500 inhabitants) is noted for its manufactures of 
steam engines, etc. The ancient abbey of St. Lambertthal is at present noted 
for one of the most considerable glass manufactures. The borough of Herstai.l 
(5 miles north-east of Liege, with iron works, and 5,500 inhabitants) is remark- 
able as the ancestral seat of the Frankish Majordomus Pipin of Her stall, 
great-grandfather of Charlemagne. Verviers, a town on the Weze, half-way 
between Liege and Aix la Chapelle, has 21,000 inhabitants, and is celebrated 
for its numerous and excellent cloth manufactures. The boroughs of Theux 
(with 3,500 inhabitants) and Glons (with 2,000 inhabitants), are noted, the 
former for its iron foundry and marble, and the latter for its manufactures of 
straw hats. Spa, a town, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Liege, 
and 20 miles south-south-west of Aix la Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and 
is celebrated for mineral waters, which are also to be found in the neigh- 
boring village of Chaudfontaine. The town of Huy (on the Meuse, between 
Liege and Namur, with 8.000 inhabitants) is noted for its mountain castle, and 



THE NETHERLANDS. 283 



Tiie Belgian Provinces of Liege, Limbing and Luxemburg. 



romantic environs. The town of Vise, or Weset, on the Meuse, with 2,200 
inhabitants, has likewise romantic environs. The town of Limburg (noted for 
its cheese and cloth manufactures, and with 2,200 inhabitants) did not belong- 
to the bishopric of Liege, but was formerly the capital of the ancient duchy 
of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of Germany), to 
which also belonged the towns of Herve (noted for its cheese, and with 3,500 
inhabitants), Dalhem (with 900 inhabitants), and Hodimont (with 1,500 inhabi- 
tants). To the ancient duchy of Brabant did belong the towns of Stablo 
(with very considerable leather manufactures, and 3, 7 00 inhabitants), Hanut 
(with 1,000 inhabitants), and Landen (with 1,050 inhabitants). 

8. The province of Limburg (937 square miles, and in 1844 with 177,184 
inhabitants) has, but for the name, nothing in common with the ancient duchy 
of Limburg (whose history will be found under the head of the Netherlandish 
German states), but does only comprise parts of the territory formerly 
belonging to the bishopric of Liege, containing : Hasselt, the capital of this 
province, on the Demer, north-westward and 14 miles distant from Mastricht, 
with 7,400 inhabitants. St. Tron (in Flemish, St. Trujen), a town, south- 
westward and 9 miles distant from Hasselt, is noted for its manufactures of 
lace and fire-arms, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province 
are : Tongern (with 5,600 inhabitants), Bilsen (with 3,000 inhabitants), Maaseyk 
(with 4,200 inhabitants), Looz, or Borchloen (with 1,400 inhabitants), and 
Reeckem (with 1,000 inhabitants). 

9. The province of Luxemburg (1,704 square miles, and in 1844 with 
180,709 inhabitants), comprising the western half of the ancient duchy (at 
present grand-duchy) of Luxemburg (see above, in the History of Belgium : 
the history of this duchy, or grand-duchy, will be found under the head of 
Germany), and containing : Arlon, the capital of this province, amidst exten- 
sive forests, 14 miles west-north-west of the city of Luxemburg, with leather 
manufactures, and 4„000 inhabitants. Other towns of this province are: 
Basiogne (with 2,600 inhabitants), Marche en Famine (with 1,600 inhabitants^, 
St. Hubert (with 1,600 inhabitants), La Roche (with 1,000 inhabitants), Neuf- 
chateau (with 1,600 inhabitants), Chiny (with 1,150 inhabitants), and Viel 
Salm (with 2,900 inhabitants, and the ruins of the castle of Salm, the ancestral 
seat of the German princes and earls of Salm). Bouillon, a fortified town 
near the French frontier, with 2,800 inhabitants, and a mountain castle, anciently 
the residence of the renowned leader of the first army of crusaders, and first 
king of Jerusalem (in 1099), Godfrey of Bouillon. This town was formerly 
the capital of a duchy of the same name. 



GERMANY. 

Area : 244,315 square miles. 
Population : 42,000,000 inhabitants. 

Germany is situated in the centre of Europe, between 55 D 
and 45° north latitude, and between 5° 45' and 19° 45' east 
from Greenwich. On the north it is bounded by the North and 
Baltic Seas and by Denmark ; on the south by the Adriatic Sea, 
Italy and Switzerland : on the east by Hungary and the Polish 
provinces of Russia, Prussia, and Austria ; and on the west by 
France and the Netherlands. 

The distance between Germany and Gibraltar is nearly equal to 
that between Germany and Moscow, viz, : more than 1000 miles ; 
and to Stockholm in Sweden it is just about as far as to Naples in 
Italy. 

In the northern and western parts of Germany the surface is 
more or less level ; the southern and eastern parts are traversed 
by the mountain ranges described pages 6-8 : and towards the 
southern extremity branches of the Alps are running in an east- 
erly direction. 

About the rivers and lakes of Germany, see Introduction to 
Europe, §§ 9 and 10, pages 11, 13, 16 and 17. 

The climate is both moderate and healthful throughout Ger- 
many. 

Though the country is intersected by about 60 navigable riv- 
ers, which thus would afford the greatest facility of connecting 
them one to another by canals, the latter are rather few in mini- 



GERMANY. 285 

Natural Products. 



ber. The principal and most useful canal is the so-called Louis 
Canal, crossing the northern half of Bavaria and uniting the 
Rhine with the Danube. This deficiency is however amply com- 
pensated by numerous public roads and rail-roads, which latter 
are at present crossing almost every German country. 
The chief natural products of Germany are the following : 

Corn, which not only is raised sufficiently for home consumption, but even 
for exportation. For the soil is generally fertile, and agriculture is carried 
on with diligence and great skill. Wine, especially along the Rhine and 
most of its tributaries, and in the German provinces of Austria. Timber, 
which is exported in considerable quantities from the southern and middle 
parts of Germany. The mountain ranges are generally covered with exten- 
sive forests ; hence the final syllable wald (forest) in the proper names of so 
many of them ; for instance, Schwarzwald (Black Forest), Odenwald, Boeh- 
merwald, etc. Fruits, in great variety, and partly in immense quantities. 
Flax, which is cultivated throughout Germany, but especially in Silesia, 
Bohemia, Moravia, Westphalia, etc. Moreover hops (the best quality is to 
be found in the northern part of Bavaria, and in Bohemia), and hemp 
(chiefly in the kingdom of Hanover). — Horses, more than 5,000,000 in 
number, and for the most part of excellent breed. Those of Mecklenburg, 
Hanover, Holstein, and Oldenburg, rival the finest English horses, and are 
even frequently superior to them, if perhaps not in swiftness on the turf, but 
in other more useful qualities. Nearly the whole remount of the French 
army is supplied with German horses. Cattle, whose total number of heads 
amounts to more than 15,000,000 (double the amount of the cattle in France), 
and the finest breed of which is reared in Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, East Fries- 
land, Holstein, Oldenburg, Dessau, and Mecklenburg. Sheep, about 30,000,000 
in number, and at present for the most part of improved breed ; for which 
reason their wool is one of the chief staples. Hogs (more than 8,000,000) 
are reared in vast numbers in Westphalia (noted for its excellent hams), Ba- 
varia, etc. Moreover, Germany abounds in game, fowls, bees (great quantities 
of wax and honey are exported), etc. — Silver, extracted from the mines in 
Saxony, Bohemia, Hanover, and Prussia, to the annual amount of between 
160,000 and 200,000 marks. Iron (more than 4,000,000 quintals annually) ; 
Tix (especially in Bohemia and Saxony) ; Copper (about 30,000 quintals an- 



286 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Manufactures and Commerce of Germany. 



nually) ; Quicksilver (in Illyria) ; Lead (nearly 200,000 quintals) ; and 
above all, Salt, of which about 5 million quintals are annually made. There 
is perhaps no country where mineral springs of any description are more 
abundant than in Germany, where moreover the spas, or watering-places, 
es pecially those of Bohemia, Silesia, Bavaria, Baden, and Nassau, are every 
year, in the summer season, visited by foreigners from various parts of 
Europe in quest of health or pleasure. 

The German manufactures are important and various, and 
their chief articles are the following : linen (the finest qualities 
in Silesia, Bohemia, Lusatia, and Westphalia), woollen goods 
(especially in the Rhenish province of Prussia, and moreover in 
Moravia, Silesia, Brandenburg, and Saxony), cotton goods (above 
all in the kingdom of Saxony, and at Berlin, Elberfeld, Barmen, 
in Bohemia and Lower Austria), silks (especially in Crefeld and 
Berlin, which moreover are famed for their velvet; in Vienna, in 
the southern part of Tyrol, etc ), hardware, cutlery, and fire-arms 
(in the' Rhenish province of Prussia, in some parts of Westpha- 
lia and of the Prussian province of Saxony, in Austria, etc.), 
leather (Malmedy is famous for it, but also some places in Bohe- 
mia, Silesia, etc.), porcelain (the porcelain manufactures of Ber- 
lin, Vienna, and Meissen may be considered as the finest in 
Europe), glass (no country in the world fabricates so much glass 
as Germany, especially Bohemia is celebrated for it), musical in- 
struments (first-rate pianos are constructed not only in Vieuna, 
Augsburg, Prague, and other cities, but even in villages of the 
southern and middle parts of Germany ; excellent violins, espe- 
cially in Tyrol), gold- and silver-smith's wares (in which excel, 
Augsburg, Vienna, Berlin, and Breslau), and finally, optical, chi- 
rurgical, and other similar instruments, which are partly superior 
to those of England or France. 

In commerce, Germany is surpassed by Great Britain, France, 
and Russia, nevertheless it is carried on to a great extent, espe- 



GERMANY. 2S7 



Commerce, Trade, and Means of Education. 



dally by Hamburg, Bremen, and Trieste, and next to them, by 
Altona, Lubeck, Stettin, Stralsund, Rostock, Wismar, Kiel, and 
Emden. The chief exports are : grain, timber, wool, linen, hard- 
ware, lead, zinc, quicksilver, glass, salt, woollen and cotton goods, 
horses, cattle, and butter (the latter, especially, from Holstein 
and Mecklenburg). The inland trade is very considerable, and 
the principal cities and towns engaged in it are, Vienna, Leipsic, 
Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, Berlin, Breslau, Prague. Augs- 
burg, Frankfort on the Mayne, Frankfort on the Oder, Botzen. 
Laibach, etc. 

The literary institutions in Germany, are both numerous and 
celebrated. The universities, all on a large scale, and comprising 
the four faculties of theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and phi- 
losophy (inclusive astronomy, etc.), are so eminently arranged, 
and answer the purpose so well, that they are much resorted to, 
even from other countries. At present, there are 23 universities 
on this scale in Germany, viz. : — 

Five in the German provinces of Austria : at Prague (founded 
in 1348), Vienna (in 1365), Olmutz (in 1581), Gratz (in I486), and 
f/inspruck (in 1672). 

Five in the German provinces of Prussia: at Greifsioald (founded 
in 1456), Halle (in 1694), Breslau (in 1702), Berlin (in 1810), and 
Bonn (in 1818). 

Three in Bavaria: at Wurtzburg (founded in 1403), Erlangen 
(in 1743), and Munich (in 1826). 

Two in Baden: at Heidelberg (founded in 1386), and Freiburg 
(in 1457). 

One in Saxony: at Leipsic (founded in 1409). 

One in Mecklenburg: at Rostock (founded in 1419). 

One in Wirtemberg: at Tubingen (founded in 1477). 

One in Hesse-Cassel: at Marburg (founded in 1527). 

One in Saxe-Weimar: at Jena (founded in 1557). 



288 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Public Libraries, Picture Galleries, etc., and Schools in Germany. 



One in Hesse-Darmstadt : at Giessen (founded in 1607). 

One in Holstein : at Kiel (founded in 1665). 

One in Hanover: at Goettingen (founded in 1737). 

(Towards the end of last century, there were, moreover, uni- 
versities at Erfurt. Wittenberg, Frankfort on the Oder, Helmstadt, 
Kinteln, Duisburg, Altdorf, and in 18 other places, which, however, 
since have been abolished, or united with others.) 

The public libraries are likewise on a large scale, and while there 
are about 50 of them, which contain more than 25,000 volumes 
each, there are nearly as many that contain above 100,000 volumes. 
So, for instance, at Munich there is one with 600,000, and another 
with 160,000 volumes ; the royal library at Berlin numbers 
500,000, the imperial at Vienna 350.000 volumes; beside these, 
there are public libraries at Dresden (with 220,000), Goettingen, 
(with 300,000), Hamburg (with 200,000), Stuttgart (with 200,000), 
Wolfenbuttel (with 190,000), Prague (with 130,000), Weimar 
(with 120,000), Darmstadt, Frankfort, Breslau (with 200,000 
volumes), etc., etc. 

Munich, Vienna, Berlin, Dresden, and Goettingen, may, in some 
regard, be considered as central points of sciences and arts, not 
only with regard to Germany, but also to other countries. Highly 
distinguished are the picture galleries in Dresden, Vienna, Mtinchen, 
and Berlin (that of Dusseldorf is since the year 1806 removed to 
Munich), the cabinets of natural curiosities in Vienna, Prague, 
Munich, Berlin, Goettingen, and Hamburg, and the observatories 
in Berlin, Vienna, Goettingen, Munich, Prague, and near Gotha. 

No country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of 
knowledge; and common school education is the more widely 
extended, as parents are forced by the law to send their children 
to school, or at least to give evidence of having in a suitable 
manner provided for their education. The children of the poor 
enjoy, of course, the benefits of instruction, free from expenses. 



GERMANY. 289 



The Common School System of Germany, 



The total number of children frequenting the common schools in 
Germany, amounts to more than 6,000,000. The common public 
schools in the kingdom of Saxony, for instance, were in 1840 
frequented by 303,506 children, and those of Prussia in 1843 fre- 
quented by 2,328,146 children ; and as in 1840 the total popula- 
tion of Saxony was 1,709,880, and that of Prussia in 1843 was 
15,47 1,765 inhabitants, it is impossible to imagine, with regard 
to common school education, a more just ratio between school- 
children and adults (inclusive of infants), than this, which is one 
to five, or six. About 15,500,000 Prussian dollars are, in Germany, 
annually bestowed upon this branch of school education ; and the 
927 teachers in the common public schools of Saxony, for instance 
(where, as in other German countries, most of these schools are 
in the villages of the peasantry), receive a salary of respectively 
120, 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, and 700, Prussian dollars, 
which, there, is equal to as many American dollars. But while 
they thus are placed in a situation more or less free from cares 
for sustenance, they are not allowed to occupy any teachership 
without having previously been carefully instructed in the so-called 
school-seminaries, and given evidence of solid knowledge in a 
rigorous examination. That with these arrangements scarcely 
none above six years old are to be found throughout Germany, 
who cannot read, and but very few who cannot write, is not to be 
wondered at. Some years ago, there were among 122,897 men 
of the standing Prussian army, only two soldiers who could not 
write, and these were not Germans, but Poles from the province 
of Posen. The particulars about the higher schools, will be found 
in the description of the various German states ; and it may only 
be remarked here, that the total number of lycea in Germany 
amounts to nearly 100, of gymnasia to more than 400, of so-called 
Latin schools to about 800, and of school seminaries to nearly 1,100. 
(About the signification of these terms, see the not£ page fe.) 

13 



290 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Characteristic of the German Scholars in general. 



Many of the learned men in Germany are, indeed, distinguished for their 
attainments in literature and science, but in general only in 'philology, history, 
pathology and other branches of medical science, jurisprudence, mineralogy, 
ind metallurgy; while in nearly all other scientific branches, the learned men 
uf other European countries rival, and, even in some points, by far surpass 
them. This deficiency is chiefly owing to an unlucky tendency to bibliola- 
iry, which much prevails among the German scholars. They are more or 
less filled with the wrong idea, that all and every knowledge may be acquired 
irom books, even the art of ship-building, for instance. Indeed there are 
many scientific branches, which can and must be learned chiefly from printed 
books ; but for obtaining a sound judgment, it is indispensable to study, at the 
same time, the open book of practical life. About eighty years ago, it became 
fashionable to babble after the manner of atheistical philosophers of the 
Voltaire school, and since that time, not only Rationalism sprung up in the 
province of theology, but also other theories and hypotheses of the most 
nonsensical kind were brought forward in Germany. Thus, for instance, one 
scholar, named Ballenstadt, pretended that the human race had sprung from 
a primitive slime, or mud, that had been quickened by electric flashes and 
thunder claps ; another, of the name of Wagner, has, by a profound study in 
his closet, discovered that our globe is an animal, whose sweat presents itself 
in the evaporation of the waters, while its circulation of the blood makes 
itself known by the tide ! Even in recent times, several German naturalists 
still harbor the opinion, that man is properly nothing else but a monkey fully 
developed, and has descended either from the Orang Outang in Borneo, or 
from the Boggo (Pan Africanus) in Guinea ! Had these learned men, who 
never have been much out of doors, compared monkey skulls with human 
skulls, and, above all, carefully studied the natural history of these animals, 
they would long since have been restored to reason, and become sensible of 
the palpable truth, that a brute can never become a rational being, and that, 
for this same reason, monkeys will still remain monkeys, even if those scholars 
should be foolish enough to try to instruct or educate them. How far the 
constructors of philosophical systems in Germany have gone, may be inferred 
from the fact, that Mr. Michelet, professor of philosophy in the university of, 
Berlin, boldly maintains, in his works and lectures, the following proposition : 
" What we call God, is nothing else but human culture in its highest potency !" 
Whoever has troubled himself with reading the debates in the so-called 
German parliament, which gave up the ghost last summer, will have had 



GERMANY. 291 



Origin and Religion of the Germans. 



ample opportunity to notice the total lack of practical capacity on the part 
of German bookworms and shallow literati. Fortunately there are also a 
great many eminent and devout theologians, as well as philosophers endowed 
with sound judgment ; and by these and the common sense of the German 
nation in general, those bookworms are at least prevented from doing more 
mischief than they have already done. 

In point of origin, the majority of the population belongs to 
the great family of the Germanic tribe, while about 6 or 7 million 
inhabitants of north-eastern, eastern, and south-eastern provinces 
belong to the Slavic tribe (see Introduction to Europe. §12, pages 
18 and 19). These latter are known by the names of Wenden and 
Kassuben (in Pomerania), of Sorben (in Lusatia, etc.), Czechen 
(in Bohemia), etc. ; however, with the exception of the tribe in 
Bohemia, they have assimilated themselves almost entirely to 
other Germans. 

In point of religion, Catholicism is prevailing in the southern 
half of Germany, and Protestantism in the northern. The num- 
ber of Roman Catholics is between 22 and 23 millions, and that of 
Protestants amounts to more than 18 millions. Since the year 
1817 the Lutherans and Reformists in Prussia, Baden, Hesse- 
Darmstadt, Nassau, and the Bavarian Palatinate have united 
into one common church, styled Evangelical. But in Saxony, 
Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Holstein, the Lutheran, and for in- 
stance, in Hesse-Cassel the Reformed religion still prevails. The 
number of Jews in Germany amounts to about 500,000. 

Before entering into German history, it may be suitable to 
give some particulars with regard to the ancient German Empire, 
which was formally dissolved in 1806. Officially it was styled 
either the Holy Roman, or the Roman German Empire. The 
term ' ; Roman" had reference to the historical fact, that the first 
wearer of the German imperial crown, viz. : Charlemagne, was 
crowned Roman emperor (see History of Europe, §14, page 31). 



292 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Historical Particulars about the ancient German Empire. 

The term " Holy" rested upon the opinion of the emperor being 
the protector and defender of the holy see and of all Christen- 
dom. The States of Empire (Reichsstande), nominally 1762, 
or at least 376, yet actually only 221 in number, consisted of 
independent (i. e., in local affairs), or immediate (reichsunmittel- 
bar) archbishops, bishops, abbots, provosts (Reichsprobste), duchies, 
mar gr aviates, principalities, earldoms, lordships, and imperial cities 
(Reichsstadte). Besides these, there were certain territories be- 
longing to knighthood (rittershaftliche G-ebiete), imperial villages 
(Reichsdorfer), etc. Most of these States formed part of those 
10 circles, into which Germany was divided since the days of 
Emperor Maximilian I., for the purpose of maintaining public 
peace and order, and executing sentences of the supreme courts 
of the Empire with armed force, in case of necessity. They 
were organized in a similar manner as the empire itself, but had 
for the rest no political power. These 10 circles were the fol- 
lowing : 

1. The Austrian circle, comprising the present German provinces of Aus- 
tria, with the exception of Bohemia, Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 

2. The Burgundian circle, comprising the present kingdom of Belgium, 
■with the exception of the ancient bishopric of Liege, which belonged to the 
Westphahan circle. The political connection between the Burgundian circle 
and the German empire was however only a nominal one. 

3 The Lower Rhenish circle, comprising the former three ecclesiastical 
electorates of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the electoral Palatinate, etc. 

4 The Upper Rhenish circle, comprising Hesse Cassel, the greatest part of 
Hesse-Darmstadt, the Bavarian palatinate, the imperial cities of Frankfort, 
Worms, Spire, etc. 

5. The Frankish circle, comprising the greatest part of the northern half 
of the present kingdom of Bavaria, etc. 

6. The Bavarian circle, comprising the southern half of the present king- 
dom of Bavaria. 

7. The Swabian circle, comprising the duchy of Wirtemberg, the margra- 



GERMANY. 293 



Germany: its ancient Geographical Divisions. 



viate of Baden, the principalities of Hohenzollern, and in substance the Swa- 
bian district of the present kingdom of Bavaria. 

8. The Westphaliau circle, comprising the present Prussian province of 
Westphalia, and some parts of the Rhenish province (Elberfeld, Dusseldcrf, 
Cleve, Aix la Chapelle, etc.), moreover, the bishopric of Liege, some parts of 
the present kingdom of Hanover (Osnabriick, Verden, etc.), etc. 

9. The Upper Saxon circle, comprising the present Saxon kingdom, grand- 
duchy and duchies, the present Prusian provinces of Brandenburg, Pomera- 
nia (with some exceptions) and Saxony, the principalities of Schwarzburg, etc. 

10. The Lower Saxon circle, comprising the greatest part of the present 
kingdom of Hanover, Brunswick, Mecklenburg, Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen, 
Lubec, etc. 

The above-mentioned states of the empire were since the latter half of the 
17th century seldom or never personally present at the Diet, but were repre- 
sented there by plenipotentiaries. According to the terms of the constitution, 
the diet was to be convoked at least every tenth year, but since the year 1663 
it was permanent, and held its sessions at Ratisbon (on the Danube and in the 
present kingdom of Bavaria). The supreme judicial power was vested in 
two imperial tribunals, viz. : the Imperial Chamber (Reichskammergericht) 
at Wetzlar, and the Imperial Aulic Council (Reichshofrath) in Vienna. 

If not exactly since its existence, but at least since the death of the last 
German Carolingian, Louis III., or since the year 911, the German empire was 
not a hereditary, but an elective monarchy. The right and privilege of elect- 
ing the emperor was exclusively vested in the electors, i. e., those most 
powerful states of the empire that had exercised this right from the begin- 
ning. Primitively they were only 7 in number (viz. : the electors of Mentz, 
Treves, Cologne, Bohemia, Palatinate, Saxony, and Brandenburg), but in the 
17th century two others (of Bavaria and Brunswick-Luneburg) were added 
to them. The principal elector was the archbishop of Mentz. The election 
of the emperor took place at Frankfort on the Mayne, where at the same 
time (since the year 1564) the emperor was crowned by the archbishop and 
elector of Mentz. Though the emperor was the nominal sovereign of all 
Germany, he was in the exercise of his executive power restricted even more 
than the king or queen of Great Britain. 

In consequence of the conquests of the French on the left bank of the 
Rhine, and the treaty of Luneville in 1801, the German empire underwent 
many substantial alterations. The archbishops of Treves and Cologne not 



294 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Kecent Political Changes in Germany. 



only were deprived of their territories, but also of their character as actual 
electors. The elector of Mentz was restricted to his principality of Aschaffen- 
burg on the Mayne. In short, all German territories on the left bank of the 
Rhine were to be ceded to France, and in order to indemnify their princes, 
the sovereign bishoprics, etc., were secularized and divided differently. 

But for these alterations, the German empire retained its ancient forms and 
organization. Yet, in 1806, Napoleon induced the majority of the German 
princes to unite into a confederation, which was styled the Rhenish Confedera- 
tion. As by this arrangement the German empire had actually ceased to 
exist, the emperor, then Francis II., did on the 6th of August, 1806, proclaim 
its formal dissolution. 

In 1806 and 1801, Napoleon created the following new states in Germany, 
viz. : — 1. The grand-duchy of Berg, which was first given to Murat, Napoleon's 
brother-in-law, and in 1809 to Napoleon's nephew; it comprised the ancient 
duchy of Berg, and several parts of Westphalia, and had in 1809 an area of 
6,709! square miles, and a population of 878,157 inhabitants. 2. The grand- 
duchy of Wurzburg, which in 1806 was given to the former grand-duke of 
Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph (see History of Tuscany). It had, in 1808, an 
area of 1,651 square miles, and a population of 256,331 inhabitants, and 
consisted of the secularized sovereign bishopric of Wurzburg. 3. The kingdom 
of Westphalia, in 1807 created and given to Napoleon's brother Jerome. It 
had then an extent of 14,825 square miles, with 1,912,303 inhabitants, and 
comprised the greatest part of Hesse-Cassel and Hanover, Brunswick, and 
many parts of the present Prussian province of Saxony, and district of Minden. 
Its capital and royal residence was Cassel. 4. The grand-duchy of Frankfort, 
which comprised, besides the city of this name, the principality of Aschaffen- 
burg (see above), and the districts of Hanau and Fulda, and was in 1809 
created in favor of the above-mentioned former archbishop and elector of 
Mentz, Charles Theodore of Dalberg. It had an extent of 1,874 square miles, 
and a population of 300,000 inhabitants. 

After the political events in 1814 and 1815. these new creations 
disappeared, and the respective territories were restored to their 
former sovereigns ; other sovereigns, who until then had retained 
their sovereignty, were mediatized,* and, according to the tenor 

* That is, their territories were annexed to larger neighboring states, under 



GERMANY. 295 



The German Confederation of 1816-48. 



of a treaty concluded at Vienna on the 8th of June, 1815, a union 
of the several German states was formed by the name of Germanic 
Confederation, the object of which was to provide for mutual 
safety and defence. Each state was independent within itself, 
but for general purposes the whole was governed by the Diet, a 
body composed of plenipotentiaries from the different states, and 
residing at Frankfort on the Mayne. On the 5th of November? 
1816, the Diet held its first session. It was voted, according to 
circumstances, either in a committee, or in full session. The 
Austrian plenipotentiary presided. Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, etc., 
had each one vote ; while of the smaller states, several together had 
one vote in common. The order of succession was the following : — 

Austria, having in the committee, 1 vote. 

Prussia, ....... " " 

Bavaria, ....... " " 

Saxony, ....... " " 

Hanover, " " 

Wirtemberg, " " 

Baden, " 

Hesse-Cassel, " " 

Hesse-Darmstadt and Hesse -Homburg, together, " " 

Denmark (on account of Holstein and Lauenburg), " " 

ISetherland (on account of Luxemburg and Limburg), " " 

Saxe-Weimar and the 3 Saxon duchies, together, " " 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin and M. Strelitz, . " " 

Brunswick and Nassau, .... " " 

Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Schwarzburg, . " " 
Hohenzollern, Liechtenstein. Reuss, Schaumburg- 

Lippe, Lippe-Detmold, and Waldeck, . " 

Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, " " 

Total in the committee, . 17 " 

whose sovereignty they themselves were placed, while they in substance 
retained their independence in local affairs. 



296 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Organization of the former German Diet. 



The so-called ple?ium, or full session, was held whenever the 
question was of fundamental laws of the Confederation, or arrange- 
ments concerning its organization, etc. ; and in this plenum was 
voted in the following order of succession : — 



Austria, 

Prussia, 

Saxony, 

Bavaria, 

Hanover, 

Wirtemberg, 

Baden, 

Resse-Cassel, 

Hesse-Darmstadt, 

Holstein-Lauenburg, . 

Luxemburg- Limhurg, . 

Brunswick, . 

Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 

Nassau, 

Saxe- Weimar, . 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, . 

Saxe-Meiningen, . 

Saxe-Altenburg, . 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz, . 

Oldenburg, . 

Anhalt-Dessau, . 

Anhalt-Bernburg, 

Anhalt-Kothen (since Nov., 1847 

Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 

S chwarzburg- Rudolstadt, 

Hohenzollern-Hechingen, 

Liechtenstein, 

Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 

Waldeck, . 

Reuss, elder line, 

Reuss, younger line, . 

Schaumburg-Lippe, . 



become void), 



having in the plenum, 4 votes. 

u it a a 

tt it a it 

<« it a u 

(t tt A tt 

it tt a a 

« it o it 

«« tt o « 

u it o « 

(( tt Q It 

« tt O 11 

«« (( o « 

u it q " 

« « 2 " 



GERMANY. '• 297 



The Supreme Tribunals in Germany. 



Lippe-Detmold, . . . ... . having in the plenum, 1 vote. 

Lubeck, " " 1 " 

Frankfort, " " 1 " 

Bremen, " " 1 " 

Hamburg, « " 1 " 

Hesse-Homburg, " K 1 " 

Total in the plenum, 69 votes. 

Since the dissolution of the ancient German empire, there are 
no supreme courts for all Germany more, but the larger states 
have their own, while the smaller German states have supreme 
courts in common. Thus, the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies, 
together with the principalities of Reuss, have a supreme court 
at Jena in common ; the duchies and principalities of Anhalt and 
Schwarzburg at Zerbst ; the grand-duchies of Mecklenburg at Ros- 
tock ; Brunswick and the principalities of Lippe and Waldeck at 
Wolffenbitttel, and the 4 Free Cities (Hamburg, etc.) at Lubeck ; 
while Liechtenstein appeals to the supreme court at Innspruck, 
Hesse-Homburg to that of Darmstadt, and the principalities of 
Hohenzollern to that of Stuttgart. The strength of the confed- 
eral army was in 1830 fixed at 303,484 men. 



History of Germany. — Little or nothing is known of German history ante- 
rior to about 100 years before our Christian era. The country was known to 
the Romans by the name of Germania, and its southern and western parts 
conquered by them, especially Rhaetia (comprising in substance the present 
Tyrol), Vindelicia (South Bavaria and the south-eastern part of the present 
kingdom of Wirtemberg), and Noricum (arch-duchy of Austria, Styria, Carin- 
thia, and part of Carniola). The chief German tribes, mentioned by the 
Romans, were the Cimbrians (whose principal seat was in Jutland), Teutones 
(in Mecklenburg), Chatts (chiefly in Hesse), Cherusks (in the centre of the 
present kingdom of Hanover and Lippe-Detmold), and 3/arcomans (in Bohe- 
mia). About the Vandat.% Suevians, etc., see History of Europe, § 3, page 
24. The ancient Germans were ruled by native princes elected out of illus- 

13* 



298 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

History of Germany. 

trious families ; their leaders in time of war were commonly called dukes, and 
elected from among the most valiant warriors. They had no cities or towns, 
but lived in rough huts or cottages scattered about, and in only rather few 
instances united to a village. Chastity and hospitality were their character- 
istic virtues. Since the discontinuance of the migration of nations (see His- 
tory of Europe, § 8), which had brought about many political alterations in 
Germany, and at the period of the foundation of the Frankish kingdom by 
Clovis (see History of Europe, § 8, page 26), the most powerful of the Ger- 
man tribes were the following : — 1. The Frieslanders, along the coast of the 
North Sea, between the Zuyder Zee and the mouth of the Weser. 2. The 
Saxons, occupying the whole tract of land between the Rhine and Eider 
rivers, that comprises at present Westphalia, the principalities of Lippe, the 
middle and southern parts of Hanover, Brunswick, and Holstein. Those of 
"Westphalia were particularly also called Westphalians (those in the neighbor- 
hood of Minden sometimes Engers), those of Holstein Nortl&Albingians, and 
those of Brunswick sometimes Eastphalians. 3. The Franks, consisting of 
Ripuarian Franks (in the present Rhenish province of Prussia), who under 
the reign of their king, Clovis, conquered nearly all Gaul and imparted their 
name to this country, and of Salic Franks, from whom is derived the name 
of Franconia, which is still the common name of the northern half of Bavaria, 
where they had their principal seat. 4. The Alemanni, primitively called 
Suevians, and occupying the whole tract of land, which in a later period 
formed the Swabian circle (see above). 5. The Bajoarians, the forefathers 
of the Bavarians proper, had their principal seat in the southern half of the 
present kingdom of Bavaria. 6. The Thuringians, living in the countries at 
present consisting of the Saxon grand-duchy and duchies. All these tribes 
were subjected partly by Clovis and his Merovingian successors, partly by 
Charlemagne, and thus incorporated to the great Frankish empire ; and not 
before the year 843, when this empire was divided, by the treaty of Verdun 
(see History of Europe, § 14, page 31), Germany became independent. Char- 
lemagne's grandson, Louis II., surnamed the German, was its first independ- 
ent king (see History of Europe, § 14). He was called Louis the Second on 
account of his father, Louis the Pious, having been the first sovereign of Ger- 
many with the name of Louis. When Louis II. died (in 876), the German 
kingdom was divided among his three sons, of whom the two eldest died 
successively in 880 and 882, after which the youngest, Charles III., surnamed 
the Fat, attained to the power, first in Germany, and then in nearly all 



GERMANY. 299 



History of Germany. 



other parts of the ancient Frankish empire. His great-grandfather Charle- 
magne was, as first emperor, considered also as first sovereign of Germany, 
and for this reason denoted with the name of Charles I. Charles the Bald 
(brother of Louis the German), was crowned emperor (in 875), considered as 
Charles II., though he was properly only the sovereign of France (see His- 
tory of Europe, § 14). Charles the Fat having been dethroned in 887, he 
was in Germany succeeded by his nephew, the duke of Carinthia, Arnulph 
(887-899), who was the first German king realizing the claims upon the im- 
-perial crown (see page 32). "With his son and successor, Louis III., surnamed 
the Child (899-911), the German line of the Carlovingians became extinct, 
and henceforth the German empire was an elective monarchy. For, the weak- 
ness of Charlemagne's successors had allowed the most powerful among the 
vassals to make themselves almost independent, and these were the dukes of 
Saxony (to whom the Thuringians had for the most part been subjected), of 
Franconia, Suevia (Swabia), Bavaria, and Lorraine. However they finally 
agreed upon electing a common sovereign, and they first chose the duke of 
Franconia, who, as Conrad I., reigned from 911 to 918. After his death the 
duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Fowler, was elected king of Germany. 
Henry I. united in himself all the virtues of a truly great man ; he maintained 
internal peace and order, built a great many regular towns (for instance > 
Merseburg, Meissen, Quedlinburg, Nordhausen, Goslar), and put to the rout 
(in 933, near Merseburg) the Magyars, who until then had nearly every year 
made plundering and devastating inroads into Germany. Endowed with 
similar great qualities was his son and successor Otho I. (936-972). In 962 
he was in Rome crowned emperor by the pope, and as since this example was 
followed by his successors, the German kings were henceforth commonly 
styled Roman-German emperors. Otho's next three successors were Otho II. 
(972-983), Otho III. (983-1002), and Henry II., surnamed the Holy (1002- 
1024). With Henry II. the imperial line of the Saxon house became extinct 
and now Conrad II. (1024-1039) was elected, belonging to the ducal house 
of Franconia, or the Salic Franks (for which reason the emperors of this 
house were frequently called the Salic emperors). His son and successor, 
Henry III. (1039-1056), was the most energetic of all German emperors; 
and it is no doubt, that had he lived longer than actually was the case (for he 
was only 39 years old when he died in 1056), he not only would have turned 
the elective monarchy into a hereditary one, but also made of Germany a 
very powerful empire, with whose domestic affairs the popes would never 



300 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



History of Germany. 



have dared to meddle, as they in later periods did, to the greatest prejudice 
of the political independence of Germany. This was first tried successfully 
by Pope Gregory VII. during the reign of Henry's son, Henry IV. (1056- 
1106), whom he treated in the most humiliating manner. With Henry IV.'s 
son and successor, Henry V. (1106-1125), the line of the so-called Salic em- 
perors became extinct ; next to him was elected Lothar II. (earl of Supplin- 
genburg, in the present duchy of Brunswick : Lothar the Second he was 
styled with reference to Lothar I., who by the terms of the treaty of Verdun 
in 843 had borne the imperial crown), who reigned from 1125 to 113*7, in 
which period the long-lasting struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
or between the adherents of the powerful houses of Saxony (which duchy, 
together with' that of Bavaria, was under the sway of the Guelphs) and Ho- 
henstaufen (under whose sway was the duchy of Swabia), originated, by that 
Lothar, whose son-in-law was duke of both Saxony and Bavaria, grossly 
offended his rivals. But after his death these very rivals of the celebrated 
house of Hohenstaufen were elected, first Conrad III. (1137-1152), then his 
nephew Frederic I., surnamed Barbarossa (1152-1190), and next to him his 
son Henry VI. (1190-1197). When the last-named emperor died, his son 
Frederic was only 3 years old, and of this circumstance the Guelphs availed 
themselves, and elected (in 1198) one of their adherents, Otho (son of 
Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony), while their adversaries elected 
Henry's younger brother Philip, surnamed of Swabia (1198-1208), king of 
Germany. But the latter was murdered in 1208, and since Otho IV. reigned 
without opposition until the year 1215, when Henry's son (see above), Fred- 
eric II. (1215-1250), was elected. With Frederic's son and successor, 
Conrad IV. (1250-1254), the house of Hohenstaufen became extinct, and 
now a period of nearly 20 years ensued, which in German history is known 
by the name of Interreign, and to which conveniently could be applied 
what is said in Judges, xvii. 6 : " In those days there was no king in Israel, 
but every man did that which was right in his own eyes." For not only the 
sword-law exercised its barbarous sway uncontrolled throughout Germany, 
but also the number of petty sovereigns increased from year to year, so that 
at the end of the 13th century it amounted already to almost 150 (duchies, 
principalities, earldoms, bishoprics, free cities, etc.). Some of the German 
princes tried indeed to put an end to this anarchy, by electing in succession 
the earl William of Holland ( i~1256), Richard of Cornwall (-4-1272), and 
King Alphonso of Castilia (who never set a foot on the German ground) ; but 



GERMANY. 301 



History of Germany. 



these mock-kings had no authority at all, so much the less as they actually 
were not recognized as kings or emperors of Germany. No German prince 
was, under the existing circumstances, willing to accept the crown. Finally 
it became evident to all that the continuance of such a state of things Avould 
lead to common ruin; even the pope insisted energetically upon the election 
of a new sovereign of all Germany, and so then Rodolph I. (1273-1291), 
earl, or count of Hapsburg in Switzerland (see page 156), was elected. He 
proved himself worthy of the confidence shown to him, and succeeded in a 
rather short time to restore tranquillity and order to the country. Ottokar, 
king of Bohemia and sovereign of nearly all the other present German prov- 
inces of Austria, refusing to acknowledge Rodolph as emperor, was declared 
outlawed, defeated in two decisive battles, and, with the exception of Bohe- 
mia and Moravia, deprived of his possessions. Carinthia was given in fee 
to the earl Mainhard of Tyrol, but with Austria (i. e., the present archduchy 
of Austria), Styria, and Carniola, Rodolph invested his own sons, Albert 
and Rodolph, and thus laid the foundation to the domestic power of the house 
of Hapsburg in Austria. It was perhaps owing to this somewhat selfish 
proceeding, that not his eldest son but the earl Adolphus of Nassau (1291- 
1298) was elected king and emperor of Germany. However Rodolph's son 
acquiesced not in it, but took the field against Adolphus, defeated and 
killed him in a battle at Gellheim (in the present Bavarian Palatinate), and 
was now recognized as emperor, by the name of Albert I. (1298-1308). 
In the period from his death (in 1308 ; he was murdered by his own nephew) 
until towards the middle of the 15 th century, princes from different houses 
mounted the imperial throne. First, Henry VII. (1308-1313), from the house 
of Luxemburg ; and next to him, Louis IV. (1313-1347), surnamed the Bavarian, 
because he belonged to the reigning Bavarian house of Wittelsbach. Then one 
party elected the Earl Gunther of Schwarzburg, while another party elected 
Henry VIL's grandson, Charles of Luxemburg, and the latter, or Charles IV. 
(1347-1378), got the better of the other, the more so, as Gtinther soon died 
(in 1349). Charles IV. is remarkable as the author of the so-called Golden 
Bull, i. e., a public document concerning the election of an emperor, the rank 
or dignity of the 7 electors, etc., which was published in 1356. He was suc- 
ceeded by his eldest son Wenceslaus (1378-1400), who cared so little for the 
public welfare, that in 1400 four electors elected the Palatine Rupert (1400- 
1410) in his place. Rupert, however, made himself unpopular, likewise ■ 
moreover, he had not been generally recognized as emperor; one party elected 



302 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

History of Germany. 

the margrave Iodocus of Moravia (a cousin of Wenceslaus) ; another, Wences- 
laus' brother Sigismund ; and thus there were at one period 3 German kings, 
or emperors, at once (for Wenceslaus lived until 1419). Finally, Sigismund 
(1410-1437) maintained himself in the possession of the imperial crown. 
During his reign, the Council at Constance was held in 1415, and John Huss 
burnt there, which gave rise to the war of the Hussites in Bohemia, that lasted 
from 1419 to 1436. It may be noticed here also, that Sigismund sold the 
margraviate of Brandenburg (which he had inherited), together with the 
electoral dignity, to the burgrave Frederic of Hohenzollern, at the price of 
400,000 ducats. Sigismund died in 1437, and was succeeded by his son-in-law 
Albert II. (1437-1439) of Austria, and henceforth only princes of this house 
(with one single exception) were elected emperors. Albert's successor was 
his cousin, Frederic III. (1439-1493), who was the last-elected German king 
crowned emperor at Rome ; while his son Maximilian I. (1493-1519) was the 
first who proclaimed himself " elected German emperor," which since was the 
usual title of the sovereigns of the German empire. During Maximilian's 
reign, the Reformation began ; by that, Luther published his ninety-five prop- 
ositions on the 31st of October, 1517. Most of the public acts of Maximil- 
ian's grandson and successor, Charles V. (1519-1556), had reference to the 
Reformation, as, for instance, the diets at Worms (in 1521), Spire (in 1529), 
Augsburg (in 1530), the so-called Schmalkaldian war (in 1546), the treaty of 
Passau (in 1552), the treaty of peace, concluded at Augsburg in 1555, by 
which the religious differences were settled, and the Council at Trent (since 
the year 1545). Charles renounced the Austrian estates (which he had 
inherited from his grandfather Maximilian) in favor of his younger brother, 
Ferdinand I. (1556-1564), who at the same time had been elected emperor. 
Ferdinand was succeeded by his son Maximilian II. (1564-1576), who, like 
his father, was noted for his clemency and equity. His son and successor 
Rodolph II. (1576-1612), was a very learned scholar, but the much more 
unfit for ruling, which also may be said of his brother Matthias (1612-1619), 
under whose reign the Thirty Years War (1618-1648) originated. It is easy 
to conceive that an event of so important consequences, as the Reformation 
had proved to be, must produce a violent fermentation in the minds of the 
majority of Roman Catholics, and at last lead to a reaction and open hostilities. 
Thus, in the course of time the mutual exasperation between the Catholics 
and Protestants had increased to the highest pitch, and both parties waited, 
as it were, only for a plausible pretext to strike the first blow. This pretext 



GERMANY. 303 



History of Germany. 



was offered, by that the Protestants at Prague precipitated the imperial 
governors from the windows of the royal castle, on the 23d of May, 1618. 
The Bohemians then elected the elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate then- 
king, but were defeated in the battle near Prague, on the 8th of November, 
1620, and soon the war extended to all parts of Germany. Meanwhile, the 
cousin of Matthias, Ferdinand II. (1619-1637), had been elected emperor, and 
during his reign the principal events of the said war took place : the total 
defeat of King Christian V. of Denmark in the battle of Lutter on the Baren- 
berg (27th of August, 1 626), the taking of Magdeburg by storm (20th of May, 
1631), the battle of Breitenfeld (7th of September, 1631), the battle of 
Liitzen (16th of November, 1632), etc. Ferdinand II. was succeeded by Ins 
son Ferdinand III. (1637-1657), whose reign is noted for the Westphalian 
treaty of peace, concluded on the 24th of October, 1648, respectively at 
Miinster (with reference to the Catholic concerns) and Osnabruck (with 
reference to the Protestant concerns). By the terms of this treaty, the execu- 
tive power of the emperor was restricted still more than ever before. Ferdi- 
nand II. died in 1657, and was succeeded by his son Leopold I. (1657-1705), 
who was succeeded first by his eldest son Joseph I. (1705-1711), and then by 
a younger son Charles VI. (1711-1740), with whom the male line of the 
house of Hapsburg became extinct. He bequeathed all his patrimonial 
dominions (comprising the present Austrian monarchy, with the exception of 
the Polish provinces and of the former Venetian territories) to his only 
daughter, the celebrated Queen Mary Theresa, who was married to Francis 
Stephen, duke of Lorraine, from which cause the house of Hapsburg has 
since been styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. There arose claims upon the Austrian 
dominions on the part of several German princes, above all of Charles Albert, 
elector of Bavaria, and cousin to Mary Theresa. Yet the latter prevailed, 
both against him and the other pretenders, with the exception of Frederic II. 
of Prussia, to whom she ceded the greatest part of Silesia. Charles Albert 
was, however, elected emperor by the name of Charles VII., but as he already 
died in 1745, Mary Theresa's consort was elected emperor by the name of 
Francis I. (1745-1765). He died in 1765, and was succeeded first by his 
eldest son Joseph II. (1765-1790), and then by a younger son Leopold II. 
(1790-1792). Leopold's son, Francis II. (1792-1806), was the last German 
emperor, as has already been mentioned above, where also the alterations the 
political body of Germany underwent since the beginning of the present 
century, have been alluded to. The revolutions which occurred in Germany in 



304 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



History of Germany— Recent Revolutions. 



the years 1848 and 1849, are too fresh in remembrance than that they needed 
to be related here ; yet with reference to their actual causes, we cannot forbear 
to draw the attention of the reader to the following facts. First, we have 
seen above that no country can rival Germany in the general diffusion of 
knowledge, and that its literary institutions are both numerous and celebrated. 
Secondly, Germany is renowned for various branches of its numerous manu- 
factures. Thirdly, both its commerce and inland trade is very considerable. 
Besides this, the agriculture is in general conducted with a skill almost 
unrivalled, and the horses, sheep, and cattle, there belong, for the most part, 
to the finest breed. Still we add, that, for instance, the system, long since 
adopted there in medical concerns, may be called exemplary, and that the 
administration of justice is likewise in the best order. Now we ask, whether 
all these advantages could possibly have been obtained, if Germany had been 
under the sway of tyrants and despots, as German party-leaders would make 
foreigners believe ? On the contrary, the very fact of these advantages pre- 
supposes liberal and benevolent principles on the part of the governments in 
general. The assertion of those party-leaders, that the German people had 
to bear enormous public charges, and especially all the expenses of the princely 
courts in that country, is completely a talk at random. First, in Germany the 
taxes are lower than in almost any other country of Europe — for, upon an 
average, each inhabitant has to pay only one and a half dollars per annum ;* 
whereas, the proportion of taxes in England is at the rate of ten, and in 
France, at present, at the enormous rate of fourteen dollars. (The particulars 
of the proportion of taxes in Germany will be found below, and in the 
description of the several German states.) And, secondly, with regard to 
the expenses of the princely families and courts in Germany, the people have 
to contribute out of their pockets not one single cent towards them. The fact 
is, that these families subsist entirely on the revenues of their domains, or 
family estates. They are possessed of property, as well as millions of private 

* In the financial year ending on the 30th of June, 1844, the public expendi- 
ture of the United States was $32,958,827. At the same period, the total 
population of the Union was about 19,500,000 inhabitants. Thus, 19,500,000 
divided into 33,000,000 gives a ratio of $1 69 per inhabitant. But, let even 
the average amount of the expenditure be only $25,000,000, the ratio per 
inhabitant is still at least $1 25 — i. e., exclusive of the separate public charges 
in the single states. 



GERMANY. 805 



Recent Revolutions in Germany. 



men throughout the whole world ; and that this property consists chiefly of 
family estates, commonly called domains, makes no difference. We have 
seen above, that the ancestor of the reigning royal family in Prussia, Frederic 
of Hohenzollern, was able to pay 400,000 ducats in cash to Emperor Sigis- 
mund — an immense sum at that time ! Rodolph of Hapsburg was, before 
his accession to the imperial throne, one of the wealthiest earls in Switzerland. 
The Guelphs, ancestors of the house of Brunswick-Hanover, were wealthy 
and powerful barons in Italy and Southern Germany. We could cite other 
instances to show that the German princes descend from wealthy ancestors, 
who entailed their large estates as feoffments in trust upon their descendants. 
The revenues from these estates far exceeding the expenses of the princely 
households, it is evident that the assertion that German princes did live at 
the charges of the people, is a fabrication. On the contrary, in former times 
the surplus of the revenues, applied to purposes of public service then as well 
as at present, proved almost sufficient for the public expenditure ; and what 
the people had to pay in taxes, was a trifle. Only the wars and other 
extraordinary contingencies since the first French revolution, have increased 
the taxes of the German people, still to a comparatively very low ratio. In 
the table, page 308, that of some countries is indeed higher than the average 
ratio of one and a half dollars, but this is chiefly owing to the rail-roads, 
which in Germany, for the most part, have been constructed at the expense 
and on account of the public treasury. Thus, neither tyranny nor despotism 
on the part of the princes, neither incapacity nor malevolence on the part of 
the rulers, neither heavy taxes nor infringement of the rights and liberties of 
the people have brought on the revolution in Germany, but the artifices of 
those very j)arty-leaders, who in this way endeavored to satisfy their immod- 
erate ambition and unreasonable discontent. That the reader may not 
charge us with partiality, or exaggeration, we shall cite their own words. 
Last summer, as is known, a republic in the grand- duchy of Baden and the 
Bavarian palatinate was established, but soon put down again. Now, of 
course, the leaders took to flight ; and Mr. Brentano, the ex-president of the 
transitory republican government, had just time enough to publish an address 
to the people of Baden, in which, among other things, he says : — " Fellow- 
citizens ! You will be astonished to learn from the records, to what pur- 
poses your money has been appropriated; how few there were who, 
without self-interest, devoted themselves to the cause of the people, and how 
the great majority did not make a step without asking payment for it out of 



306 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Excess of Population in Germany 



the public treasury. In the first beginning of our revolution, hundreds of 
adventurers flocked into our country ; they boasted of their having suffered 
for the sake of liberty, and claimed the reward of it in ready money out of 
your treasuries. At the head of this party was Struve, whom the army 
disdains on account of his cowardice. I had put my trust in the constituent 
assembly ; but I have been disappointed. The majority of its members con- 
sisted of entirely unqualified common brawlers. I could name a great number 
of valiant bullies, who, under various pretexts, declined dangerous com- 
missions as ' unworthy of themselves,' while they greedily sought to obtain 
others which they could perform in perfect safety at the expenses of the 
public treasury." We should think that these revelations speak clear enough 
to every one who desires to become acquainted with the actual causes of the 
German revolutions. There is no state in the world that can boast of its 
being a perfect one ; for the simple reason that man himself is not perfect. 
Thus, the German states cannot either boast of perfection ; but their chief 
defect can neither be laid to the governments' charge, nor be remedied by revo- 
lutions ; for it consists of nothing else but excess of population, and hence 
want of subsistence on the part of a great many inhabitants, especially among 
the lower classes of society. In 1807, the total population of Germany was 
26,226,000 inhabitants, while in the beginning of 1848 it was, in round 
numbers, 42,000,000 — thus in 41 years, an increase of more than 15,750,000 
inhabitants ! The increase would have been far more considerable but for the 
wars which occurred prior to 1814, and which caused, directly and indirectly, 
great mortality. The German emigrants who came to the United States hi 
these last twenty-five years, are, for the most part, natives from the grand- 
duchy of Baden, the kingdom of Wirtemberg, and the Bavarian palatinate ; 
and whoever will take the trouble to ask them for what reason they have 
emigrated, they will tell him (of course, in so far as they do not belong to the 
political refugees), that it was chiefly want of subsistence in their native 
country that induced them to leave it and to go in search of a livelihood on 
the other side of the Atlantic. In the last-named countries, the people 
depend for subsistence chiefly on husbandry, and partly on manufactures. 
In 1807, the population of the grand-duchy of Baden was 840,000 in- 
habitants, who in general had the means of subsistence, but since, this pop- 
ulation has increased by more than half a million, amounting at present to 
about 1,380,000 inhabitants. Thus, while in 1807 only 146 lived on a square 
mile, this ratio has increased to 233. Tbe population of Wirtemberg was in 



GERMANY. 307 



The Geographical and Political Divisions of Germany. 



1807 at the ratio of 159 inhabitants to the square mile, but in the beginning 
of 1848 it was at the ratio of 232. In the Bavarian palatinate are living 
268, and in the governmental district of Diisseldorf (with an area of 2,094 
square miles, and a population of 892,500 inhabitants) not less than 426 
inhabitants on a square mile ! The most populous states of the Union are, 
Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut ; yet, according to the census 
of 1840, the ratio of population in the first-named state was only 98, in the 
second 80, and in Connecticut 65, on a square mile. In comparing this ratio 
with that of the named German countries, the exceeding competition and 
rivalry in all branches of industry and livelihood, may indeed not be wondered 
at. The ratio of population in the other German countries varies, upon an 
average, between 160 and 210 ; while the ratio of all Germany is 171 inhab- 
itants to a square mile. 

We shall now describe the different German states according 
to their actual political condition in the beginning of the year 
1848, for the reasons alluded to, page 1. Moreover, the altera- 
tions proposed by the above-mentioned so-called German parlia- 
ment, have not been noticed at all by the different governments ; 
and some few others resolved upon by the latter, may be consid- 
ered either as transitory, or as immaterial. 

The following geographical and statistical table of Germany, 
in detail, shows at once the order of succession, followed in the 
description of the several states, their geographical situation, 
their area and population, their respective capitals, and the ratio 
of tax-paying- per inhabitant. S. G. signifies Southern Germany ; 
0. G. signifies Central Germany ; N. G. signifies Northern Ger- 
many. The particulars of the ratio in paying taxes will be found 
in the description of the several states, and some of them are 
already given above. Wherever the ratio is omitted in this table, 
there the public expenditure is either covered by the revenues 
of the domains, etc , or the ratio is less than l-£ dollars : as, for 
instance, in the principalities of Reuss. 



308 



EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



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GERMANY. 309 



The German Provinces of Austria. 



I. GERMAN PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA. 

Area: 76,147 square miles. 
Population : 12,100,000 inhabitants. 

They consist of the following constituent parts of the Aus- 
trian empire : 

(a.) The arch-duchy of Austria (15,070 square miles, and 2,400,000 inhab- 
itants), on both sides of the Danube, with Vienna as capital. 

(b.) The duchy of Styria (8,690 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), 
on the south side of the former, with Grdtz as capital. 

(e.) The kingdom of Illyria (9,052£ square miles, and 1,125,000 inhabi- 
tants), comprising Carinthia, Carniola, and the so-called Austrian Friaul, 
with Klagenfurt, Laibach, and Trieste as capitals. 

(d.) The earldom of Tyrol (11,140 square miles, and 900,000 inhabitants), 
between Bavaria and Italy, on the west bounded by Switzerland, and on the 
east connected with the Austrian arch-duchy and Illyria. Its capital is 
Innspruck. 

(e.) The kingdom of Bohemia (20,096^ square miles, and 4,600,000 inhabi- 
tants), between the arch-duchy of Austria and the kingdom of Saxony, with 
Prague as capital. 

(f.) The margraviate of Moravia and Austrian Silesia (10,607 square 
miles, and 2,310,000 inhabitants), between Bohemia and Hungary, with 
Brunn as capital. 

(g.) The duchies of Auschwitz and Zator (1,491 square miles, and 365,000 
inhabitants), near Cracow, belonging politically to Germany, but in every 
other respect to Galicia, with Auschwitz as capital. 

The detailed description of these German provinces will be 
found under the head of the Austrian empire, as it would be in- 
convenient to describe them separately. 



310 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



The German Provinces of Prussia. 



II.— GERMAN PROVINCES OF PRUSSIA. 

Area: 71,696 square miles 
Population: 12,230,000 inhabitants. 

They consist of the following constituent parts of the kingdom 
of Prussia: 

(a.) The province of Brandenburg (15,634 square miles, and 2,020,000 
inhabitants), between the Oder and Elbe rivers, with Berlin as capital. 

(b.) The province of Pomerania (12,233 square miles, and 1,166,000 inhabi- 
tants), on the Baltic, and crossed by the Oder river, with Stettin as capital. 

(c.) The province of Silesia (15,799 square miles, and 3,049,500 inhabitants), 
along the north-eastern frontier of the kingdoms of Saxony and Bohemia, 
with Breslau as capital. 

(d.) The province of Saxony (9,818$ square miles, and 1,741,500 inhabi- 
tants), between Brandenburg and the kingdom of Saxony, crossed by the 
Elbe river, with Magdeburg as capital. 

(e.) The province of Westphalia (7,838| square miles, and 1,470,000 inhab- 
itants), between Central Germany and the kingdom of the Netherlands, with 
Munster as capital. 

(/".) The Rhenish Province (10,373 square miles, and 2,783,000 inhabitants), 
on both sides of the Rhine, but chiefly on its left bank, with Coblentz, the seat 
of its governor. 

The detailed description of these German provinces will be 
found under the head of the Prussian Kingdom, as also in this 
case it would be inconvenient to describe them separately. It is 
true, that in the period when the so-called German parliament 
was still alive, the other Prussian provinces (at least the province 
of Prussia) were declared constituent parts of Germany like- 
wise ; but this arrangement is to be considered as a transitory 



GERMANY. 311 



The Kingdom of Bavaria. 



one, so much the more as it is yet very doubtful what part 
Prussia generally may act with regard to the political organiza- 
tion of Germany. 



III.— THE KINGDOM OF BAVARIA. 

Area : 29,703 square miles. 
Population: 4,450,000 inhabitants. 

This kingdom (officially styled Bay em in German), next to 
Austria and Prussia, the most important state in Germany, forms 
the middle part of Southern Germany, is on the south separated 
from Italy by Tyrol, and consists of two distinct territories, sit- 
uated about 40 miles apart, the smallest of which being on the 
left bank of the Rhine. 

According to the census of 1843 the total population was 
4,440,327 inhabitants, of whom 1,226,753 were Protestants (for 
the most part Lutherans), and more than 63,000 Jews, the re- 
mainder consisting of Roman Catholics, with 2 archbishops (at 
Miinchen and Bamberg), and 6 bishops (at Augsburg, Passau, 
Regensburg, Eichstadt, Wurzburg, and Spire). 

The most remarkable of the mountain-ranges are, beside 
branches of the Alps, the Bohmerwald, Fichtelgebirge, Spessart, 
etc. (see page 7) ; and of the rivers the Danube, and one of the 
chief tributaries of the Rhine, the Mayne, with the branches 
noted, page 16. About the most remarkable lakes, see page 11. 
The Louis Canal, mentioned above (page 285), is crossing the 



312 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 



northern half of Bavaria from north to south, and its whole 
length is 107 miles. 

With regard to natural products. Bavaria is noted for its ex- 
tensive forests, yielding annually about 2-£ million cords of timber 
and firewood, its excellent wines (in Franconia and the Bavarian 
palatinate), and hops. It abounds in salt and molybdena (plum- 
bago), and its other principal minerals are coal, iron, copper, 
and some quicksilver (in the Bavarian palatinate). Cattle, sheep, 
horses, and hogs, are abundant. 

Agriculture and other branches of husbandry furnish the 
chief means of subsistence. Breweries are very numerous, and 
the Bavarian beer is celebrated throughout all Germany. Man- 
ufactures are carried on to a great extent, and the most noted 
among them are those of optical, chirurgical, and musical instru- 
ments, of crucibles, gold and silver articles, leather, and wax 
candles. The inland trade is considerable. 

Of the above-mentioned (see page 287) 3 Bavarian universities, 
that of Munich was in 1846 frequented by 1,406 students, that 
of Wurzburg by 450, and that of Erlangen in 1842 by 309 stu- 
dents. Besides these institutions there are 9 lycea, 26 gymnasia, 
about 60 Latin schools, 9 seminaries (about the signification of 
these terms, see page 65), 3 poly technical, 5,400 common schools, 
etc. 

The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. In the 
budget for the period of 1843-1849, the public revenue was esti- 
mated at 31,736,407 florins, and the expenditure at 31,536,407 
florins annually. The public debt amounted in 1838 to about 
126 million florins. The regular army consists during peace 
of 20,500, and in time of war of 55,269 men. The troops 
which Bavaria, as a member of the German confederacy, was 
bound to furnish, amounted to 35,600 men. 



GERMANY. 313 



Kingdom of Bavaria — its History. 



There are the following orders of honor : — I. The order of St. 
Hubertus, instituted in 1444, and renewed respectively in 1708 
and 1800, only for princes and officers of the highest rank. 2. 
The order of St. George, instituted in the days of the crusades, but 
renewed in 1729. 3. The order of Maximilian Joseph, instituted 
in 1806, only for military officers. 4. The order of the Bavarian 
crown, instituted in 1808, for civil officers. 5. The order of Louis, 
instituted in 1827. 6. The order of St. Michael, instituted in 
1693, but renewed and altered in 1808. 7. The order of St. The- 
resa, instituted in 1827, for ladies. 8. The order of St. Elizabeth, 
instituted in 1766. 

History. — The present Bavaria, anciently forming part of Vindelicia and 
Noricum (see History of Germany), came since the fall of the Roman empire 
first under the sway of the Ostrogoths, then under that of the Frankish em- 
pire, though it was, since the end of the 6th century, governed by native 
dukes belonging to the house of Agilolf. The Bavarian dukes, who thus 
were vassals of the Frankish kings, continued in the same relation of depend- 
ence to the German empire since the treaty of Verdun in 843 (see page 31). 
In the period from 947 to 1180, barons from different houses were invested 
with the duchy, and the most renowned among them were those belonging 
to the house of the Guelphs (since the year 1071), until in 1180 the yet 
reigning dynasty of Wittelsbach became possessed of it. The duchy of ^Ba- 
varia comprised however only the present provinces of Upper and Lower 
Bavaria ; all the other territories have in the course of time been annexed 
to it: the Upper Palatinate in 1623 (at the same time the electoral dignity 
was conferred on the duke of Bavaria), the formerly sovereign bishoprics of 
Augsburg, Bamberg, Wtirzburg, Eichstadt, and Passau, together with several 
imperial cities, in 1803 ; the imperial cities of Augsburg, Nuremberg, and 
Lindau, the greatest part of the territories in the province of Swabia, and 
the principality of Ansbach in 1806; the principality of Bayreuth and the 
imperial city of Ratisbon in 1810 ; the principality of Aschaffenburg and the 
greatest part of the present Bavarian palatinate in 1814. According to the 
terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Presburg on the 26th of December, 
1805, the electorate of Bavaria was raised to a kingdom. Tyrol (which was 
annexed to it in 1805), and the former sovereign archbishopric of Salzburg 

14 



314 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 



were in 1813 respectively restored and ceded to Austria. King Maximilian 
Joseph I. died in 1825, and was succeeded by his son Louis I., who abdicated 
in 1848, and was succeeded by his son Maximilian II, the still reigning king, 
born in 1811. 

In 1803 the kingdom was divided into circles, whose names, after 
the example of France, were derived from the rivers within their 
limits. But in 1837 these names were altered into others of 
historical signification and long since commonly used. They are 
still styled circles, and are 8 in number. The capitals of the 
circles are in the following description marked with a cross (+). 

I. The circle of Upper Bavaria, comprising chiefly that part of the ancient 
duchy of Bavaria, which ever has been styled Upper Bavaria, and besides it 
some other territories annexed to it since 1803. 1. The ancient duchy of 
Bavaria, within the limits of this circle, contains: -[-Munich (in German 
Munchen), the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the Isar, west- 
ward and 230 miles distant from Vienna, with 115,000 inhabitants, and 6 
suburbs (the most remarkable of which is called the Au), is to be considered 
as one of the central points of sciences and arts in Germany, and noted for 
its splendid galleries of paintings and sculpture, literary institutions (see In- 
troduction to Germany), palaces, churches, etc. Munich was founded in 1175 
by the duke Henry of Bavaria and Saxony, surnamed the Lion. The neigh- 
boring village of Nymphenburg (with 1,200 inhabitants) is noted for its por- 
celain manufacture and royal palace, where the royal family uses to reside 
in the summer season. The little village of Kaferloh is noted for its market 
for cattle held here in the month of September, and the village of Hohenlin- 
den (eastward and 18 miles distant from Munich), noted for a battle on the 
3d of December, 1800. Hohenschxvangau, an ancient feudal castle, once be- 
longing to the celebrated house of Hohenstaufen, at present arranged and 
furnished in a magnificent style, and the private property of the king. Traun- 
stein (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Reichenhall (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
towns between Munich and Salzburg, noted for their salt-springs. Ingol- 
stadt, a fortified town on the Danube, northward and 44 miles distant from 
Munich, has 10,200 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its university 
(instituted in 1472), which in 1802 was transferred to Laudshut, and in 1826 



GERMANY. 315 



Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



united with the university of Munich. Old Oetting, a market-town near the 
Austrian frontier, has 1,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its holy shrine, and 
the sepulchres of various princes, and of the field-marshal Tilly (-(-1632). 
Tegernsee, formerly a Benedictine abbey, at present royal residence in the 
summer season, is situated on a lake of the same name, 30 miles south-south- 
east of Munich. In its neighborhood is a noted bathing-place, named Kreut. 
The town of Rain (with 1,200 inhabitants), on the Lech, near its junction 
with the Danube, and at 23 miles distance from Augsburg, is noted for the 
victory gained by Gustavus Adolphus on the 5th of April, 1632, which 
opened to him the way into Bavaria. The town of Muhldorf (with 1,600 
inhabitants), on the Inn river and near Salzburg, is noted for battles in 1259 
and 1322. Other towns, more or less deserving to be noticed, are: Erding 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Pfaffenhofen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Mooaburg 
(with 1,800 inhabitants), Weilheim (with 2,500 inhabitants), Schongau (with 
1,600 inhabitants), Landsberg (with 3,300 inhabitants), Wasserburg (with 
2,400 inhabitants), Friedberg (with 2,000 inhabitants), Aichach (with 1,800 
inhabitants), Schrobeiihausen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Burghausen (with 
2,500 inhabitants). 2. The ancient sovereign bishopric of Freising (instituted 
in 124 and secularized in 1803) contains : Freising, a city on the Isar, 22 
miles north-north-east of Munich, with a remarkable cathedral, and 5,400 
inhabitants. Garmisch (with 1,600 inhabitants), Mittenwald (with 2,100 in- 
habitants), and Partenkirchen (with 1,100 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. 
The once highly renowned provostship of Berchtesgaden (which was instituted 
in 1106, raised to the dignity of a principality, and possessed of a territory 
213 square miles in extent, but was secularized in 1803) contains: Berchtes- 
gaden, a town near the frontier of Tyrol, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its salt-springs and toys, or carved works of ivory, etc. 4. To the ancient 
archbishopric of Salzburg formerly belonged the towns of Laufen (with 
1,900 inhabitants), and Tittmoning (with 1,200 inhabitants), and the boroughs 
of Waging and Teisendorf with respectively 650 and 500 inhabitants. 

II. The circle of Lower Bavaria, comprising chiefly that part of the 
ancient duchy of Bavaria, which ever has been styled Lower Bavaria, and 
besides it, the former territory of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Passau. 
1. The ancient duchy of Bavaria, within the limits of this circle, contains : 
-J-Landshut, capital of this circle, romantically situated on the Isar, north- 
eastward and 40 miles distant from Munich, with 10,300 inhabitants, 9 churches 
(the steeple of one of them is 422 feet high), and the ancient mountain castle 



316 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 



of Trausnitz, once the residence of the Bavarian dukes. In the period from 
1802 to 1826, Landshut was the seat of a university, at present in Munich. 
Straubing, a town on the Danube (crossed here by a remarkable bridge of 
stone), 28 miles east-south-east of Ratisbon, with 7,800 inhabitants, numerous 
breweries, and considerable trade in grain and horses. Kklheim, a town on 
the left bank of the Danube, at its junction with the Altmuhl (which river is 
brought into connection with the Mayne by the Louis Canal), south-westward 
and 12 miles distant from Ratisbon, with 2,200 inhabitants. Other more or 
less remarkable towns are: Abensberg (with 1,300 inhabitants), Vilshofen 
(with 2,200 inhabitants), Osterhofen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Deggendorf (with 
3,800 inhabitants), and Grafenau (with 750 inhabitants). The village of 
Eckmuhl, between Landshut and Regensburg, is noted for a battle on the 
24th of April, 1809, between the French and Austrians. The market-town 
of Ortenburg (with 1,100 inhabitants), westward and 9 miles distant from 
Passau, was formerly the capital of a sovereign earldom of the same name, 
and 32 square miles in extent. 2. The former territory (of an extent of 426 
square miles) of the ancient sovereign bishopric of Passau (instituted in 737, 
and secularized in 1803), contains: Passau, fortified city on the Danube, at 
its junction with the Inn (which latter river separates the city from the 
Austrian territory), has a remarkable cathedral, and 11,000 inhabitants, and 
is noted for the beauty of its ladies. The market-town of Hafnerzell (with 
1,350 inhabitants) is noted for its crucibles made of molybdena. In some of 
them can be melted 2,000 marks of silver at once. 

III. The circle of Upper Palatinate and Ratisbon, chiefly comprising the 
ancient Upper Palatinate and the former imperial city of Regensburg, part 
of the ancient duchy of Bavaria, etc. 1. The former imperial city of 
-(-Ratisbon (in German, Regensburg), at present the capital of this circle, is 
situated on the right bank of the Danube (crossed by a stately bridge, built 
in the period from 1135 to 1146 of freestone, and having a length of 1,091 
feet), 64 miles north- north-east of Munich, and south-eastward and 50 miles 
distant from Nuremberg, with 18 churches, 4 convents, numerous breweries 
and manufactures, a considerable trade, and 22,000 inhabitants. The most 
remarkable public edifices of this city (which in the 12th century was endowed 
with the privileges of an imperial one, and in 1809 annexed to Bavaria) are 
the cathedral, reared in the 13th century, the city hall (where, in the period 
from 1663 to 1806, the Diet of the ancient German empire held its sessions), 
and the buildings of the former immediate abbeys of Obermunster, Nieder- 



GERMANY. 317 



The Kindgom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



munster, and St. Emmeran. The latter is at present the property and resi- 
dence of the prince of Thurn and Taxis, formerly postmaster- general of the 
German empire. These abbeys were instituted respectively about the 
years 896, 900, and 652. To the former sovereign or immediate bishopric of 
Rathbon (which was instituted in the beginning of the 8th century, and secu- 
larized in 1803, but which had nothing in common with the city of Ratisbon) 
did belong the market-towns of Worth (with 1,000 inhabitants) and Donaustauf 
(with 750 inhabitants). Near the latter is the Walhalla, a building reared in 
1830-1842 by order of King Louis of Bavaria, and devoted to the memory 
of celebrated Germans. 2. The Upper Palatinate, primitively belonging to 
the dukes of Swabia, and in the period 1329-1623 annexed to the Palatinate 
on the Rhine, contains : Amberg, formerly the capital of the Upper Palatinate, 
on the high road between Regensburg and Bayreuth, eastward and 34 miles 
distant from Nuremberg, with several remarkable public buildings, various 
manufactures, and 11,000 inhabitants. In the neighboring town of Hirschau 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), Jerome of Prague, the friend of John Huss, was 
taken prisoner in 1415, and conveyed to Constance, where he was burnt. 
Other more or less remarkable market and proper towns of the Upper Palat- 
inate are : Castel (with 1,200 inhabitants), NeumarTct (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
Nabburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Neunburg vor dem Waldc (with 2,100 inhab- 
itants), Roding (with 1,500 inhabitants), Waldmunchen (with 2,200 inhabitants), 
Tirschenreuth (with 2,500 inhabitants), Waldsassen (with 1,650 inhabitants), 
Eschenbach (with 1,850 inhabitants), and Kemnath (with 1,650 inhabitants). 
3. That part of the ancient duchy of Bavaria within the limits of this circle, 
contains : Stadtamhof (literally : town at the court), a town on the left bank 
of the Danube, opposite to Regensburg, with 2,200 inhabitants. Cham, a town 
on the Regen river, with various branches of industry, and 2,200 inhabitants. 
Dietfurt (on the Altmuhl, with 1,000 inhabitants), and Riedenburg (with 1,050 
inhabitants), towns. 4. The former principality of Neuburg (about its par- 
ticulars, see under the head of the circle No. VII.), within the limits of this 
circle, contains : Hilpoltstein, a town on the Roth river, 46 miles west-north- 
west of Regensburg, with a remarkable ancient palace and town-hall, and 
1,500 inhabitants. Kallmunz (with 1,300 inhabitants), Parsberg (with 600 
inhabitants), and Regenstauf (with 1,650 inhabitants), market-towns. 5. The 
former principality of Sidzbach (which in 1309 was annexed to that of 
Neuburg), contains : Sulzbach, once its capital, near Amberg, has 3,100 inhab- 
itants, and is noted for its ancient mountain castle. Weiden, a town, with 



318 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Gormariy. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 

2,400 inhabitants. Vohenstrauss, a market-town, with 1,500 inhabitants. 

6. Within the limits of this circle is also situated the mediate duchy of Leuch- 
tenberg (anciently a landgraviate, which in 1646 was annexed to Bavaria), 
belonging to the Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg (son-in-law of the Russian 
emperor Nicholas), whose father, Eugene Beauharnois, was in 1817 invested 
with it and the principality of Eichstadt. It contains : Leuchtenberg, capital 
of the duchy, 52 miles east-north-east of Nuremberg, with 600 inhabitants. 
In its neighborhood is situated the town of Pfreimdt, with 1,600 inhabitants. 

7. To various other territories did formerly belong : Neustadt, surnamed an 
der Waldnab, a town on the Waldnab river (hence its surname), near the 
frontier of Bohemia, with 1,600 inhabitants. Schonsee, a town, with 1,300 
inhabitants. Freystadt, a town on the Schwarzach river, with 900 inhabi- 
tants. Neustadt am Culm, a town in the vicinity of Bayreuth, with 1,200 
inhabitants. 

IV. The circle of Upper Francoxta, comprising chiefly the ancient princi- 
pality of Bayreuth, and the formerly sovereign or immediate bishopric of 
Bamberg. 1. The former principality of Bayreuth was, together with the 
principality of Ansbach (see the next circle), primitively a constituent part of 
the ancient bur gr aviate of Nuremberg, which had its seat in a castle within 
the walls of the city of Nuremberg, but in other respects nothing in common 
with the latter. The first historically-known burgrave, was Godfrey of 
Hohenlohe, who lived about the year 1138. But already so early as in 1164 
the house of Hohenzollern was invested with the burgraviate, and since suc- 
cessively with other dominions, forming at last the two named principalities. 
When the burgrave Frederic VI. in 1417 was invested with the electorate 
and margraviate of Brandenburg (see page 302), he retained his pos- 
sessions in Franconia, but his two grandsons divided the inheritance in such a 
manner that the one succeeded in Brandenburg, and the other in Bayreuth 
and its dependencies. The latter line became extinct in 1791, and both prin- 
cipalities (of Bayreuth and Ansbach) were now annexed to the dominions of 
the other line, or to the kingdom of Prussia. The principality of Bayreuth 
(1,534 square miles, and in 1801 with 218,500 inhabitants) was in 1807 ceded 
by Prussia to France, which retained it until 1810, when it ceded it to Bavaria. 
The principality of Ansbach (1,448 square miles, and in 1800 with 245,000 
inhabitants) was ceded by Prussia to France in 1805, and by the latter power 
to Bavaria in 1806. The princes of Bayreuth and Ansbach bore the title of 
margraves, with reference to the margraviate of Brandenburg. Here is, for 



GERMANY. 319 



The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



(lie present, only the question of the former principality of Bayreuth, which con- 
tains (within the limits of this circle, or in the so-called Highland of Bayreuth) : 
-(-Bayreuth, formerly its capital and princely residence, at present the capital 
of Upper Franconia, on a branch of the Mayne, 42 miles north-north-west of 
Nuremberg, with 11,000 inhabitants, a remarkable ancient castle, and one of 
the largest opera-houses in Germany. The former princely gardens here 
cover a space of about 84 acres. Culmbach, a town on a branch of the 
Mayne, 14 miles north-north-west of Bayreuth, is noted for its breweries, has 
4,250 inhabitants, and was, in the period from 1603 to 1126, the residence of 
a collateral line of the princely house of Bayreuth. Hof, a town at the 
frontier of Bohemia and Saxony, is noted for -its woollen, linen, and cotton 
manufactures, and has 1,000 inhabitants. Wunsiedel, a town half-way between 
Bayreuth and Eger, with various manufactures, iron mines, and 4,000 inhabi- 
tants. The market-town of Muggendorf, south-westward and 16 miles distant 
from Bayreuth, with 450 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive and highly 
remarkable caves. Other towns are : Naila (with 1,100 inhabitants), Selb 
(with 3,400 inhabitants), Weissenstadt (with 2,400 inhabitants), Rehau (with 
2,000 inhabitants), Ludwigstadt (with 950 inhabitants), Munehberg (with 2,300 
inhabitants), Berneck (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Goldkronach (with 1,000 
inhabitants). 2. The territory of the former sovereign, or immediate bishopric 
of Bamberg, which primitively, and until 908, belonged to the powerful earls 
of Babenberg, and in 1006 was transformed into this bishopric that continued 
to exist for nearly 800 years, when it was secularized in 1803, at which period 
it had an area of 1384 square miles, and a population of 185,000 inhabi- 
tants, contains : Bamberg, formerly the capital of this bishopric, on the Regnitz, 
near its junction with the Mayne, northward and 32 miles distant from Nurem- 
berg, with important trade, noted breweries, and 21,500 inhabitants. Its 
most remarkable public edifices are : the cathedral (reared by Emperor 
Henry II., whose sepulchre is here), the palace of the former sovereign bishops 
(reared in 1102, and remarkable for that Alexander Berthier, Napoleon's 
marshal, precipitated himself out of one of its windows, on the 1st of June, 
1815), the extensive hospital reared in 1181, and the former Benedictine 
abbey. Bamberg, whose foundation was laid in 804, was in the middle ages 
frequently the gay and splendid resort of the imperial court, of the knight- 
hood, etc. Ebermannstadt, a town romantically situated on the Wiesent 
river, south-eastward and 16 miles distant from Bamberg, with 150 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns are : Hochstadt (noted for its hops, with 2,000 inhabitants), 



320 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 

Hollfeld (with 1,100 inhabitants), Weissmain (with 1,100 inhabitants), Herzo- 
genaurach (with 1,850 inhabitants), Forchheim (with 3,200 inhabitants), Rotten- 
stein (with 1,000 inhabitants), Stadtsteinach (with 1,400 inhabitants), Kupferberg 
(with 950 inhabitants), Lichtenfels (with 2,200 inhabitants), Teuschnitz (with 
850 inhabitants), Staffelstein (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Kronacli, or Cranach 
(remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated painter Lucas of Cranach, a 
contemporary of Luther, has 3,000 inhabitants, and carries on a considerable 
trade in timber and lumber). 3. To the Franconian immediate nobility of the 
empire did, among other places, belong : Thurnau, a town on the Au river, 
north-westward and 9 miles distant from Bayreuth, with 1,500 inhabitants, 
and a remarkable ancient castle, or palace of the count of Giech. Pom- 
mersfelden, a village in the vicinity of Bamberg, with 650 inhabitants, 
belongs to the count of Schonborn, who occupies a magnificent palace here. 
4. To the former territory of the city of Nuremberg did belong the towns 
of Grafenberg (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Betzenstein (with 700 inhabitants), 
the village of Egglofstein (with 550 inhabitants), etc. 

V. The circle of Central Franconia, comprising the former principality 
of Ansbach, the Lowland of Bayreuth (see above), the city of Nuremberg 
and its former territory, etc. 1. The former principality of Ansbach (a his- 
torical sketch of which, together with other particulars, is given above, under 
the head of Bayreuth), contains : -{-Ansbach, or Anspach (anciently also 
called Onolzbach), formerly its capital and princely residence, at present the 
capital of Central Franconia, on the Franconia Rezat river, south-westward 
and 23 miles distant from Nuremberg, with various manufactures, and 13,000 
inhabitants. The former palace of the margraves, or princes, of Ansbach 
was reared in the years 1587 and 1588, and is at present noted for a valuable 
library and gallery of paintings. Schwabach, a celebrated manufacturing 
town, southward and 9 miles distant from Nuremberg, has 8,300 inhabitants, 
and is especially noted for its pins and needles. Another renowned manufac- 
turing town is Furth, in the vicinity of Nuremberg, with 16,000 inhabitants. 
Heilsbronn (not to be confounded with Heilbronn in Wirtemberg), a market- 
town on the little Schwabach river, south-westward and 10 miles distant from 
Nuremberg, is remarkable as the burying-place of most of the ancient bur- 
graves of Nuremberg, and has 850 inhabitants. Other more or less remark- 
able towns are: Uffenheim (with 1,750 inhabitants), Wassertriidingen (with 
2,100 inhabitants), Feuchtwang (with 2,600 inhabitants), Windsbach (with 1,250 
inhabitants), Merkendorf (with 850 inhabitants), Heidenheim (with 1,900 in- 



GERMANY. 321 



The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



habitants), Kadolzburg (with 1,400 inhabitants), Gunzenhausen (with 2,700 
inhabitants), and Zeutershausen (with 1,500 inhabitants). 2. The so-called 
Zowland of Bayreuth (to distinguish it from the above-mentioned more 
mountainous Highland of Bayreuth) contains : Erj.angen, a town on the 
Regnitz, northward and 12 miles distant from Nuremberg, has 11,000 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its university. Other towns are : Neustadt an der 
Aisch (on the Aisch river, with 3,200 inhabitants), Baiersdorf (with 1,600 
inhabitants), and Marht-Erlbach (with 1,300 inhabitants). 3. The ancient 
territory of the formerly independent, or imperial city of Nuremberg (in the 
long period from the 10th century to 1806), contains: Nuremberg (in Ger- 
man Nurnberg), a city on the Pegnitz river, 96 miles north-north-west of 
Munich, and south-westward and 140 miles distant from Leipsic, has 48,000 
inhabitants, was in the middle ages and in later periods highly celebrated for 
its inland trade, manufactures, and its collection of works of art, and is at 
present the most important trading and manufacturing place at least in Ba- 
varia. Its city hall, reared in the period from 1613 to 1619, is one of the 
largest in Germany, and contains valuable pictures of Albert Diirer, which 
are also to be found in the beautiful St. Sebaldus' and St. Laurentius churches. 
The above-mentioned (see page 318) castle and ancient residence of the bur- 
graves was in 1427 sold to the city. Within the limits of Nuremberg's for- 
mer territory were, among other places, situated : Altdorf, a town on the 
Schwarzach river, 14 miles east-south-east of Nuremberg, has 3,000 inhabi- 
tants, and was formerly noted for its university (instituted in 1578, and in 
1809 united with the university of Erlangen), where in 1599 Wallenstein 
made his studies. Hersbruck, a town on the Pegnitz, has 2,400 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its excellent hops. Zauf a town on the Pegnitz, with vari- 
ous manufactures, and 3,100 inhabitants. 4. Other imperial cities were until 
the year 1803 the following: Rothenburg an der Tauber (surnamed thus, 
because it is situated on the Tauber river, has several remarkable churches, 
and 6,500 inhabitants), Dinkelsbuhl (like the former, situated near the fron- 
tier of "Wirtemberg, has 6,000 inhabitants), Windsheim (north-westward and 
18 miles distant from Ansbach, with many breweries, and 3,600 inhabitants), 
and "Weissenburg (commonly surnamed im Nordgau, south-eastward and 28 
miles distant from Ansbacb, with various manufactures, numerous breweries, 
and 4,300 inhabitants). 5. To the Teutonic order (see page 46) did belong : 
Ellingen, a town on the Swabian Rezat river, south-eastward and 27 miles 
distant from from Ansbach, with an extensive palace, and 1,500 inhabitants. 

14* 



322 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 



Ellingen and its dependencies (forming together a territory of 85 square miles 
in extent) belong at present to the descendants of the late Bavarian field- 
marshal, Wrede. 6. The formerly sovereign, immediate bishopric of Eichstadt 
(instituted in 141, and secularized in 1803), whose territory (469 square miles, 
and in 1803 with 56,000 inhabitants) forms at present a mediate principality, 
belonging to the duke of Leuchtenberg (see above), contains : Eichstadt, its 
capital, on the Altmuhl, 60 miles north-north-west of Munich, has 1,000 in- 
habitants, and is noted for its cathedral and other public edifices. Spalt, a 
town on the Franconian Rezat river, southward and 22 miles distant from 
Nuremberg, has 1,850 inhabitants, and is renowned for its hops. Other towns 
are : Beilngries (with 1,200 inhabitants), Berching (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
Abenberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), Greeting (with 1,150 inhabitants), Her- 
rieden (1,450 inhabitants), and Ohmbau (with 850 inhabitants). 1. To vari- 
ous mediatized princes belong the following territories : of Hohenlohe-Schil- 
lingsfurst (21 square miles, and 3,800 inhabitants) ; of Sclmarzenberg (101 
square miles, and 12,500 inhabitants ; the prince of this name resides com- 
monly in Vienna) ; and of Pappe?iheim (15 square miles, and 9,300 inhabi- 
tants, belonging to the earl of this name, who resides in the town of Pappen- 
heim, romantically situated on the Altmuhl, near Eichstadt, and having 
2,250 inhabitants). The town of Markt-Einer shewn (with 800 inhabitants), 
belongs to the count of Rechtern-Limpurg, and the town of Burghaslach 
(with 1,000 inhabitants), to the count of Castell. 

VI. The circle of Lower Franconia and Aschaffenburg, comprising 
chiefly the former sovereign, or independent bishojDric of Wiirzburg, and the 
principality of Aschaffenburg. 1. The territory of the former independent 
bishopric of Wiirzburg (instituted in 141, and secularized in 1803, at which 
period its extent was 1,911 square miles, with 240,000 inhabitants) contains : 
■4-Wurzburg, fortified capital on the Mayne, half way between Frankfort 
and Nuremberg, with considerable trade, various manufactures, and 21,500 
inhabitants, Wiirzburg is noted for its splendid and extensive palace (form- 
erly the residence of the bishop, and reared in the period from 1120 to 1140), 
its university, and its excellent wines. Kitzingen, a town on the Mayne, 
south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Wiirzburg, is noted for its brewe- 
ries, and has 5,100 inhabitants. Kissingen, a town on the Franconian Saale, 
northward and 32 miles distant from Kitzingen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its mineral waters and salt-springs, and much resorted to for bath- 
ing. Konigshofen, surnamed im Grabfelde, a town on the Franconian Saale, 



GERMANY. 323 



The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



westward and 23 miles distant from Coburg, with 1,750 inhabitants. Ebern 
(with 1,200 inhabitants), Hassfurt (with 1,950 inhabitants), Eltmann (with 
1,500 inhabitants), Gerolzhofen (with 2,200 inhabitants), Volkach (with 2,100 
inhabitants), Dettelbach (with 2,500 inhabitants), Ochsenfurt (with 2,300 in- 
habitants), Aub (with 1,050 inhabitants), Carlstadt (with 2,250 inhabitants), 
Arnstein (with 1,600 inhabitants), Gemunden (with 1,650 inhabitants), Mun- 
ner&tadt (with 1,650 inhabitants), Neustadt an der Saale (with 1.500 inhabi- 
tants), Bisehofsheim vor der Rhon (with 1,850 inhabitants), Fladungen (with 
950 inhabitants), and Mellrichstadt (with 1,850 inhabitants), more or less 
remarkable towns. 2. The former principality of Aschaffenburg, which, 
until 1803, did belong to the electorate of Mentz, and at that period had an 
area of 437 square miles, and a population of 70,300 inhabitants, contains : 
Aschaffenburg, formerly electoral residence next in rank to Mentz, on the 
Mayne, between Frankfort and Wurzburg, with 9,500 inhabitants, a magnifi- 
cent palace (formerly electoral, at present royal), and several other remarkable 
public edifices. The neighboring village of Dettingen (with 600 inhabitants) 
is noted for a battle against the French, which was won by King George II. 
of England, on the 27th of June, 1743. Obernburg, a town near the Mayne, 
with 2,000 inhabitants. Klingenberg, Prozelten, and Lohr, towns on the 
Mayne, with respectively 1,050, 1,000, and 3,800 inhabitants. Orb, a town 
half way between Fulda and Aschaffenburg, has 4,500 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its salt-springs. Miltenberg (on the Mayne, 22 miles south-south- 
east of Aschaffenburg, with 3,100 inhabitants), and Amorbach (near Milten- 
berg, with a magnificent princely palace, and 2,900 inhabitants), two towns 
belonging at present, together with other neighboring places, to the prince of 
Leiningen. 3. The towns of Bruckenau (north-westward and 16 miles dis- 
tant from Kissingen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is much resorted to as a 
watering-place), and Hammelburg (northward and 23 miles distant from 
Wurzburg, with 2,700 inhabitants), did formerly belong to the territory of 
the immediate bishopric of Fulda, Schweinfurt, formerly an imperial city 
(since the 14th century to 1803), on the Mayne, 23 miles north-north-east of 
Wurzburg, with 7,400 inhabitants. Castell, the capital of a mediate earl- 
dom of the same name, between Kitzingen and Bamberg, has 750 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its wines. Wiesentheid (a market-town, with 1,150 inhabi- 
tants), and Gaibach (a village, with 450 inhabitants, and a beautiful p?dace), 
belong to the earl of Sohbnborn. The market-towns of Klein-Heubach and 
Kreuz-Werthheim, on the Mayne, with respectively 1,700 and 850 inhabi- 



324 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 



tants, and noted for their wines, belong at present to the mediatized prince 
of Lbwenstein- Werthheim. 

VII. The circle of Swabia and Neuburg, comprising the territories of 
numerous formerly sovereign or immediate princes, prelates, etc. — all together 
(with the exception of the principality of Neuburg) belonging to the Swabian 
circle of the German empire (see above, page 292). The name of Swabia 
occurs in Germany very frequently in common life, and has geographically 
the same signification as formerly that of " Swabian circle" (see page 292). 
It is derived from the ancient Suevians, who were first commonly known by 
the name of Alemanni, and subsequently called Swabians. In the beginning 
of the 10th century, Swabia was raised to a duchy, with which in 1094 the 
celebrated house of Hohenstaufen was invested ; that retained it until itself 
became extinct in 1268. Since, the duchy was divided in various smaller 
territories. 1. Imperial cities, until 1803 (Augsburg until 1806), were the 
following: -4-Augsburg, at present the capital of this circle, on the Lech, 
north-westward and 38 miles distant from Munich, has 38,000 inhabitants, and 
so many stately public and private buildings, that Sir Robert Peel, who was 
here several years ago, declared it to be the finest city he ever had seen. At 
least, Augsburg may boast of the solidity and tasteful style of most of its 
buildings. Among its public edifices are especially to be noticed : the city 
hall (the most magnificent in Germany, both with regard to its exterior and 
interior; it was reared in the beginning of the 17th century, and contains, 
among other numerous rooms, a richly decorated hall, 110 feet long, 58 broad, 
and 52 feet high), the Gothic cathedral (whose foundation was laid in the 10th 
century), several other churches, the chapel where, on the 25th of June, 1530, 
the Lutheran confession of faith was presented to Charles V., etc. In the 
15th and 16th century, Augsburg was the chief staple place for the goods 
conveyed overland between Antwerp and Venice ; and is still noted for its 
inland trade and manufactures. Kempten, formerly an imperial city, on the 
Iller, 50 miles south-south-west of Augsburg, has 1,800 inhabitants. Kauf- 
beuren, until 1803 an imperial city, on the Wertach river, 40 miles south- 
south west of Augsburg, with 3,800 inhabitants. Memmingen, formerly an 
imperial city, near the Iller river, south-westward and 44 miles distant from 
Augsburg, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its hops. Lindau, respect- 
ively, until 1790 and 1805, an imperial city, on the lake of Constance, south- 
westward and 100 miles distant from Munich, is fortified, and has 4,250 
inhabitants. Nordlingen, until 1803 an imperial city, near the frontier of 



GERMANY. 325 



The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



"Wirtemberg, eastward and 60 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 6,700 inhab- 
itants, a remarkable Gothic church, and considerable manufactures of woollens 
and linen, is noted for the decisive battle on the 7th of September, 1634, and 
situated in the so-called Ries, a district renowned for its extraordinary fertility 
of the soil. Donauwoerth, formerly an imperial city (but actually only until 
1607), on the Danube, northward and 27 miles distant from Augsburg, with 
2,700 inhabitants. 2. To the formerly sovereign or immediate bishopric of 
Augsburg (instituted in 590, and secularized in 1803 : but for the cathedral, it 
had nothing in common with the city of Augsburg) did belong : Dillingen, a 
town on the left bank of the Danube, north-westward and 23 miles distant 
from the city of Augsburg, was formerly the residence of the bishop, and has 
3,500 inhabitants. In the period from 1552 to 1804, a university was here. 
Fuessen, a town on the Upper Lech, near the frontier of Tyrol, is noted for a 
treaty of peace concluded here in 1745 between Austria and Bavaria, and 
has 1,800 inhabitants. Graben, a village, with only 400 inhabitants, but 
remarkable as the ancestral seat of the princes and earls of Fugger, whose 
ancestor, John Fugger, emigrated in 1370 to Augsburg as a poor linen- weaver, 
yet by his industry laid the foundation to the immense riches of his descend- 
ants. 3, The following towns did belong to various immediate abbeys secular- 
ized in 1803, as: Groenenbach, with 1,750 inhabitants, and Obergunzburg, 
with 1,400 inhabitants (to the abbey of Kempten, instituted in 773); Otto- 
beuren, with 1,500 inhabitants (to the abbey of the same name, instituted in 
764) ; other abbeys were : Ursberg (instituted in 1125), Roggenburg (instituted 
in 1126), Wettenhausen (instituted in 982), etc. 4. The former margraviate of 
Burgau, which belonged to Austria in the period from 1301 to 1805, contains: 
Burgau, a town on the Mindel river, north-westward and 23 miles distant 
from Augsburg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Guenzburg, a town on the Danube, 
north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Ulm, has 3,200 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its bleacheries. Krumbach, a market-town, with 1,350 inhabitants, 
is noted for its linen. 5. The former lordships of ' Mindelheim and Schwabech, 
of which in 1612 Bavaria became possessed of (in the period from 1706 to 
1714, the duke of Marlborough was invested with Mindelheim), contains : 
Mindelheim, a town on the Mindel river, south-westward and 30 miles distant 
from Augsburg, with a royal castle, several churches, and 2,700 inhabitants. 
TurJcheim and lllertissen, market-towns, with respectively 1,550 and 1,200 
inhabitants. Immenstadt, a town, eastward and 27 miles distant from Lindau, 
until 1804 belonging to the Count Konigsegg-Rothenfels, has 1,200 inhabitants, 



326 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 

and carries on a considerable linen trade. 6. The dependent principality of 
Oettingen (belonging to the princes of Oettingen-Wallerstein and Oettingen- 
Spielberg, under the sovereignty of Bavaria, and having an area of 250 square 
miles, and a population of 42,000 inhabitants), contains: Wallerstein, a 
town, and the residence of the prince of Oettingen-Wallerstein, in the above- 
mentioned Ries, near Nordlingen, with a stately princely palace, and 2,000 
inhabitants. Oettingen, a town, and the residence of the prince of Oettingen- 
Spielberg, on the Wernitz, 9 miles north-north-east of Nordlingen, with two 
castles, or palaces, and 3,300 inhabitants. 7. The mediate dominions of the 
princes and earls of Fugger (whose ancestor lived at first in the above-men- 
tioned village of Graben), together, 298 square miles in extent, and with 
30,000 inhabitants, yielding annually about 350,000 florins, contain, among 
others : Babenhausen, town and residence of the prince of Fugger-Babenhau- 
sen, south-westward and 33 miles distant from Augsburg, with 1,750 inhabi- 
tants. Gloett, town and residence of the earl of Fugger-Glott, north-westward 
and 22 miles distant from Augsburg, with 750 inhabitants. Kirchheim, town 
and residence of the earl of Fugger-Kirchheim, in the vicinity of Babenhausen, 
with a beautiful palace, and 1,850 inhabitants. Weissenhorn, town and 
residence of the earl of Fugger-Kirchberg-Weissenhorn, north-westward and 
13 miles distant from Babenhausen, with 1,650 inhabitants 8. To the dependent 
earldom of Pappenheim (see under the head of Central Franconia) belongs 
the village of Solnhofen (with 650 inhabitants), celebrated for its extensive 
quarries, whose slabs are wonderfully adapted to lithography. 9. The former 
principality of Neuburg (which, together with Sulzbach, did primitively 
belong to the duchy of Bavaria, but in the period from 1507 to 1799 was 
possessed by a collateral line, when it was restored to Bavaria), contains : 
Neuburg, surnamed on the Danube, a town on the Danube, 27 miles north- 
north-east of Augsburg, with a remarkable castle, and 6,550 inhabitants. 
Monheim, a town at the high-road between Augsburg and Nuremberg, with 
1,900 inhabitants. Hoechstadt, a town on the Danube, 28 miles west-south- 
west of Neuburg, has 2,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its remarkable Gothic 
castle, and two battles in 1703 and 1704, the latter of which is commonly 
named after the neighboring village of Blindheim, or Blendheim. The towns 
of Lauingen and Gundelfingen, have respectively 4,000 and 2,800 inhabi- 
tants. 

VIII. The circle of the Palatinate (2,247 square miles, and 603,000 inhab- 
itants) comprises chiefly territories, which, both politically and in common 



GERMANY. 327 



The Kingdom of Bavaria — its Geographical Divisions. 



life, were, and are still, known by the name of Palatinate. The political par- 
ticulars will be found below. I. As capital of this circle, we must first describe : 
-{-Spire, one of the oldest former imperial cities (in 1801 ceded to France, 
and in 1814 to Bavaria), on the Rhine, southward and 46 miles distant from 
Mentz, and north-eastward and 70 miles distant from Strasburg, with 17 
churches, and 9,500 inhabitants. Julius Caesar resided frequently at Spire, 
which in the middle ages was the burial-place of German emperors, whose 
highly remarkable sepulchres are to be seen in its magnificent Gothic cathedral. 
In the period from 1529 to 1691, Spire was the seat of the Imperial Chamber 
(see page 293). Landau, formerly likewise an imperial city, south-westward 
and 18 miles distant from Spire, has 6.500 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, 
and was in the period from 1680 to 1815 possessed by France. To the former 
sovereign or immediate bishopric of Spire (which was instituted in 348, and 
secularized in 1803, but had nothing in common with the city of Spire), did 
belong the towns of Deidesheim (noted for its wines, has 2,600 inhabitants), 
Edesheim (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Rheinzabem (with 2,100 inhabitants), 
and the villages of Forst (with 850 inhabitants) and Ungstein (with 1,150 
inhabitants), noted for their wines. 2. To the former Electoral Palatinate 
(see its particulars under the head of Baden) did belong: Frankenthal, 
formerly the third in rank among its capitals, near the Bhine, north-westward 
and 9 miles distant from Mannheim, is noted for its various manufactures, and 
has 5,000 inhabitants. Neustadt, surnamed an der Haardt, a town at the foot 
of the Haardt Mountains, westward and 13 miles distant from Spire, is noted 
for its wines, and has 6,150 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated the 
little village of Hambach, with the ruins of an ancient castle, reared by 
Emperor Henry IV. Germersheim, a fortified town on the Rhine, southward 
and 13 miles distant from Spire, with 2,300 inhabitants. Rodolph of Haps- 
burg died here on the 15th of July, 1291. Kaiserslautern (frequently also 
called Lautern), a town on the Lauter river, 36 miles west-north-west of Spire, 
with 7,450 inhabitants. Wolfstein, a town on the Lauter river, north-west- 
ward and 12 miles distant from Kaiserslautern, has 1,000 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its quicksilver mines. Other more or less remarkable towns are : 
Oggersheim (with 1,700 inhabitants), Wachenheim (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
EdenJcoben (with 5,000 inhabitants), Otterberg (with 2,600 inhabitants), Rock- 
enhausen (with 1,800 inhabitants), and LauterecTc (with 1,200 inhabitants). 
3. The former palatine principality of ZweibrucJccn (which primitively be- 
longed to the house of the Palatinate, and since the beginning of the 15th 



328 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Bavaria. 

century was an independent or immediate principality until 1799, when its 
sovereign, Maximilian Joseph, inherited all Bavaria and Electoral Palatinate), 
contains : Zweibruecken, or Deux-Ponts (its French and English name), for- 
merly the capital of the principality, on the Erbach river, westward and 50 
miles distant from Spire, with manufactures, and 7,800 inhabitants. Ann- 
weiler, a town on the Queich, 23 miles west -south-west of Spire, with 2,800 
inhabitants, and the remarkable ruins of the once so-renowned castle of 
Trifels, where King Richard of the Lion Heart was kept prisoner in 1193. 
Other towns are : 'Hamburg (northward and 9 miles distant from Deux-Ponts, 
with 3,200 inhabitants), Bergzabem (with 2,900 inhabitants), Cusel (with 2,400 
inhabitants), and Obermoschel (with 1,200 inhabitants). 4. The former lord- 
ship of Hanau-Lichtenberg (which in the period from 1736 to 1801 did belong 
to Hesse-Darmstadt), contains : Pirmasenz, a town in the vicinity of Zwei- 
briicken, has 5,800 inhabitants, and was in the middle of last century the 
residence of the landgrave Louis IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. 5. The former 
earldom of Leiningen (which belonged to the house of this name, but was in 
1814 ceded to Bavaria), contains the towns of Durkheim, or Turkheim (with 
4,600 inhabitants), and Gruenstadt (with 3,600 inhabitants). 6. To various 
other former sovereigns did belong : Landstuhl, a town in the vicinity of 
Kaiserlautern, with 1,950 inhabitants (did belong to the count of Sickingen) ; 
Blieskastel, a town in the neighborhood of Zweibrucken, with 2,000 inhabi- 
itants (belongs still to the prince of the Leyen) ; Winnweiler (was formerly 
the capital of the earldom of Falkenstein, and has 1,400 inhabitants), and 
G-oellheim, or Gellheim (a market-town, north-westward and 20 miles distant 
from Mannheim, noted for the battle on the 2d of June, 1298, and with 1,750 
inhabitants, did belong to a collateral line of the house of Nassau). 



GERMANY. 329 



The Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 



IV.— THE KINGDOM OF WIRTEMBERG. 

Area: 1,551 square miles. 
Population : 1,750,000 inhabitants. 

Wirtemberg (officially styled Wurttemberg in German) is 
situated between Bavaria and Baden, and surrounded by these 
states, except on the south, where it is washed by the waters of 
the lake of Constance. 

The majority of the population consists of Lutherans, and the 
remainder (with the exception of about 12,000 Jews) of 500,000 
Roman Catholics, with a bishop in Rottenburg. 

The chief mountain-range is the Svoabian Alp, and next to it 
the eastern part of the Black Forest (see page 7). The Neckar 
(one of the tributaries of the Bhine), with its branches of the 
Kocher and Jaxt, crosses the country in the direction from south 
to north, and the Danube in the direction from west to east. 
Besides the lake of Constance, the Feder lake deserves to be 
noticed. 

The chief natural products are : grain (sufficiently raised not 
only for home consumption, but also for exportation), wines, 
fruits (as, apples, pears, cherries, etc.), and timber; furthermore, 
cattle, horses, and sheep : finally, iron and salt. 

Among the manufactures of Wirtemberg, those of linen have 
long since been renowned. Other principal articles are : wool- 
len, cottons, leather, cutlery, etc. The inland trade is rather consid- 
erable. 

The means of education are well arranged. Besides a uni- 
versity at Tubingen (see page 287), which in 1846 was frequented 
by 863 students, there are 3 lycea, 6 gymnasia, 78 Latin schools, 



330 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 

several seminaries, etc. (see the note, page 65), and 2,256 com- 
mon schools. 

The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. In the 
budget for the period of 1844-1845, the public revenue was esti- 
mated at 10,869,807 florins, and the expenditure at 10,711,210 
florins per annum. The public debt amounted on the first of 
July, 1840, to 22,695,068 florins. The regular army consists on 
the peace footing of 7,426 men, and on the war footing of 20,094 
men and 4,988 horses. Troops to be furnished with regard to 
the German confederacy, 13,955 men. 

There are the following orders of honor: — 1. The military order 
of merit, in 3 classes, and instituted respectively in 1806 and 
1818. 2. The order of the Wirtemberg crown, instituted in 1818. 
3. The Frederic's order, instituted in 1830, in commemoration of 
the late king, Frederic I. 

History. — The kernel of the present kingdom of Wirtemberg consists of 
the ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, which prior to the year 1495 was an earl- 
dom, primarily forming part of the above-mentioned (page 324) duchy of 
Swabia. The first historically known earl of Wirtemberg was Ulric I., who 
reigned in the period of 1246-1265, and whose patrimonial dominions em- 
braced only small parts of the present Neckar and Black Forest circles. His 
son (-(-1325) and grandson extended the limits of the earldom by annexing 
to it neighboring districts, which they either inherited or purchased. That 
Mompelgard was towards the end of the 14th century acquired by marriage, 
has already been mentioned under the head of France, page 203. In this 
way the earldom (whose name was derived from the ancestral castle of Wir- 
tineberg, or Wvirtemberg, near Canstadt) gradually increased to an extent, 
that Emperor Maximilian 1. was induced to raise it to the dignity of a duchy 
in 1495. Its last duke, since 1791, was Frederic II., who in the treaty of 
peace concluded at Luneville in 1801, ceded Mompelgard to France, but was 
in 1803 amply indemnified by the territories of several immediate prelates 
and imperial cities ; at the same time the electoral title was conferred on him. 
By the terms of the treaty of Presburg in 1805, the earldom of Hohenberg, 



GERMANY. 331 



The Kingdom of Wirtemberg — its Geographical Divisions. 



and several other dominions, were ceded to him, and he assumed the royal 
title. He died, as King Frederic I., in 1816, and was succeeded by his son, 
the still reigning king, William I., born in 1781. 

The kingdom is, since 1817, divided into 4 provinces, styled 
circles, which are subdivided into 64 bailiwicks. The capitals of 
the circles will be found marked with a cross (-{-). 

I. The Neckar Circle, comprising chiefly parts of the ancient duchy of 
Wirtemberg, containing : Stuttgart, capital of the kingdom, and royal resi- 
dence, on the little Nesenbach river, a branch of the Neckar, south-eastward 
and 40 miles distant from Carlsruhe, and north-westward and 1 20 miles dis- 
tant from Munich, has 46,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its magnificent 
royal palace, its opera-house, and its royal library, which, among other 
valuable works, contains a collection of 12,000 bibles, in 68 different lan- 
guages. Stuttgart has been the seat of its sovereigns since the year 1321. 
-|-Ludwigsburg, capital of the Neckar Circle, near the Neckar, northward 
and 9 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 10,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
extensive royal palace, containing valuable collections of paintings, etc. In 
its vicinity is situated the market-town of Asperg, with 1,700 inhabitants, 
and the fortress, or fortified castle of Hohenasperg. Canstatt, a town on the 
Neckar, and in the vicinity of Stuttgart, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its mineral waters. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Mark- 
grdningen (with 3,000 inhabitants), Vaihingen (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
Lauffen (with 4,000 inhabitants), Brackenheim (with 1,700 inhabitants), Gug- 
glingen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Besigheim (with 2,500 inhabitants), Bietig- 
heim (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bonnigheim (with 2,400 inhabitants), Neustadi 
an der Lincle (with 1,500 inhabitants), Mockmuhl (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
Widdern (with 1,400 inhabitants), Marbach (with 2,500 inhabitants), Gross- 
bottwar (with 2,500 inhabitants), Backnang (with 4,500 inhabitants), Murrhard 
(with 2,500 inhabitants), Waiblingen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Winnenden 
(with 3,100 inhabitants), Boblingen (with 3,400 inhabitants), Sindelfingen 
(with 3,700 inhabitants), and Leonberg (with 2,200 inhabitants). The village 
of Maulbronn is remarkable for its ancient Cistercian monastery (instituted 
in 1187), which after the Reformation was transformed into a theological 
seminary. "Weinsberg, a town on the Sulm river, northward and 28 miles 
distant from Stuttgart, with the ruins of a once highly renowned castle, and 



332 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 

2,100 inhabitants. Oberstenfeld, a market-town between Stuttgart and 
Weinsberg, has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its pensionnaire, or board- 
ing-school for young ladies of rank. In its vicinity is situated the solitary 
village of Prevorst, with 450 inhabitants. 2. The following were imperial 
cities until 1803 : Heilbronn, a city on the Neckar, northward and 20 miles 
distant from Stuttgart, has 11,700 inhabitants, carries on a considerable in- 
land trade, and is noted for its manufactures. Esslingen, formerly an impe- 
rial city, on the Neckar, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Stuttgart, 
has 12,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its optical and other similar instru- 
ments, and its wines. Weil, formerly an imperial city, on the Wiirm river, 
and north-westward and 9 miles distant from Stuttgart, has 2,000 inhabitants, 
and is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Keppler 
(born in 1571, and -{-1630 at Ratisbon). 3. The mediate earldom of Lowen- 
stein (53 square miles, and 7,000 inhabitants), belonging to the prince of 
Lowenstein, contains : Lowenstein, its capital, in the vicinity of "Weinsberg, 
is noted as a watering-place, and has 2,000 inhabitants. 4. The mediate 
lordship of Schwaigern, belongs to the earl of Neipperg, (son-in-law of the 
reigning king of Wirtemberg), and contains, among others, the town of 
Schwaigern, with a palace of the earl, and 2,000 inhabitants. 5. The towns 
of Neckarsulm (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Gundelsheim (with 1,200 inhabi- 
tants), formerly belonged to the Teutonic order. 

II. The Black Forest Circle, comprising other parts of the ancient duchy 
of Wirtemberg, the former earldom of Hohenberg, and the following (until 
1803) imperial cities : -J-Reutlingen, at present the capital of this circle, south- 
ward and 18 miles distant from Stuttgart, is noted for its numerous printing- 
offices and manufactures, and has 12,800 inhabitants. Rottweil, formerly 
an imperial city, on the Neckar, south-westward and 32 miles distant from 
Reutlingen, with considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 2. The former 
earldom of Hohenberg, which since 1381 did belong to Austria, and was 
ceded to Wirtemberg in 1805, containing: Rottenburg, a city in the neighbor- 
hood of Tubingen, is the residence of the Catholic bishop of Wirtemberg, and 
noted for its musical instruments, and has 6,500 inhabitants. Horb, a town 
on the Neckar, with cloth manufactures, and 2,050 inhabitants. Other towns 
are: Oberndorf (with 1,900 inhabitants), Schramberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), 
Spaichingen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Schemberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), and 
Fricdingen (with 1,000 inhabitants). 3. The ancient duchy of Wirtemberg, 
within the limits of this circle, contains : Tuebingen, considered as the second 



GERMANY. 333 



The Kingdom of Wirtemberg — its Geographical Divisions. 



capital of the kingdom, on the Neckar, 18 miles south-south-west of Stutt- 
gart, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and 
page 281). Urach, a town on the Rough Alp, south-eastward, and 20 miles 
distant from Stuttgart, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is renowned for its damask 
linen. In its vicinity is situated the town of Metzingen, surnamed unter 
Urach (beneath, or at the foot of Urach), with 4,200 inhabitants, and noted 
for its wines and corn-markets. Ehnixgen, the largest and finest mai'ket-town 
in the kingdom, in the neighborhood of Reutlingen, has 5,000 inhabitants, 
who for the most part consist of pedlars. Pfullingen, a romantically situa- 
ted town, near Reutlingen, with 4,000 inhabitants, is noted for its fruits and 
wines. Calw, one of the most industrious manufacturing towns in the coun- 
try, westward and 22 miles distant from Stuttgart, with 4,500 inhabitants. 
The neighboring village of Hirschau (with 800 inhabitants), was once noted 
for its magnificent Benedictine convent, instituted in 830. The romantically 
situated village of Deinach (with 500 inhabitants), is much resorted to as a 
watering-place. Other noted watering-places are the towns of Liebenzell 
(with 1,100 inhabitants), and Wildbad (with 1,800 inhabitants). Tuttlingen, 
a town on the upper Danube, 28 miles north-north-west of Constance, has 
5,700 inhabitants, carries on a considerable corn-trade, and is noted for its 
manufactures of cutlery. Not far from here is situated, on a solitary steep 
rock, 2,174 feet high, the once celebrated fortress of Hohentwiel, now in 
ruins. The towns of Balingen (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Ebingen (with 
4,400 inhabitants), carry on a considerable trade in corn and cattle. Other 
more or less remarkable towns are : Nurtingen (noted for its musical instru- 
ments, has 3,900 inhabitants), Neuffen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Grotzingen 
(with 1,100 inhabitants), Herrenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Nagold (with 
2,600 inhabitants), Altensteig (with 2,100 inhabitants), Bulach (with 1,300 in- 
habitants), Neuenburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Freudenstadt (with 4,100 in- 
habitants). Dornstetten (with 1,250 inhabitants), Alpirspach (with 1,800 
inhabitants), Sidz (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Dornhan (with 1,500 inhabi- 
tants). 

III. The Danube Circle, comprising only a small part of the ancient duchy 
of Wirtemberg, while the remainder consists of territories annexed to the 
kingdom since the year 1803. -f-ULM, at present the capital of this circle, 
formerly an imperial city, on the Danube at its junction with the Iller, south, 
eastward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, and westward and 42 miles 
distant from Augsburg, is strongly fortified, and has 18,400 inhabitants, and 



334 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 

is, besides for numerous manufactures, especially noted for its magnificent 
Gothic minster or cathedral, which is 485 feet long, 200 wide, and 141 feet 
high, and whose steeple is 33*7 feet in height. In the middle ages, Ulm was 
in high reputation for its extensive trade. In 1805 the Austrian general 
Mack capitulated here with 30,000 men. Ulm had, being an imperial city, 
a considerable territory, which, among other places, contained Geislingen, 
a town with 2,200 inhabitants, and noted for its fine turneries in ivory, 
horn, (fee. Isny, an imperial town until 1803, near the frontier of Bavaria, 
with important linen trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. It belongs at present to 
the count of Quadt. Wangen, formerly an imperial city, westward and 9 
miles distant from Isny, with various manufactures, and 1,100 inhabitants. 
Leutkirch, likewise an imperial city until 1803, southward and 40 miles dis- 
tant from Ulm, is noted for its linen, and has 2,200 inhabitants. Buchhorn, 
an imperial city until 1803, on the lake of Constance, received by the late 
king Frederick I., the name of Friedrichshafen, and has 1,300 inhabitants. 
Ravensburg, likewise an imperial city formerly, 46 miles, south-south-west of 
Ulm, with various manufactures, important trade, and 5,300 inhabitants. 
Biberach, an imperial city until 1803, on the little Riss river, 23 miles south- 
south-west of Ulm, with various manufactures, and 5,100 inhabitants. Buchau, 
formerly an imperial city, on the Feder lake, 9 miles west-south-west of Bib- 
erach, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its stately castle or palace, of the 
prince of Thurn and Taxis (see Ratisbon), which was, until 1803, the seat of 
an independent abbey, instituted in the beginning of the 10 th century. Among 
the other formerly independent abbeys, is especially to be noticed the Benedic- 
tine abbey of Weingarten (close by the market-town of Altdorf in the 
neighborhood of Ravensburg), instituted in 920 as a nunnery, but in 1047 
transformed into a monastery. Its buildings are magnificent and extensive, 
and its church contains an organ with 6,666 pipes. In 1803, when this abbey 
was secularized, the house of Orange-Nassau became possessed of it, but in 
1806 it was ceded to Wirtemberg. 2. Of the territories of 8 princes, who 
respectively until 1803 and 1806 were sovereign or independent, deserve to be 
noticed the dominions of the princes of Waldburg (181 square miles, and 
36,000 inhabitants), containing: Wurzach, a town in the neighborhood of 
Leutkirch, with 1,100 inhabitants, and a palace of the prince of Waldburg- 
Zeil- Wurzach, Aichstetten (with 700 inhabitants), and Winterstettenstadt 
(with 450 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The formerly so-called Swabian 
Austria, which in 1805 was ceded by Austria to Wirtemberg, contains: 






GERMANY. 385 



The Kingdom of Wirtemberg — its Geographical Divisions. 

Ehingen, a town on the Schmiechen river, south-westward and 16 miles dis- 
tant from Ulm, with considerable trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. Munderkin- 
gen, a town on the Danube, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse- 
marts. Saulgau, a town on the Schwarzach, with considerable corn trade, 
and 2,300 inhabitants, is noted for its town-hall, and church with beautiful 
paintings on glass. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Waldsee 
(with 1,800 inhabitants), Mengen (with 2,100 inhabitants), Riedlingen (with 
1,800 inhabitants), and Tettnang (with 1,400 inhabitants). The market-town 
of Langenargen (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its corn trade. 4. The 
ancient duchy of Wirtemberg within the limits of the Danube circle, contains : 
Blaubeurex, a town on the Blau, a branch of the Danube, westward and 9 
miles distant from Ulm, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen, and 
especially for its theological seminary, in the buildings of a former Benedic- 
tine convent, instituted in 1095. Goeppixgen, a town on the Fils river, 23 
miles east-south-east of Stuttgart, is noted for its manufactures, and has 5,500 
inhabitants. In its vicinity is situated the market-town of Hohenstaufen, 
with the ruins of the ancestral castle of the once so renowned family of this 
name, and 1,100 inhabitants. Munsingen, a town on the Rough Alp, westward 
and 23 miles distant from Ulm, is noted for its damask linen, and has 1,550 
inhabitants. Kirchheim, surnamed unter 2 y eck, a town on the Lauter (a branch 
of the Danube, and thus not to be confounded with the Lauter in the Bava- 
rian palatinate), north-westward and 32 miles distant from Ulm, with 5,600 
inhabitants, various manufactures, and the ruins of the ancient castle of Teck 
once the ancestral seat of the dukes of this name, whose dominions were pur- 
chased by the Earl Eberhard of Wirtemberg in 1381. 

IV. The Jaxt Circle, comprising for the most part territories annexed to 
"Wirtemberg since the year 1803. Among them are : — 1. Those of the formerly 
sovereign or independent provostship of Ellwangen, which was instituted 
in 764 as a Benedictine convent, and secularized in 1803, containing: -4-Ell- 
wangen, at present the capital of this circle, formerly the residence of the 
provost, on the Jaxt river, north-eastward and 46 miles distant from Stuttgart, 
with remarkable Gothic church, noted horse-marts,' and 3,800 inhabitants. 
Wasseralfingen, a market-town, with iron-works, and 1,600 inhabitants. 
Abtsgejnund, a village on the Kocher, with iron-works and 750 inhabitants. 
2. The following 5 cities were imperial cities until 1803: Hall, or Schwabisch 
Hall (Swabian Hall), on the Kocher, eastward and 27 miles distant from 
Heilbronn, has 6,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt springs, Gothic 



336 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Wirtemberg. 

church, town-hall, and trade in cattle. Gmund, or Schwabisch Gmund (an- 
ciently it was called Kaisersreuth), on the Rems river, was once renowned 
for its manufactures of glass, wax-candles, gold and silver articles, but has at 
present only 7,000 inhabitants. Aalen, on the Kocher, southward and 9 
miles distant from Ellwangen, is noted for its breweries and iron-works, and 
has 3,300 inhabitants. Giengen, on the Brunz river, has 2,350 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its mineral water and manufactures of cutlery ; and Bopfin- 
gen, in the vicinity of Ellwangen, with 1,600 inhabitants. 3. The Teutonic 
Order, instituted (as has already been related, page 46) in Palestine in 1190, 
and since the year 1230 conquering the ancient Prussia, left it, since its secu- 
larization in 1525, and went to Germany, having there considerable dominions 
(together, 809 square miles, with 84,000 inhabitants), which were secularized 
in 1809, and partly ceded to Bavaria, partly to Wirtemberg. The grand- 
master of the order resided at Mergentheim, a town on the Tauber, near the 
frontiers of Bavaria and Baden, with a beautiful church, mineral waters, and 
2,400 inhabitants. Lauchheim, a town on the Jaxt, with 1,200 inhabitants. 
4. To the former margraviate or principality of Ansbach (see Bavarian circle 
of Central Franconia), did belong and were ceded to Wirtemberg in 1810: 
Crailsheim, or Kraihheim (northward and 14 miles distant from Ellwangen, 
with numerous manufactures and 3,000 inhabitants), Gerabronn (with 100 
inhabitants), and Creglingen (with 1,400 inhabitants), towns. 5. The formerly 
sovereign or independent, but since 1806 mediate principalities of Hohen- 
lohe, belonging to the princes of this name (descendants of Duke Eberhard 
of Franconia, brother to Emperor Conrad I.), who at present are divided into 
two chief branches ; viz., the Catholic branch of Hohenlohe- Waldenburg 
(with the collateral lines of Bartenstein, Jaxtberg, and Schillingsfiirst), and 
the Protestant branch of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein (with the collateral lines of 
Langenburg, Kirchberg, and Oehringen, the latter being formerly named 
Ingelfingen), and having together an area of 735 square miles, and a popula- 
tion of 114,000 inhabitants, contain: Oehringen, a town on the Ohrn river, 
north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Heilbronn, is the residence of the 
prince of Hohenlohe- Oehringen (formerly named Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen), and 
has 3,300 inhabitants Ingelfingen, a town on the Kocher, with 1,550 inhab- 
itants. Langenburg, a town on the Jaxt, with 900 inhabitants, is the rosidence 
of the prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg. Kirchberg, a romantically situ- 
ated town on the Jaxt, eastward and 22 miles distant from Oehringen, has 
1,800 inhabitants, and is the residence of the prince of Hohenlohe-Kirchberg 



GERMANY. 337 



The Kingdom of WirLemberg — its Geographical Divisions. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 

Bartenstein, a town 13 miles east-north-east of Ingelfingen, has 1,100 inhab- 
itants, and a stately palace of the prince of Hohenlohe -Bartenstein. Jaxt- 
berg, a town on the Jaxt, with 1,400 inhabitants, belongs to the prince of 
Hohenlohe-Jaxtberg. The town of Waldenburg (with 1,100 inhabitants), 
and the market-towns of Kupferzell (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Adolzfurth 
(with 600 inhabitants), belong to the prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingfurst (see 
page 322). Other more or less remarkable towns of these principalities are : 
Neuenstein (with 1,600 inhabitants), Forchtenberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
Kiinnzelsau (with 2,650 inhabitants), Niedemhall (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
Weikersheim (with 2,000 inhabitants), Sindringen (with 1,000 inhabitants), 
and Niederstetten (with 1,700 inhabitants). 6. The ancient duchy of Wir- 
temberg, within the limits of this circle, contains : Schorndorf, a town on the 
Rems, 14 miles east-north-east of Stuttgart, with various manufactures, and 
3,700 inhabitants. Beutelsbach, a market-town in the neighborhood of Schorn- 
dorf, has 1,900 inhabitants, and is remarkable as the burial-place of some of 
the ancient earls of Wirtemberg. Heidenheim, a town on the Brenz, south- 
ward and 18 miles distant from Ellwangen, has 2,800 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its linen trade and numerous manufactures of linen, cotton goods and 
hardware. Welzheim, a town north-eastward and 7 miles distant from 
Schorndorf, with 1,800 inhabitants, and considerable trade in flax and timber. 
Lorch (with 1,800 inhabitants), and Konigsbronn (with considerable iron- 
works), market-towns. 



V.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF BADEN. 

Area : 5,932 square miles. 
Population: 1,379,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated along the right bank of the Rhine (by which 
river it is separated from France), on the south bound by Swit- 
zerland and the lake of Constance, and on the east bound by 
Wirtemberg. 

15 





338 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 



The population consists of about 804,000 Catholics (with an 
archbishop at Freiburg), 553,000 Protestants, and 22,000 Jews. 

The country in the neighborhood of the lake of Constance, and 
tartly along the Rhine, is more or less level ; but in the interior 
die surface is mountainous. The chief mountain ranges are the 
Black Forest and the Odenwald (see page 7). The country is 
intersected by numerous branches of the Rhine (as for instance, 
the Aach, Murg, Wiese, Dreysam, Acher, Pfinz, etc.), but its prin- 
cipal tributary here, is the Neckar. About the lakes, see page 1 1. 
Other remarkable lakes, in the Black Forest, are the Mummel, 
the Wilder, and the Nonnenmattweiher lakes. There are about 60 
watering-places in the country, the most renowned of which are 
Baden and Ueberlingen. 

Some parts of the country have a most fertile soil, especially the 
former margraviate of Baden ; others, as for instance some of the 
mountainous districts, are less fertile, and partly even sterile ; 
yet, upon the whole, the grand-duchy rivals Wirtemberg in the 
natural products. Thus, the chief staples are almost the same 
as in the just-named kingdom, perhaps with the exception of iron, 
which abounds in Baden more than in Wirtemberg. 

The manufactures are various and mostly important. The prin- 
cipal articles of fabrication are clocks (nearly in all parts of the 
world known by the name of Black Forest clocks), hardware 
and jewelleries, next to them linen, woollen, cotton goods and chemical 
articles. The inland trade is very considerable. 

Besides the universities (see page 287) at Heidelberg (in 184(5 
frequented by 864 students), and Freiburg (in 1845 frequented 
by 213 students), there are 6 lycea, 5 gymnasia (about the sig- 
nification of these terms, see page 65), 1,916 common, and 65 
other schools of various distinction. 

The government is a limited monarchy like that of Wirtem- 
berg, with the only difference that the sovereign of Baden bears 



GERMANY. 339 



(Jraud-Duchy of Baden — its Finances and History. 

the title of grand duke. The public revenue in the two years 
1844 and 1845 amounted to 32,847,690 florins, and the total ex- 
penditure in these two years to 30.950.034 florins. In 1845 the 
public debt was 41,271,434 florins (inclusive of a loan of 14 mil- 
lions which had been contracted for constructing the rail-roads of 
the country). The regular army consists respectively of 4,595 
and 10,423 men. The troops to the confederacy (see under the 
head of Bavaria and Wirtemberg) : 10,000 men. 

There are the following orders of honor: 1. The order of loyalty 
(Orden der Treue), in 2 classes, instituted in 1715, and renew- 
ed in 1803. 2. The military order of merit, instituted by Charles 
Frederic in 1807, in 3 classes. 3. The order of the lion of Zdh- 
ringen, instituted in 1812, in 3 classes. 

History. — The present grand-duchy of Baden which, in respect to extent 
and population, rivals German kingdoms, was until the year 1803 a mar- 
graviate with an area of only 1,384 square miles, and a population of no 
more than 220,000 inhabitants. All the remainder has since been annexed to 
this primitive country, which was first under the sway of the Bertilons, but 
already in the 10th century under that of the Zahringians, whose ancestral 
seat was the castle of the same name (now in ruins) near Freiburg. Berthold 
of Zahringen, proprietor of wealthy estates both in Swabia and Alsace, was 
in 1060 nominated duke of Carinthia and margrave of Verona, and since 
that period the title of margrave rested with the members of this dynasty. 
Berthold's son Hermann acquired Baden by marriage ; and his son of the 
same name was the first margrave of Baden, by the name of Hermann I. He 
died in 1130, and was succeeded by his son Hermann II. When in 1190 his son 
Hermann III. died, he left behind two sons, the younger of whom became the 
author of the collateral line of Hochberg. Margrave Christoph of Baden re- 
united the territories of both lines, but his sons Bernhard and Ernesd divided 
them again, and there were two reigning lines of Baden-Baden, and Baden- 
Burl ach, until they were once more and permanently reunited in 17*71 by 
the margrave Charles Frederic of Baden-Durlach. The long reign of this 
sovereign (from respectively 1738 and 1746 to 1811) proved in every respect 
beneficial to the country. By the treaty of Luneville in 1801 he lost some 



340 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 



territories on the left bank of the Rhine, but was amply indemnified in 1803 
by the Lower Palatinate, the territories of several prelates, imperial cities, etc., 
together at the extent of 1,949 square miles, with 215,000 inhabitants. At 
the same time he was raised to the dignity of an elector, and in 1806 to that 
of a grand duke, and made fresh acquisitions in the years 1806, 1809 and 10. 
He died in 1811, and was succeeded by his grandson, Charles Louis Frederic, 
who died in 1818, and was succeeded by his uncle Louis, who died in 1830, 
and was succeeded by his step-brother, the still reigning grand duke Leopold, 
born in 1790. About the revolution in 1849 see above, page 305. 

The grand-duchy is, since 1832, divided into 4 provinces, styled 
circles, which are subdivided into 79 bailiwicks. The capitals 
of the circles are in the following topography marked with a 

cross (+). 

i 
I. The Middle Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the territories of the an- 
cient margraviates of Baden-Durlach and Baden-Baden, and besides them 
some former imperial cities, etc. 1. The ancient mar gr aviate of Baden-Dur- 
lach (formerly also styled the Lower Margraviate of Baden), contains : Carls- 
ruhe, the capital of the whole country, and residence of the grand duke, at 
3 \ miles distance from the Rhine, north-westward and 40 miles distant from 
Stuttgart, has 24,800 inhabitants, is very regularly laid out and fan-shaped, 
has many stately palaces, of which that where the grand duke resides is 
very extensive, and other remarkable public edifices, and is noted for its lite- 
rary institutions and manufactures. The foundation of the city was laid in 
1715 by the margrave Charles of Baden-Durlach. On the Rhine is the vil- 
lage of Schrock, with 700 inhabitants, and a landing at present called Leopolds- 
hafen. Durlach, formerly the capital and residence of the margrave of 
Baden-Durlach, on the Pfinz, eastward and 2 miles distant from Carlsruhe, 
with some manufactures and 5,000 inhabitants. Grotzingen, a village with 
2,000 inhabitants, is noted for its madder and wines. Pforzheim, the most 
important manufacturing town in the country, on the Enz, south-eastward and 
14 miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 8,400 inhabitants, and its principal man- 
ufactures are those of jewelleries and similar other articles. Kurnbach, a 
market-town, one half of which belongs to Baden, and the other to Hesse- 
Darmstadt. The former half has 550 inhabitants. 2. The ancient margra- 
viate of Baden-Baden (formerly also known by the name of the upper 



GERMANY. 341 



The Grand-Duchy of Baden— its Geographical Divisions. 



margraviate of Baden), contains : Baden, formerly the capital of this margra- 
viate, at present one of the most frequented watering-places in Germany, is 
romantically situated in a valley, about half-way between Strasburg and 
Carlsruhe, and has 6,300 inhabitants. -j-Rastadt, formerly the residence of 
the margrave of Baden-Baden, at present the capital of the Middle Rhine 
Circle, on the Murg, about 3 miles from its junction with the Rhine, and north- 
ward and 7 miles distant from Baden, is strongly fortified, and has 8,800 in- 
habitants. The foundation of Rastadt was laid by the margrave Louis Wil- 
liam of Baden-Baden, who reigned in the period of 1691-1707. The little 
village of Affenthal is noted for its wines. Steinbach, a town in the vioinity 
of Baden, with 2,300 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of the cele- 
brated architect Erwin of Steinbach (+1318), who was the chief architect 
for that fine structure, the cathedral of Strasburg. The town of Kehl, on the 
Rhine, opposite to Strasburg, has 1,400 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for 
its strong fortifications, which in 1815 were razed. Gernsbach, a town on the 
Murg, at about 9 miles distance from Rastadt, with considerable trade in tim- 
ber, and 2,400 inhabitants. Achern, a town on the Acher, eastward and 
16 miles distant from Strasburg, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is situated in a 
district called the Ortenau, of which the duke Ferdinand of Modena was pos- 
sessed in the short period from 1803 to 1805. Ettlingen, a town on the lit- 
tle Alb river, with powder mills, paper manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. 
Buhl, a town southward and 12 miles distant from Rastadt, has 2,800 inhab- 
itants, and is noted for its cattle-fairs. 3. The following imperial cities came 
in 1803 under the sway of Baden: Offenburg, formerly an imperial city, 
on the Kinzig, 12 miles south-east of Strasburg, with 4,200 inhabitants. Gen- 
genbach, formerly an imperial city, in the vicinity of Offenburg, with 2,700 
inhabitants. Zell, surnamed am Uammersbach, an imperial city until 1803, 
on a little river called Hammersbach, and in the neighborhood of Gergenbach, 
with 1,400 inhabitants. 4. The former territory of the ancient bishopric of 
Spire (see page 327), which in 1803 was annexed to Baden, contains: 
Bruchsal, formerly the residence of the bishop, whose magnificent palace is 
still extant, is situated north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Carlsruhe, 
and has 7,800 inhabitants. 5. To the former independent bishopric of Stras- 
burg (see page 197), belonged the towns of Oberkirch (has 2,000 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its wines and fruits), Oppenau (with 2,100 inhabitants), 
and Renchen (with 2,700 inhabitants, and is noted for its hemp), and the vil- 
lage of Sasbach (with 1,400 inhabitants), eastward and 14 miles distant from 



342 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 

Strasburg, is remarkable for that the French marshal, Turenne, was struck 
dead here by a cannon-ball, on the 27th July, 1675. 6. The towns of Bisch- 
ofsheim, or Rhein-Bishofsheim (near the Rhine, north-eastward and 10 miles 
distant from Strasburg, is noted for its hemp, and has 1,800 inhabitants), and 
Lichtenau (likewise noted for its hemp, and with 1,600 inhabitants), until 
1803 belonged to the ancient lordship of Hanau-Lichtenberg (see page 328). 
The town of Lahr (18 miles south-south-east of Strasburg, with important 
manufactures, considerable inland trade, and 7,500 inhabitants), did formerly 
belong to a collateral line of the house of Nassau. To Electoral Palatinate 
(see below) belonged : Bretten, a town on the Sulzbach, eastward and 15 
miles distant from Carlsruhe, has 3,100 inhabitants, and is noted as the birth- 
place of Melanchthon. The house where he was born is still extant. Eppin- 
gen, a town on the Elsenz, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Carls- 
ruhe, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 3,100 inhabitants. Heidehheim, 
a town with 2,300 inhabitants. 7. To the dependent principality of Fursten- 
berg (see below, under the head of Donaueschingen and Trochtelfingen), 
belong the towns of Hausen, or Hausach (with 1,300 inhabitants), Wolfach 
(with copper and other mines, and 1,700 inhabitants), and Haslach (with 
1,750 inhabitants). 

II. The Lower Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the principal territory 
of ancient Electoral or Lower Palatinate, which had the following origin. 
Emperor Otto I. (936-972) appointed Palatines in several parts of the em- 
pire, who had to pronounce sentences in the name of the king or emperor, and 
to watch over the royal rights and prerogatives. Their title was derived 
from the Latin palatium (palace), because they commonly had their seat in the 
immediate vicinity of the royal or imperial palaces, of which there was a 
considerable number throughout Germany, but especially along the Rhine. 
In the course of time the Palatine on the Rhine became the most noted and 
powerful among these representatives of the emperor ; and so early as in the 
beginning of the 13th century, he belonged to those powerful princes, who, 
under the title of electors (see page 293), exercised the exclusive right of 
electing the emperor. His dominions consisted of the territories in the north, 
ern part of the present grand-duchy of Baden, and in the present Bavarian 
palatinate (see page 327), and were frequently called Lower Palatinate, to 
distinguish them from Upper Palatinate (see page 317). Since the middle 
of the 15th century, a collateral line of the reigning Bavarian house of Wit- 
telsbach was possessed of the Palatinate, but was, in 1623 (because the Pala- 



GERMANY. 343 



The Grand-Duchy of Baden — its Geographical Divisions. 



tine and Elector, Frederic V., had, as it were, committed felony by accepting 
the crown of Bohemia, and led his troops against the emperor) deprived both 
of the Upper Palatinate and the electoral dignity, which was conferred on tha 
duke of Bavaria. However by the Westphalian treaty of peace in 1648, an 
eighth electoral dignity was created in favor of Frederic V.'s son and succes- 
sor. In 1777 the principal line of the reigning house of Bavaria became ex- 
tinct, and now the elector Charles Theodore of the Palatinate inherited the 
whole electorate of Bavaria. He died in 1799, and was succeeded by Max- 
imilian Joseph (see page 314), who in 1803 ceded that part of the Lower 
Palatinate situated on the right bank of the Rhine, to Baden ; while the other 
part, on the left bank, is retained by Bavaria. "We have thus to describe 
here only the former, containing : -[-Mannheim, at present the capital of the 
Lower Rhine Circle, formerly the second capital of the Palatinate, and, in 
the period from 1720 to 1799, the residence of the Palatine elector, on the 
Neckar, at its junction with the Rhine, has 23,800 inhabitants, is very regu- 
larly laid out, and noted for its extensive former electoral palace (with 
1,500 windows for instance), considerable trade and numerous manufactures. 
Heidelberg, once the capital of the whole Palatinate, and, since 1386, also 
noted for its university (see above and page 287), on the Neckar, not far from 
Mannheim, has 15,000 inhabitants. The remarkable castle, where the pala- 
tines and electors resided, was in 1689 laid waste by the French, and in 1764 
struck by lightning. Its cellar contains the noted wine-cask, holding 2,100 
tierces, though it may never have actually been filled with such an immenso 
quantity of wine. The neighboring village of Hanschuchsheim, with 2,100 in- 
habitants, is noted for its fruit, especially cherries. Nusloch, a market-town, 
noted for its iron-mines and wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. Still noted for its 
wines, is the town of Weinheim, with 5,900 inhabitants. Ladenburg, a town 
already existing in the days of the Romans, by whom it was called Lupodum 
or Lupodanum, is noted for its madder, and has 2,500 inhabitants. Schonau, 
a town on the Odenwald, with iron-works, bleacheries, and 1,700 inhabitants. 
Leimen, a market-town, noted for its wines, has 1,500 inhabitants. Lauden- 
bach, a village with 1,750 inhabitants, cultivates the best sort of the so-called 
Bergstrasser wines. JVeckargemiind, a town on the Neckar at its junction 
with the Elsenz, is noted for its potteries, and has 2,700 inhabitants. Schwet- 
zingen, a town on the Leimbach river, westward and 7 miles distant from 
Heidelberg, has 2,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its grand-ducal palace, and 
highly-renowned gardens. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Wies- 



344 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 



loch (with 2,800 inhabitants), Boxberg (with 800 inhabitants), Mosbach (with 
2,100 inhabitants), Eberbach (with 3,800 inhabitants), Sinsheim (with 2,800 
inhabitants), and Hilsbach (with 1,350 inhabitants). 2. To the former terri- 
tory of the ancient archbishopric and electorate of Mentz belonged : Bisch- 
ofsheim, or Tauber- Bischofsheim, a town on the Tauber river, north-eastward 
and 52 miles distant from Heidelberg, with 2,500 inhabitants. Konigheim, a 
market-town noted for its wines, has 2,100 inhabitants. Other more or less 
remarkable towns are : Kulsheirn (with 2,200 inhabitants), Walldurn (with 
3,200 inhabitants), Buchen (with 2,400 inhabitants), Burken or Osterburken 
(with 1,200 inhabitants), Konigshofen (with 1,500 inhabitants), Krautheim 
(with 900 inhabitants), Neudenau, or Neidenau (with 1,300 inhabitants), and 
Ballenberg, which latter has only 600 inhabitants, but is remarkable as the 
birth-place of George Metzler, chief leader in the war of peasantry in 1525 
3. The former immediate earldom, at present dependent lordship of Wertheim, 
belonging to the prince of Lowenstein (see page 332), contains: "Wertheim, 
formerly its capital, on the Mayne, at its junction with the Tauber, is noted 
for its wines, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Freudeuberg, a town on the Mayne, 
with 1,700 inhabitants. 4. To the former sovereign or independent bishoprics 
oi Spire and Wurzburg (pp. 322, 327), and to the Swabian and Franconian 
knighthood of the empire, did respectively belong : Philippsburg, formerly a 
fortress of the empire, on the Rhine, northward and 16 miles distant from 
Carlsruhe, with 1,100 inhabitants. Waibstadt, likewise once a fortress of the 
empire, with linen and leather manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Ger- 
lachsheim, a market-town on the Tauber, is noted for its wines, and has 1,150 
inhabitants. Grunsfeld and Lauda, towns with respectively 1,300 and 1,100 
inhabitants. Neckar-Bischofsheim, a town near the Neckar, is noted for its 
linen, and has 2,100 inhabitants. Adelsheim, a town on the Odenwald, east- 
ward and 32 miles distant from Heidelberg, with 3 ancient castles, and 1,600 
inhabitants. 

III. The Upper Rhine Circle, comprising chiefly the ancient Breisgau 
and former margraviate of Hochberg. 1. The Breisgau, a name still much 
used in. common life, is a considerable district in the Black Forest, which in 
the middle ages had its distinct political boundaries, primitively belonging to 
the dukes of Zahringen, and subsequently inherited by the collateral line of 
Hochberg (see above page 339). In 1367 it was sold to Austria that retained 
it until 1803, when it was ceded to the duke of Modena (see page 118), while 
in 1805 it was annexed to Baden. The Breisgau contains: -[-Freiburg 



GERMANY. 345 



The Grand-Duchy of Baden — its Geographical Divisions. 

(commonly surnamed im Breisgau, whose capital it was), at present the capi- 
tal of the Upper Rhine Circle, on the Dreisam river, 74 miles south-south- 
west of Carlsruhe, and 32 miles north-north-east of Basle, has various manu- 
factures and 14,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and 
page 287), and especially also for its minster, whose foundation was laid in 
the 12th century, and which belongs to the finest specimens of Gothic archi- 
tecture. Its steeple is 356 feet in height. Not far from Freiburg are the 
ruins of the ancestral castle of Zahringen (see above, page 339). Breisach 
(or Alt-Breisach, to distinguish it from Neu-Breisach, on the opposite side and 
belonging to France), a town on the Rhine, westward and 14 miles distant 
from Freiburg, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 3,400 inhabitants. Try- 
kerg, or Triberg, a town in the Black Forest, north-eastward and 18 miles 
distant from Freiburg, has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its wooden 
clocks, of which immense quantities are exported every week. Other more 
or less remarkable towns are: Staufen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Burkh eim 
(with 750 inhabitants), Schonau (with 1,100 inhabitants), Todtnau (with 1,500 
inhabitants), Zell (with 1,400 inhabitants), Waldkirch (with 2,600 inhabitants), 
Elzach (with 1,050 inhabitants), Kerning en (with 2,600 inhabitants), Herbolz- 
heim (with 2,100 inhabitants), Ending en (with 3,300 inhabitants), Waldshut 
(with 1,400 inhabitants), and Sdckingen (with 1,500 inhabitants). Formerly 
renowned Benedictine abbeys, instituted in the 8th century, were St. Blasien 
and Ettenheimmunster. In the town of Neuenburg (on the Rhine, with 1,200 
inhabitants), it was where the Duke Bernhard of Weimar, so renowned as 
general in the thirty years' war, died on the 16th July, 1639, probably poi- 
soned. 2. The former margraviate of Hochberg (during a long period pos- 
sessed by a collateral line of the house of Zahringen see page 339), contains : 
Badenweiler, a market-town, with 1,300 inhabitants, is noted as a watering- 
place much resorted to. Emmendingen, a town on the Elz, northward and 9 
miles distant from Freiburg, with 2,000 inhabitants, and the ruins of the an- 
cestral castle of Hochberg, which was reared in the 9 th century. Muellheim, 
a town in the Black Forest, south-westward and 18 miles distant from Frei- 
burg, is noted for its wines, and has 2,600 inhabitants. Loerrach, a town on 
the Wiese river, with various manufactures and 2,600 inhabitants. In the 
vicinity of Kaxdern ( a town with various manufactures and 1,400 inhabi- 
tants), are the ruins of the once renowned castle of Samenberg. The village 
of Hausen (with 600 inhabitants) is noted for its iron-works. Schopfheim, a 
manufacturing town on the "Wiese river, with 1,700 inhabitants. 3. To the 

15* 



346 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Baden. 



former bishopric of Strasburg (see page 197), belonged the town of 
Ettenheim, on the Ettenbach, 23 miles south-south-east of Strasburg, with 
considerable trade in linen, hemp, &c, and 3,300 inhabitants. In the night 
of the 14th March, 1804, the duko of Enghien was seized here by French 
troops, whence he was conveyed to Paris, and shot on the 20 th March, at 
Vincennes. 4. The town of Heitersheim, south-westward and 13 miles dis- 
tant from Freiburg, with beautiful gardens and 1,600 inhabitants, did until 
1805 belong to the Knights of St. John (see page 46). Mahlberg, a town 
near Ettenheim, with 1,150 inhabitants, was anciently the capital of the lord- 
ship of Mahlberg, of which Baden-Baden became possessed in 1629. The 
towns of Hornberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Schiltach (with 1,600 inhab- 
itants), formerly belonged to Wirtemberg. The town of Thiengen (on the 
"Wutach, with 1,200 inhabitants) was formerly the capital of a landgraviate 
of Klettgau, and belongs to a line of the princely house of Schwarzenberg. 

IV. The Lake Circle (whose name has reference to the lake of Constance, 
along which it is chiefly situated), comprising various territories annexed to 
Baden, since the year 1803. 1. To the so-called Swabian Austria (see page 
334) did formerly belong : -["Constance, capital of the circle, on the left bank 
of the Rhine, that issues here from the lake of Constance, south-eastward 
and 70 miles distant from Freiburg, with various manufactures, considerable 
trade, and 7,000 inhabitants. Its most remarkable public edifices are the 
cathedral, the ancient monastery of Dominican friars (where John Huss was 
kept prisoner before he was burnt in 1415), the town-hall, and the building 
where the principal sessions of the council in the years 1414-1418 were held. 
In this last-named period there were once not less than 150,000 foreigners in 
the city. Radolphzell (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Stockach (with 1,800 
inhabitants), towns. 2. To the former independent bishopric of Constance 
(which was instituted in 570, had its cathedral in Constance, but in other re- 
spects nothing in common with this city, and was in 1803 incorporated with 
Baden) belonged: Meersburg, or Morsburg, formerly the residence of the 
bishop, has 1,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. Marledorf a town 
with 1,800 inhabitants, is noted for its cattle-fairs. Reichenau is a beautiful 
and highly fertile isle in the Lower Lake or Untersee, formerly with a re- 
nowned Benedictine abbey, has 1,500 inhabitants. 3. Pfullendorf (north- 
ward and 22 miles distant from Constance, with a remarkable church, and 1,800 
inhabitants), and Ueberlingen (noted for its wines, has 2,800 inhabitants), 
were until 1803 imperial cities. 4. The dependent territories of the princes of 



GERMANY. 347 



The Grand-Duchy of Baden— its Geographical Divisions. 



Fuerstenberg (whose possessions in Baden, Wirtemberg, and Bohemia, have 
a total area of almost 800 square miles, and a population of 114,000 inhabi. 
tants, yielding revenues to the amount of about 600,000 florins annually) 
contain the following towns : Donaueschingen, town and residence of the 
prince of Ftirstenberg, near the head of the Danube, eastward and 32 miles 
distant from Freiburg, with a noble princely palace, and 3,300 inhabitants. 
Hiifingen, a town on the Brege, with 1.600 inhabitants. The town of Fursten- 
berg has only 400 inhabitants, but is remarkable for the ruins of the ancestral 
castle of the princes of Ftirstenberg. Mohringen, a town on the Danube 
with 1,200 inhabitants), is noted for its cattle- and sheep-markets. Other 
more or less remarkable towns are : Geisingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Lof- 
fingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Vohrenbach (with 1,100 inhabitants), Stuhl- 
ingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Engen (with 1,400 inhabitants), Heiligenberg 
(with 600 inhabitants), and Moskirch (with 1,700 inhabitants). Near Engen 
are the ruins of the anciently famous feudal castles of Hohenheben, Hohen- 
krdhen, and Hohenstoffeln. 5. The towns of Villingen (noted for its brew- 
eries, iron-works, and corn trade, has 3,900 inhabitants), and Braeunlingen 
(with 1,650 inhabitants), did formerly belong to the Austrian Breisgau (see 
above). The town of Blumfeld (north-westward and 27 miles distant from 
Constance, with 450 inhabitants), and the romantical and fertile isle of Meinau 
(in the lake of Ueberlingen), did formerly belong to the Teutonic order. 



VI.-VIL— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF HOHENZOLLERN. 

Area: 458 square miles. 
Population : 66,000 inhabitants. 

These two principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (the 
largest) and Hohenzollern-Hechingen (the smallest), in Southern 
Germany, are entirely surrounded by territories of Baden and 
Wirtemberg, and are situated about half-way between Ulm and 



348 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Principalities of Hohenzollern. 

Freiburg, not very far from the lake of Constance. The inhabi- 
tants are Catholics^ and depend for subsistence chiefly on hus- 
bandry. The natural products are in general the same as in Ba- 
den and Wirtemberg. The government is monarchical, but less 
limited than in Baden or Wirtemberg. The public charges are 
at a very low standard, especially in Sigmaringen, whose sove- 
reign is possessed of large private estates (for instance, in Gelder- 
land), which, together with his dominions in the country itself, 
yield an annual revenue of more than 300,000 florins, covering 
by far the greatest part of the public expenditure. The revenues 
of the prince of Hechingen (who, among other private estates, has 
some even in Spain) amount to 160,000 florins per annum. To 
the army of the Confederation are to be furnished respectively 
356 and 145 men. 

History. — The ancestor of the house of Hohenzollern is Thassilo, a powerful 
baron, who lived in the days of Charlemagne, or about the year 800. One 
of his descendants, Earl Frederic, reared in 980 the castle near the present 
city of Hechingen, and called it Hohenzollern, which has since become the 
family name of this dynasty. Earl Rodolph II. of Hohenzollern, who lived 
about the year 1165, had two sons: the eldest, Frederic IV., inherited the 
patrimonial estates, comprising in substance the present principalities of Ho- 
henzollern ; while the younger son, Conrad, was appointed burgrave of Nu- 
remberg, and became the ancestor of the house of Brandenburg. (See page 
318). Here, however, we have only to do with Frederic IV. and his de- 
scendants, the most remarkable of whom were Earl Eitel Frederic IV. (who 
in 1495 was appointed president of the then instituted Supreme Court of the 
empire), and Earl Charles I. (who was highly estimated and honored by Em- 
peror Charles V.). When the latter, or Charles I. died, in 1576, he left behind 
two sons, who divided the patrimonial dominions in such manner ; the one, 
Eitel Frederic VI, became possessed of the smaller portion, and assumed the 
title of Hohenzollern- Hechingen, while the other, Charles II., obtained the 
larger portion, and called himself earl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Both 
lines are still extant, and respectively in 1623 and 1696 the princely title was 
conferred upon them by the emperor. 



GERMANY. 349 



The Principalities of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Hechingen. 

We shall now describe the two principalities separately : 

I. HOHENZOLLERN-SIGMARINGEN. 

This principality has an area of 341 square miles, and a popu- 
lation of 45,100 inhabitants ; is on the north bound by Hechin- 
gen, on the east by the Danube Circle of Wirtemberg, and on 
the south and west by the Lake Circle of Baden. The reigning 
prince since 1848, is Charles Anto?i, born in 1811. 

Sigmaringen, the capital of the principality and princely residence, on the 
Danube, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Ulm, and southward and 
46 miles distant from Stuttgart, with an extensive and stately princely palace, 
and 2,100 inhabitants. Vohringen, a town on the Lauchart river, with the 
ruins of a once remarkable feudal castle, and 800 inhabitants. Other towns 
are : Gamertingen (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hettingen (with 600 inhabitants), 
and Haig ] er 'loch (with 1,400 inhabitants). The market-towns of Ostrach (with 
1,100 inhabitants), and Strassberg (with 800 inhabitants), belong at present 
to the prince of Thurn and Taxis (see page 317), while the town of Troch- 
telfingen (with 1,200 inhabitants) belongs to the prince of Fiirstenberg (see 
above, under the head of Lake Circle of Baden), of course without prejudice 
to the sovereignty of the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. 

II. HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN. 

This principality has an area of 117 square miles, and a popu- 
lation of 21,000 inhabitants, and is on the south, and partly on 
the west, bound by the former principality. The reigning 
prince is, since 1838, Frederic^ born in 1801. 

Hechingen, the capital of this principality, and residence of the prince, on 
the Starzel river, north-westward and 20 miles distant from Sigmaringen, 
with a stately princely palace, and 3,500 inhabitants. Not far from here is 
situated, on a steep hill, the ancient, and in 1826, entirely restored castle of 
Hohenzollern, once the renowned seat of the ancestors of both the princes 
of Hohenzollern and kings of Prussia, reared in the year 980. Stetten, a 
market-town in the neighborhood of Hechingen, has 600 inhabitants, and a 



350 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Principality of Liechtenstein. 

remarkable church, where several earls of Hohenzollern are buried. The 
market-town of Burladingen, with 1,400 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its 
church. The market-town of Grosselfingen, with 1,600 inhabitants, is noted 
for its potteries. 



VIII.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIECHTENSTEIN. 

Area: 53 square miles. 
Population : 6,400 inhabitants. 

This smallest among the German states, is situated about 18 
miles south of the lake of Constance, bordering upon Switzer- 
land on the west and south, and bound by Tyrol on the east. 
The inhabitants are Catholics, and depend for subsistence chiefly 
on rearing of cattle, agriculture, and some wine culture. The 
monarchical government is somewhat limited by a chamber of 
deputies. The military contingent which is to be furnished to 
the army of the German Confederation, consists of 55 men. 
The public expenditure is at a very low rate, and covered by the 
revenue, amounting to 22,000 florins, and consisting chiefly of 
revenues from the princely domains in the country. The prince 
has, however, far more considerable dominions in Austria, among 
which are the dependent principalities of Troppau and Jagerndorf, 
and which altogether have an area of 2,215 square miles, and a 
population of 600,000 inhabitants, and yield an annual revenue 
of at least 1,500,000 florins. 

History. The ancestor of the house of Liechtenstein, mentioned in docu- 
ments from the year 942, descended from the house of Este (see page 118). 
His dominions had, however, nothing in common with the present principal- 
ity, but were situated in the subsequent Austrian provinces. Among his 
descendants are to be noticed the earls Ulric and Henry of Liechtenstein, 



GERMANY. 351 



The Principality of Liechtenstein. — The Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 

who acted an important part in the quarrel between Rodolph of Hapsburg 
and King Ottocar of Bohemia (see page 301). Earl Hartmann IV., who 
died in 1585, left behind two sons, Charles and Gundakar, who respectively 
in 1618 and 1623, were promoted to princes by the emperors Matthias and 
Ferdinand II.. while at the same time Charles was invested with the Silesiau 
principalities of Troppau and Jagerndorf. His grandson, Prince John Adam 
Andrew, purchased in 1699 from the earl of Hohenembs the immediate 
lordships of Vadutz and Schellenberg, and these are the constituent parts of 
the present principality of Liechtenstein. The reigning prince since 1836, is 
Aloys, born in 1796. 

Thus the principality of Liechtenstein consists of the former 
dominion or lordship of Vadutz, forming its southern part, and of 
the former earldom of Schellenberg, forming its northern part. 

Vadutz, its capital, has in recent times received the name of Liechtenstein, is 
situated near the Rhine, 50 miles east-south-east of Zurich, and 100 miles west- 
south-west of Innspruck, and has 1,000 inhabitants. The princely palace or 
castle towers on a rock, but the usual residence of the prince is Vienna. Be- 
sides Vadutz, deserve only to be mentioned the castle of Schellenberg, north 
of Vadutz, and the villages of Balzers, Triesen or Treisen, and Benderen. 



IX.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF HESSE. 

Area : 3,259 square miles. 
Population : 845,000 inhabitants. 

This grand-duchy, officially styled Hesse and at Rhine (Hessen 
und bei Rhein), and more commonly known by the name of Hesse- 
Darmstadt, is situated towards the centre of Germany, half-way 
between Bohemia and the Netherlands, along the Rhine and 
Mayne. 



352 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 



Nearly one half of the population consists of Lutherans, and 
the remainder of about 150,000 Evangelicals (see page 291), 
40.000 Calvinists, 209,500 Roman Catholics. 1,450 MennoniteSj 
and 28,300 Jews. 

The chief staples are fruits of various kinds (even chestnuts 
and almonds in the so-called Bergstrasse and in Rhenish Hesse), 
wines (some sorts in Rhenish Hesse rank among the choicest 
Rhenish wines), grain and timber. The rearing of cattle is very 
considerable in the provinces of Starkenburg and Upper Hesse. 
The chief products from the mineral kingdom are iron and peat. 
The manufactures consist chiefly of linen and woollen goods. The 
principal manufacturing place is Offenbach. Mentz carries on a 
considerable trade. 

Besides the university at Giessen (see page 288), which in 
1846 was frequented by 535 students, there are 7 lycea and 
gymnasia, 5 seminaries (see page 65, about the signification of 
these terms), etc., and 1,600 common schools. The government 
is similar to that of the grand-duchy of Baden. According to 
the budget of the period 1839-1841, the public revenue was esti- 
mated at 7,087,181, and the expenditure at 7,078,462 florins annu- 
ally. The public debt was in 1842 reduced to about 3-J- million 
florins. The regular army consists of 6,662 men on the peace, 
and of 9,541 on the war footing; the contingent to the confed- 
erated army was fixed at 6,195 men. 

There are the following- two orders of honor: 1. The Louis 
order, in 5 classes, and instituted in 1807. 2. The order of Philip 
the Generous, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1840. 

History. — The first historically known inhabitants of Hesse in general 
were the Chatts (see page 297) ; and since the 8th century, when Christianity 
was permanently founded here by Bonifacius, the name of Hesse seems to 
have originated. In the days of the Carlovingians the country was ruled by 
native earls. About the middle of the 11th century, Louis, surnamed the 



GERMANY. 353 



The Grand-Duchy of Hesse — its History. 



Bearded, a descendant of the princes of Lorraine, was invested with 
Thuringia (see its history, under the head Saxe- Weimar) ; while his descend- 
ants subsequently became the sovereigns of Hesse ; first by acquiring con- 
siderable estates in the way of marriage, and then by inheriting other exten- 
sive territories there. In 1247 the male line of the landgraves of Thuringia 
became extinct, and now, while the landgraviate itself was inherited by the 
margraves of Meissen, the niece of the last landgrave, the duchess Sophia of 
Brabant, became possessed of the Hessian dominions, which she bequeathed 
to her son Henry, who thus became the first independent ruler of Hesse, in 
1263. This Henry L, surnamed the Child, was in 1292 by Emperor Adol- 
phus promoted to the dignity of a landgrave, and made Cassel his residence. 
He died in 1308, and by his successors and descendants frequently partitions 
of the country were agreed upon, though also fresh acquisitions were 
made, as, for instance, Hersfeld, Ziegenhain, Nidda, Katzenellnbogen (in 1479), 
Homburg (in 1504), etc. Finally all constituent parts of the landgraviate of 
Hesse were reunited in 1504 by William II., who died in 1509, and bequeathed 
the whole to his son Philip, surnamed the Generous, well known in the his- 
tory of the Reformation. Philip died in 1567 at Cassel, after having divided 
the country among his four sons, of whom the youngest, George, obtained the 
so-called upper earldom of Katzenellnbogen, comprising the city of Darm- 
stadt, etc. Landgrave George I. of Hesse-Darmstadt died in 1596, and was 
succeeded by his son Louis V. (for it was counted here according to the gen- 
eral rule for all Hesse), who inherited the present province of Upper Hesse, 
and died in 1626. He was succeeded by his descendants in the following 
order of succession: George II. (1626-1661), Louis VI. (until 1678), Ernest 
Louis (+1736), Louis VIII. (+1769), Louis IX. (+1790), and Louis X., 
who, by the terms of the treaty of Luneville in 1801, was deprived of his do- 
minions on the left bank of the Rhine, but amply indemnified in 1803, by the 
annexation of the ancient duchy of Westphalia (see under the head of the 
Prussian province of Westphalia), some imperial cities, etc. In 1806 the 
landgrave became a member of the Rhenish Confederation (see page 294) as 
Grand Duke Louis I. In 1816 he ceded the duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, 
and made several other cessions, instead of which he became possessed of the 
present Rhenish Hesse. He died in 1830, and was succeeded by his son Louis 
II., who abdicated on the 16th June, 1848, in favor of his son, Louis III., the 
reigning grand duke, born in 1806. 



354 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 

The grand-duchy is divided into 3 provinces, the northernmost 
of which is surrounded by territories of Hesse-Cassel, and by them 
separated from the two other provinces that are separated from 
each other by the Rhine. The provinces are subdivided into circles. 

I. The province of Starkenburg, situated on the right bank of the Rhine, 
and on the left bank of the Mayne. It has derived its name from an ancient 
castle, formerly belonging to the electorate of Mentz, yet now in ruins, and 
comprises both ancient Hessian dominions and recently (since 1803) acquired 
territories. 1. The principal of those dominions is the so-called Upper Earl- 
dom of Katzenellnbogen, whose native earls became extinct in 14*79, when it 
was inherited by the house of Hesse. Witty remarks about it will be found 
in Washington Irving's interesting tale entitled " The Spectre Bridegroom." 
It contains : -(-Darmstadt, the capital of the grand-duchy, and grand-ducal 
residence, on the little Darm river, southward and 14 miles distant from 
Frankfort, with 31,000 inhabitants, and various manufactures. The most re- 
markable of its public edifices are the extensive grand-ducal palace (whose 
foundation was laid by George I.), the Catholic church, and the so-called drill- 
house, at present used as an arsenal. The neighboring castle of Kranichstein 
is noted as a grand-ducal hunting-seat. The village of Oberramstadt (in the 
vicinity of Darmstadt, with 2,000 inhabitants), is noted as the birth-place of 
Lichtenberg, the celebrated German author of the interesting commentary to 
Hogarth's engravings. Grossgerau, a town with 2,000 inhabitants, is noted 
for its greens. Trebur, a market-town near the Rhine, 14 miles west-north- 
west of Darmstadt, has at present only 1,500 inhabitants, but was in the mid- 
dle ages noted for several councils and diets held here, and for a palace where 
Charlemagne frequently resided. Zwingenberg, a town on the Bergstrasse, 
with 1,500 inhabitants, was anciently a strong fortress. Reinhehn, a town on 
the Odenwald, with 1,300 inhabitants. Babenhausen, a town on the Gersprenz 
river, with 1,600 inhabitants. 2. To the electorate of Mentz formerly belonged : 
Heppenheim, a town on the Bergstrasse, with 4,200 inhabitants, is noted 
for its fruits and wines. Not far from here are the ruins of the above-men- 
tioned ancient castle of Starkenburg, reared in 1064 by the abbot of the once 
highly renowned monastery of Lorsch (instituted in 164), whose seat was 
the present market-town of this name (with 2,600 inhabitants). Gernsheim, 
a town on the Rhine, with considerable corn-trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. 



GERMANY. 355 



The Grand-Duchy of Hesse — iis Geographical Divisions. 



Other more or less remarkable towns are : Seligenstadt (with 3,300 inhabitants), 
Steinheim (with 1,150 inhabitants), Dieburg (with 3,200 inhabitants), and 
Hirschhorn (with 1,850 inhabitants). 3 To the Electoral Palatinate (see 
page 342) and other formerly independent territories belonged: Umstadt, a 
town at the foot of the Odenwald Mountains, eastward and 12 miles distant 
from Darmstadt, with 3,100 inhabitants, Linden/els and Heri?ig, towns with 
respectively 900 and 500 inhabitants, Neckarsteinach, a town on the Neckar, 
with 1,300 inhabitants, Frankisch-Krumbach, a village with 1,200 inhabitants, 
and the ruins of the ancient castles of Rodenstein and Schnellerts, notori- 
ous for a strange noise heard here sometimes, the natural cause of which 
has never yet been discovered. About the market-town of Kxirnbach, see 
page 340. Its Hessian half has 600 inhabitants. "Wimpfen, until 1803 an 
imperial city, on the Neckar, has considerable salt-works, and 2,300 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted in history for a battle on the 6th May, 1622. 4. The for- 
merly sovereign or independent, but since 1 806 dependent earldom of Erbach, 
belonging to the earls of this name (descendants of Eginhard, son-in-law to 
Charlemagne), who at present are divided into three chief branches, and hav- 
ing, together with dominions in Bavaria, an area of 266 square miles, and a 
population of 34,000 inhabitants, contains : Erbach, its capital, on the Mum- 
ling river, with a very remarkable palace of the earls, and 2,100 inhabitants. 
Michehtadt (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Neustadt, surnamed in der Rosenan 
(with 1,000 inhabitants), towns. 5. The formerly likewise independent, but 
since 1815 dependent principality of Isenburg (properly styled Upper Isen- 
burg), belonging to a branch of the princes and earls of this name, and of an- 
cient origin, and having an area of 160 square miles, with 17,500 inhabitants, 
and yielding an annual revenue of more than 104,000 florins, contains : Of- 
fenbach, its capital and usual princely residence, on the Mayne, at about 2 
miles distance from Frankfort, has 11,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
various manufactures and considerable inland trade. Dreieicherhain, a town 
southward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, has 1,000 inhabitants, and is 
in various respects remarkable in history. Philippseich, a village with 400 
inhabitants, and a palace remarkable as the residence of the earl of Isenburg- 
Philippseich, belonging to a collateral line of that named house. 

II. The province of Rhenish Hesse, situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 
and comprising chiefly territories, which formerly belonged to the electorate 
of Mentz and to the Electoral Palatinate. 1. The former Electorate of Mentz 
embraced, beside the territories within the limits of this province, already 



356 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Hesse. 



described above under the head of Bavaria (page 327), and Baden (page 
343), the towns of Rudesheim, Hochheim, etc., in the present duchy of Nas- 
sau, the towns of Fritzlar and Amoneburg at present belonging to Hesse-Cas- 
sel, the town of Erfurt (at present belonging to Prussia), and the so-called 
Eichsfeld, which at present is divided between Prussia and Hanover. That 
part within the limits of this province contains: -4-Mentz or Mayence (in 
German Mainz), at present the capital of this province, was formerly that of 
the electorate and the residence of the archbishop elector, is situated on the 
left bank of the Rhine, opposite the mouth of the Mayne, has the strongest 
fortress in Germany, and 34,000 inhabitants (exclusive of 8,000 men of Aus- 
trian and Prussian troops). Its principal public edifices are the cathedral, 
the grand-ducal palace (formerly belonging to the Teutonic Order), the for- 
mer electoral palace, etc. The house where Guttenberg, the inventor of the 
art of printing, was born, is still shown. Mentz was founded by the ancient 
Romans shortly before the Christian era, and the first archbishop here was 
the holy Bonifacius, appointed in 145. The city is connected, by means of a 
bridge of boats 1,666 feet long, with the likewise strongly fortified town of 
Kastel (with 2,250 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the Rhine. Bin- 
gen, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, at its junction with the Nahe, with 
considerable trade and 5,000 inhabitants. Algesheim or Gaualgesheim, a 
town noted for its wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. The village of Budesheim 
(with 1,600 inhabitants) is likewise noted for its wines. 2. To Electoral Palat- 
inate (see page 342) did belong : Ingelheim ( Upper and Lower), two mar- 
ket-towns about half-way between Bingen and Mentz, are noted for their 
wines, and have respectively 2,400 and 2,200 inhabitants. Charlemagne re- 
sided frequently at Lower Ingelheim. Oppenheim, a town on the Rhine, 
with a remarkably ancient church and 2,600 inhabitants. The neighboring 
village of Nierstein (with 2,300 inhabitants), is renowned for its wines. 
Alzey, a town on the Selz river, with 4,600 inhabitants. Pfeddersheim (with 
2,000 inhabitants), and Odernheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), towns noted for 
their wines. Alsheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), Westhofen (with 1,900 in- 
habitants), and Osthofen (with 3,800 inhabitants), market-towns. 3. The 
city of Worms, near the Rhine, 12 miles north-north-west of Mannheim, and 
northward and 23 miles distant from Spire, noted for its wines (known by 
the name of " Liebfrauenmilch"), and with 9,000 inhabitants, was formerly an 
imperial city, and highly renowned in history, especially for the diet held 
here in 1521. At that period it was flourishing by its considerable trade, and 



GERMANY. 357 



The Grand-Duchy of Hesse — its Geographical Divisions. 



had 40,000 inhabitants. The former earldom of Leiningen (see page 328) 
contains within the limits of this province the market-towns of Guntersblum 
(with 2,500 inhabitants), Bechtheim (with 1,600 inhabitants), and Monsheim 
(with 900 inhabitants). 

III. The province of Upper Hesse, situated north of the province of 
Starkenburg, and comprising chiefly Hessian and mediated territories. 1. The 
ancient Hessian territory contains : -J-Giessen, the capital of the province, at 
the high-road between Cassel and Frankfort, has 7,500 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its university (see abovo). Nidda, a town on the river of the same 
name, with some linen and woollen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. 
Biedenkopf, a town on the Upper Lahn, 27 miles north-north-west of Giessen, 
with cloth manufactures, iron-works, and 3,600 inhabitants. Other more or 
less remarkable towns are: Allendorf, surnamed an der Lumda (with 1,100 
inhabitants), Gross-Linden (with 950 inhabitants), Staufenberg (with 600 
inhabitants), Grunberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Romberg an der Ohm (with 
1,800 inhabitants), Alsfeld (with 3,800 inhabitants), Kirdorf (with 1,400 
inhabitants), Lauterbach (with 3,550 inhabitants), Ulrichstein (with 950 
inhabitants), Schotten (with 2,100 inhabitants), Ober-Rossbach (with 1,200 
inhabitants), Butzbach (with 2,200 inhabitants), Hatzfeld (with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants), and Battenberg (with 1,000 inhabitants). The village of Thalitter 
(with 500 inhabitants) is noted for its copper mines. Itter, a village, with the 
ruins of an ancient castle of the same name. 2. To the dominions of the at 
present mediatized princes and earls of Solms (a very ancient dynasty and 
descendants of the emperor Conrad I., divided into two chief branches, with 
several collateral lines), belonged : Rodelheim, a market-town on the Nidda 
and in the neighborhood of Frankfort, with a formerly fortified castle, and 
2,100 inhabitants. Laubach, a town on the Wetter river, with iron- works 
and 2,100 inhabitants. Lich, a town on the Wetter river, with 2,200 inhabi- 
tants, and a palace of the prince of Solms-Lich. Assenheim, Hungen and 
Miinzenberg, towns, with respectively 800, 1,100, and 900 inhabitants. 3. The 
town of Buedingen (with 2,900 inhabitants and various manufactures) belongs 
to the prince of Isenburg-Budingen (see above), who resides here. The town 
of Wenings (with 1,000 inhabitants) belongs to another line of this house. 
4. The town of Ortenberg (on the Nidder, 18 miles north-north-east of 
Hanau, with 1,100 inhabitants), and the market-towns of Gedern (with 1,900 
inhabitants) and Ranstadt (with 800 inhabitants), belong to the earls of Stol- 
berg (see under the head of Prussia). 5. The town of Sohlitz (near the 



358 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy and Landgraviate of Hesse. 

Fulda river, with considerable breweries and 3,300 inhabitants) belongs to 
the count of Schlitz, surnamed of G'drtz. 6. The city of Friedberg was 
until 1803 an imperial city, is situated in the so-called Wetterau, northward 
and 14 miles distant from Frankfort, and has various manufactures, a remark- 
able Gothic church, and 2,800 inhabitants. Friedberg is moreover noted for 
its ancient castle of the same name, formerly the seat of a knighthood en- 
dowed with substantial privileges. 



X.— THE LANDGRAVIATE OF HESSE. 

Area: 128 square miles. 
Population : 26,000 inhabitants. 

This little state, commonly known by the name of Hesse- Hom- 
burg, consists of two distinct territories, situated about 55 miles 
apart, and separated from each other by Nassau and Hesse- 
Darmstadt. The smaller territory (43 square miles and 11,500 
inhabitants), situated northward and 10 miles distant from 
Frankfort on the Mayne, comprises the old landgraviate of Horn- 
bur g, while the larger territory (85 square miles and 14,500 
inhabitants), is situated on the left bank of the Rhine, at the 
north-western frontier of the Bavarian palatinate, and comprises 
chiefly the ancient dominion of Meisenheim, formerly belonging 
to the palatine principality of Zweibrucken (see page 327). 

The majority of the population consists of Lutherans, and the 
remainder of about 6,000 Calvinists, and 3,000 Catholics. The 
soil is fertile and well cultivated. Manufactures are not lacking, 
but in general of no great importance. The government is at 
present a limited monarchy. The public revenue amounts to 
about 150,000 florins annually (exclusive of 33,000 florins which 



GERMANY. 359 



The Landgraviate of Kesse — its History and Geographical Divisions. 



the private estates of the landgrave yield). To the confederal 
army are to be furnished 229 men. 

History. — When Philip the Generous divided the whole landgraviate of 
Hesse among his four sons (see History of Hesse-Darmstadt), George obtained 
the dominion of Homburg, together with that of Darmstadt. His son and 
successor, Louis V. (1596-1626), who had to pay 20,000 florins annually as 
appanage to his brother Frederic, found it more convenient to cede to him (in 
1622) in place of the ready money, the dominion of Homburg, yet reserving 
to Hesse-Darmstadt the seignory over it. Frederic I. died in 1638, and was 
succeeded first by his son William Christoph (1638-1669), then George Chris- 
tian (1669-1677), &c. Frederic V. was, when his father died in 1751, still 
minor, and therefore his actual reign did not commence before the year 1768 
while it lasted until 1820. In 1806 Hesse-Darmstadt renewed its ancient 
claims upon the seignory over Homburg (see above), and indeed realized 
them in so far as this landgraviate was deprived of its political independence. 
However, in 1817 it was restored to it, and Hesse-Homburg became an 
actual member of the German confederation. Frederic V. died in 1820, and 
was succeeded by his son Frederic VI. Joseph, who was married to the Eng- 
lish princess Elizabeth, daughter of George III. The reigning landgrave 
since the 7th Sept. 1848, is Ferdinand (the youngest brother of Frederic VI), 
bora in 1783. 

The landgraviate of Hesse contains : 

1. In the old landgraviate of Homburg (see above) : Homburg, surnamed 
vor der Hohe (i. e. at the foot of the Taunus), the capital of the whole land- 
graviate and residence of its sovereign (who resides in a stately and extensive 
castle or palace), north-westward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, has 
4,600 inhabitants, and is noted as a watering-place much resorted to. The 
villages of Friedrichshof and Dornholzhausen, whose inhabitants are descen- 
dants of Waldenses (see page 101), who settled here respectively in 1687 
and 1699, are noted for their flannel manufactures and hosieries. 

2. In the ancient dominion of Meisenheim (see above) : Meisenheim, a 
town on the Glan river, south-westward and 36 miles distant from Mentz, 
with a remarkable Gothic church, considerable trade in natural products, and 



360 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany — Duchy of Nassau. 

2,600 inhabitants. Merxheim, a village with vine culture and 1,400 inhabi- 
tants. Ottweiler, a town with 1,600 inhabitants, formerly belonged to a 
collateral line of the house of Nassau. 



XI— THE DUCHY OF NASSAU. 

Area : 1,708 square miles. 
Population : 420,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated on the right bank of the Rhine,, in the neighbor- 
hood of its junction with the Mayne, is surrounded by parts of 
the two Prussian western provinces, and is crossed by a branch 
of the Rhine, viz., the Lahn, with its little tributaries. It com- 
prises the chief part of the Taunus and Westerwald mountains 
(see page 8), for which reason its surface is mostly mountain- 
ous and hilly. Nevertheless the soil is generally fertile ; and if 
Nassau not exactly abounds in grain, it can at least boast of its 
vine-culture and valuable forests. Moreover the rearing of cattle 
is very considerable, and there are mines yielding iron (more than 
100,000 quintals per annum), lead (about 8,500 quintals), copper 
(400 quintals), and silver (about 3,800 marks). The mineral 
springs of Nassau are from old renowned, and its watering-places 
(as, for instance, Wiesbaden, Ems, Schwalbach, &c.) very much 
resorted to ; while the waters of Selters and other springs are 
largely exported to foreign countries, and even to India. Man- 
ufactures are various, but not very considerable ; the trade is 
carried on at a rather great extent. . 

One half of the population consists of Evangelicals (see page 
291), and the other for the most part of Catholics. The number 



GERMANY. 361 



The Duchy of Nassau — its History. 



of Jews amounts to about 7.000. With regard to the means of 
education, there are 3 seminaries, 4 gymnasia, 658 common 
schools, etc. (see the note, page 65). The government is a lim- 
ited monarchy, the sovereign power being vested in a duke and 
two legislative chambers. The amount of the public revenue and 
of the expenditure, for several years has been about 1,810,000 
florins. The public debt amounts to nearly 2.000,000 florins. 
To the confederal army are to be furnished 4,039 men. 

History. — Emperor Conrad I.'s (see page 299) brother Otto, baron of 
Laurenburg, is to be considered as the ancestor of the house of Nassau. His 
castle was situated on the Lahn, in the neighborhood of Dietz. His descen- 
dants, the earls Rupert and Arnold, who lived in the first half of the 12th 
century, still retained the name of Laurenburg ; but their sons assumed in 
1158 the names of earls of Nassau, with reference to a castle of Nassau 
which their fathers had reared in 1101, not far from the other. The great- 
great-grandsons of one of them, the earls Walram and Otto, divided in 1255 
the inherited dominions in such manner, that Walram obtained the southern 
part (containing, among other places, Wiesbaden, Weilburg, and Idstein), and 
Otto the northern part (with Dillenburg. Herborn, Hadamar, Ems, &c). 
Otto became thus the ancestor of the house of Nassau-Orange (see page 223) ; 
while the at present reigning house of Nassau descends from Walram (whose 
son, as may be remarked here by the way, was the emperor Adolphus, 
elected in 1291). It would lead us too far to enter into any particulars about 
the acquisitions made in the course of time, and about the many collateral 
lines of both houses, which lines, moreover, have long since become extinct ; 
and we will only mention, that the descendants of Walram were in 1688 pro- 
moted to the rank of princes, and that in 1806 Nassau assumed the title of a 
duchy, while in 1803 it had been indemnified for its losses on the left bank of 
the Rhine, by the annexation of various other territories. The reigning duke 
since 1839, is Adolphus, born in 1817. 

The present duchy of Nassau is divided into 28 bailiwicks, 
and comprises, beside its primitive dominions, chiefly territories 
which formerly belonged to the electorates of Treves and Mentz, 
and were in 1803 annexed. 

10 



362 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Duchy of Nassau. 



1. The primitive dominions of Nassau contain : Wiesbaden, the capital of 
the duchy and (since the death of the late Duke William) the ducal residence, 
at the foot of the Taunus, and in the neighborhood of Mentz, has several 
splendid public edifices and 13,100 inhabitants, and is highly renowned and 
very much resorted to as a watering-place. Not far from here, on the Rhine, 
is situated the market-town of Biebrich, with 3,100 inhabitants, and a stately 
palace, where the late Duke William, father of Adolphus, commonly resided. 
Usingen, a town on the Usbach river, north-eastward and 20 miles distant 
from Wiesbaden, was formerly the residence of the princes of Nassau-Usin- 
gen, and has 2,000 inhabitants. Weilnau, a market-town, with iron-works, 
and 700 inhabitants. Idstein, a town northward and 9 miles distant from 
Wiesbaden, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its extensive ancient castle 
and white tanneries. The once highly remarkable castle of Adolphseck was 
reared by Emperor Adolphus of Nassau. Weilburg, a town on the Lahn, 
and in the neighborhood of Wetzlar, has 2,500 inhabitants, a palace, formerly 
the residence of the princes of Nassau-Weilburg. Weilmunster, a market- 
town with 1,400 inhabitants, is noted for its iron-works and wines. Dillen- 
burg, a town on the Dill and on the Wester wald, northward and 46 miles 
distant from Wiesbaden, has 2,900 inhabitants, and a remarkable castle, once 
the residence of the princes of Nassau-Dillenburg and Nassau-Orange. In 
1567 the prince William of Orange (see page 267) resided here for a while. 
Haiger, a town on the Dill, is noted for its ironworks, and has 1,200 inhabi- 
tants. Herborn, a town in the neighborhood of Dillenburg, with various 
manufactures and 2,350 inhabitants. Hadamar, a town on a branch of the 
Lahn, northward and 28 miles distant from Wiesbaden, with 2,250 inhabi- 
tants, iron-works and an ancient castle, once the seat of a collateral line of the 
house of Nassau. Nassau, a town on the Lahn, north-westward and 26 miles 
distant from Wiesbaden, is noted for the ruins of the ancestral castle of the 
house of Nassau (see above), and has 1,200 inhabitants. Dietz, a town on the 
Lahn, 23 miles north-north-west of Wiesbaden, has 2,500 inhabitants, was 
once the residence of the princes of Nassau-Dietz, and is noted for its nursery- 
garden. The village of Fachingen (with iron-mines, and S00 inhabitants) is 
noted for its chalybeate springs, whose waters are largely exported. Hachex- 
burg, a town on the Westerwald, 26 miles north-north-east of Coblenz, with 
various manufactures and 1,600 inhabitants. Maxsayn, a village with iron- 
works, and 800 inhabitants. 2. To the former Electorate of Treves (see its 
particulars under the head of Coblenz) did belong : Limburg, a town on the 



GERMANY. 363 



The Duchy of Nassau— its Geographical Divisions. 



Lahn, at present the seat of a Catholic bishop, with considerable trade and 
3,300 inhabitants, is noted for its Gothic church. The village of Selters 
(properly styled Nieder- Selters or Lower-Selters), northward and 18 miles dis- 
tant from Wiesbaden, with 1,250 inhabitants, has long been renowned for its 
mineral waters, of which about 2 million bottles are annually exported. 
Montabaur (derived from the Latin Mons Thabor), a town on the Wester- 
wald, 12 miles east-north-east of Coblenz, has 2,800 inhabitants, and was in 
the middle ages frequently the residence of the electors of Treves. The vil- 
lages of Hillscheid and H'dhr (with respectively 1,150 and 1,300 inhabitants) 
are noted for their potteries. 3. To the former Electorate of Mentz (see un- 
der the head of Mentz) did belong : Hochst, a town on the Mayne, between 
Frankfort and Mentz, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures 
of snuff. In its neighborhood are situated the more or less remarkable mar- 
ket-towns of Hatter sheim (with 1,000 inhabitants), Heddernheim (with 1,950 
inhabitants), and Hofheim (with 1,900 inhabitants). The market-town of Hat. 
tenheim, on the Rhine, with 1,050 inhabitants, is noted for its excellent wines. 
Eltville or Ellfeld, a town on the Bhine, has 2,300 inhabitants, and was for- 
merly considered as the capital of a district along the Rhine, which is still 
generally known by the name of Rheingau. The ancient castle of Eltville, 
at present in ruins, was for a while inhabited by Emperor Adolphus of Nas- 
sau, and in the 14th and 15th centuries frequently the residence of the electors 
of Mentz. The neighboring market-town of Rauenthal (with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants), is noted for its wines. Lorch, a market-town on the Rhine, with vine 
culture, mineral waters, and 1,950 inhabitants. Lorch, mentioned already in 
documents from the year 832, is, besides the ruins of remarkable ancient 
castles, noted for a steep rock known by the names of Kedrich and Devil's 
Ladder, to which several interesting common reports or tales have reference. 
The market-town of Geisenheim (on the Rhine, with 2,550 inhabitants), and 
the village of Asmannshausen (with 600 inhabitants), are noted for their 
wines. Still more noted for their excellent wines is the town of Ruedesheim: 
(romantically situated on the Rhine, opposite Bingen, has 2,550 inhabitants), 
and the magnificent castle of Johannisberg (in the neighborhood of Riides- 
heim), which in 1816 became the property of the prince of Metternich. Like- 
wise renowned for its wines is the town of Hochheim, near the Mayne and 
the city of Mentz, with 2,150 inhabitants. Weilbach, a village with mineral 
springs and 850 inhabitants. Oberlahnstein or Lahnstein, a town on the 
Rhine, near its junction with the Lahn, with iron-works, mineral waters and 



864 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany.— Duchy of Nassau. 



1,850 inhabitants, is noted for the ruins of the ancient castle of Lahneck, reared 
in the beginning of the 13 th century by the electors of Mentz. Konig stein, 
a town on the Taunus, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from "Wiesbaden, 
with leather manufactures and 1,350 inhabitants. Epstein, a market-town 
between Koningstein and Wiesbaden, with 850 inhabitants, is noted for an 
ancient castle of the same name. Kronberg, a town romantically situated 
on the Taunus, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its nursery-gardens and 
fruits, and much resorted to as a watering-place. 4. The formerly so-called 
Lower Earldom of Katzenellnbogen (see page 354), which until 1813 did 
mostly belong to Hesse-Cassel, contains : St. Goarshausen, a town on the 
Rhine, opposite the at present Prussian town of St. Goar, 27 miles west-north- 
west of Wiesbaden, with considerable trade and 950 inhabitants. Close by 
lies on a steep hill the ancient castle of Katz, which in 1393 was reared by 
the earl John III. of Katzenellnbogen, and subsequently called Neu- (i. e. New) 
Katzenellnbogen, to distinguish it from Alt- (i. e. Old) Katzenellnbogen, the 
ancestral castle of the earls of this name, who became extinct in 14*79. The 
latter is situated close by the market-town of Katzenellnbogen, with iron- 
works, and 950 inhabitants. Not far from St. Goarshausen is in the Rhine the 
remarkable rock of Lurley. The ancient castle of Reichenberg, reared about 
the year 1284 by the earl William I. of Katzenellnbogen, was in the middle 
ages one of the strongest and most remarkable castles in Germany. Schwal- 
bach, a town situated in a deep valley, north-westward and 7 miles distant 
from Wiesbaden, with a remarkable Gothic church, iron-works, and 2,150 in- 
habitants, is renowned for its mineral springs, and much resorted to as a 
watering-place. Not less noted and resorted to as a watering-place is the 
neighboring village of Schlangenbad, with 250 inhabitants. The town of 
Braubach, on the Rhine, with 1,550 inhabitants, is noted for its strong castle 
of Marxburg, reared at an early period of the middle ages. The market- 
town of Ems, in the neighborhood of Coblenz, with 2,600 inhabitants, is re- 
nowned and very much resorted to as a watering-place. Caub or Kaub, on the 
Rhine, opposite the Prussian town of Bacharach, with 1,500 inhabitants, did 
formerly belong to the Electoral Palatinate (see page 342), and is noted for a 
little castle on a rock in the Rhine, called die Pfalz (literally, the Palatinate), 
and reared at an early period of the middle ages. 5. The dependent ancient 
earldom of Holzappel (with which in 1641 an Austrian general, named Peter 
Eppelmann, was invested, and which at present belongs to the Austrian arch- 
duke Stephen), contains : Holzappel, its capital, near the Lahn, eastward and 



GERMANY. 365 



The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg and Limburg. 



14 miles distant from Coblenz, with lead mines, and 950 inhabitants. In its 
neighborhood are the ruins of the above mentioned ancient castle of Lauren- 
burg (see History of Nassau). The village of Geilnau (with 300 inhabitants) 
is noted for its mineral waters. 6. The dependent dominion of Runkel (53 
square miles, and 9,500 inhabitants), belonging to the princely house of Neu- 
wied, contains the town of Runkel, on the Lahn, with 1,100 inhabitants, and 
several more or less noted villages. 



XII.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF LUXEMBURG, TOGETHER WITH 
THE DUCHY OF LIMBURG. 

Area: 1,395 square miles. 
Population : 282,000 inhabitants. 

The grand-duchy of Luxemburg was anciently a German earl- 
dom, named after the castle of Luzelinburhut (Lutzelburg, Lux- 
emburg), of which a neighboring wealthy earl, Siegfried, became 
possessed in the 10th century. The male line of his descen- 
dants became extinct in 1136, when the dukes of Lirn burg- 
inherited the earldom, which in 1354 was promoted to the rank 
of a duchy by Emperor Henry VII., who had sprung from this 
house (see page 301). In 1444, the duchy was purchased 
by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, and since that period it 
formed a constituent part both of Burgundy and the Catholic 
Netherlands (see page 264). In 1797, Austria ceded it, together 
with the other Catholic provinces of Netherlands, to France : and 
in 1815 the house of Orange (see page 267) was invested with it 
as an indemnification for domestic dominions in Nassau, which 
had been ceded partly to Prussia, partly to the reigning house of 
Nassau. At the same time the title of a grand-duchy was con- 



366 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg and Limburg. 

ferred upon Luxemburg. Since the revolution of Belgium in 
1830, the latter made claim to the whole grand-duchy, which 
however was divided into two parts, the western of which was an- 
nexed to Belgium (see page 277) ; while the eastern part (1,012 
square miles, and 188,000 inhabitants) remained with the house 
of Orange-Nassau. But as the grand-duchy of Luxemburg had 
since 1815 been an actual member of the German confederation, 
it was in 1839 agreed upon that the greatest part of the former 
Netherlandish province of Limburg, should (with the title of a 
duchy of Limburg) supply the ceded half of Luxemburg, in its 
political relations to Germany. 

Thus the grand-duchy of Luxemburg has in its present extent 
only an area of 1,012 square miles, and a population of 188,000 
inhabitants, who are Roman Catholics. It forms the south-west- 
ern extremity of Germany, on the north-east and east bordering 
upon the Prussian Rhenish province, and on the west and south 
bound by Belgium and France. Its chief natural products are 
timber, iron, hemp, and flax ; the rearing of cattle is rather con- 
siderable ; the manufactures consist of linen, leather, paper, &c. 
The amount of the revenue and of the expenditure (in Luxemburg 
and Limburg) for several years, has been about 1,800,000 florins. 
The troops to be furnished to the confederal army consist of 
2,556 men. In 1841 an order of honor ('" of the oak-crown"), in 
4 classes, has been instituted by the grand duke. The grand- 
duchy contains : 

Luxemburg (anciently in German called Lutzelburg), capital of the grand- 
duchy, and German confederal fortress, on the Elz river, 26 miles west-south- 
west of Treves, is noted for the strength of its fortifications, and has 12,000 
inhabitants (exclusive the garrison). Vianden, a town on the Our, with a 
remarkable ancient castle, leather manufactures, and 1,550 inhabitants. 
Wilz, a town on the river of the same name, with manufactures of cloth, 
leather, and paper, and 2,100 inhabitants. Grevemachern, a town on the 



GERMANY. 367 



The Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, and the Duchy of Limburg. 



Moselle, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its wines. Other more or less 
remarkable towns are: Echternach (with 4,000 inhabitants), Diekirch (with 
2.200 inhabitants), Meersch (with 2,000 inhabitants), Remich (with 2,250 
inhabitants), Esch (with 1,200 inhabitants), and Clairvaux (with 700 inhabi- 
tants). 

The duchy of Limburg, which, considered as a Netherlandish 
province, has an area of 852 square miles, with 198,000 inhabi- 
tants (although only its district of Roeremonde, having an area of 
383£ square miles, and a population of 94,000 inhabitants, actually 
belongs to the German Confederation), was primitively an earl- 
dom, originated about the middle of the 10th century. Henry 
I., earl of Limburg, who lived in the latter half of the 11th centu- 
ry, was married to Judith, the only daughter and heiress of Fred- 
eric of Luxemburg, duke of Lower Lorraine (as the Netherlands 
were styled prior to their annexation to the duchy of Burgundy), 
and his son, Henry II., being elected duke of Lower Lorraine, 
the ducal title was conferred to the earldom of Limburg also. 
In 1280 the male line of the dukes of Limburg became extinct, 
and now the duchy was inherited by the duke, John I , of Bra- 
bant. Together with Brabant, Limburg was annexed to the 
duchy of Burgundy, and came subsequently under the sway of 
Spain, then under that of Austria. By the terms of the West- 
phalian treaty of peace in 1648, one part of the duchy was ceded 
to the republic of the united provinces of the Netherlands ; it be- 
longs at present to the district of Roeremonde. while the remain- 
der of the latter consists of a territory which continued to be 
annexed to the ancient duchy of Limburg. The named district 
(whose inhabitants are for the most part Roman Catholics) con- 
tains : 

Roeremonde, its capital, on the Meuse at its junction with the Roer, west- 
ward and 33 miles distant from Dusseldorf, has 5,700 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its cloth manufactures. Weeedt, a town situated amidst bogs and heaths, 



368 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 

northward and 34 miles distant from Maastricht, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is 
noted in history as the birth-place of the famous Austrian general, in the 
thirty years' war, who named himself John of Weerdt. Sittard, a town at 
the frontier of the Prussian Rhenish province, with 4,000 inhabitants. Other 
more or less remarkable towns are: Gennep (with 1,100 inhabitants), Suste- 
ren (with 1,300 inhabitants), Stevens- Waerd (with 1,000 inhabitants), Wessem 
(with 1,200 inhabitants), and Valkenburg (in French Fauquemont, has 1,650 
inhabitants). The village of Vaels, situated in the neighborhood of Aix la 
Chapelle, has 2,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth and needle manu- 
factures. 



XIII.— THE ELECTORATE OF HESSE. 

Area : 4,452 square miles. 
Population : 150,000 inhabitants. 

This state, commonly called Electoral Hesse (Kurhessen in 
German), and formerly known by the name of Hesse-Cassel, is 
situated between the Weser and Mayne rivers, towards the centre 
of Germany, surrounded by Westphalia, the kingdom of Han- 
over, the Saxon duchies, and Hesse-Darmstadt. 

The majority of the population consists of Calvinists, and the 
remainder of Lutherans and about 100,000 Catholics. The num- 
ber of Jews amounts to about 8,500. 

The surface is generally more mountainous (see pages 7 and 8) or 
hilly than level, and the soil may even be called sterile in some 
districts. However, sufficient corn is raised for home consump- 
tion, and the rearing of cattle is considerable ; though the latter 
is not everywhere of fine breed. The chief natural products are 
timber, flax, iron, and freestone. 

The manufactures consist of linen, hardware, woollen goods, 



GERMANY. 369 



The Electorate of Hesse — its History. 



etc. The inland trade is not inconsiderable. With regard to the 
means of education, there are, besides the university at Marburg 
(see page 287), which in 1846 was frequented by 264 students, 6 
lycea, 6 gymnasia, 63 Latin schools (see the note, page 65), etc. 

The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
being vested in an elector and one legislative chamber. The 
public revenue was in the period 1843-45, estimated at 3,892,700, 
and the expenditure at 3,675,420 Prussian dollars per annum. 
The public debt amounted in 1840 to 1,642.566 Prussian dollars. 
The regular army consists of 8,657 men ; to the confederal army 
are to be furnished 5,679 men. 

There are the following orders of honor : 1. The order of the 
Golden Lion, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1770. 2. The mili- 
tary order of Merit, instituted in 1769. 3. The order of the Iron 
Helmet, in 3 classes, and instituted in 1814. 

History. — Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Hesse-Homburg, have one 
common origin, and thus we are already acquainted with the remoter part of 
Hessian history (see page 352). The eldest son of Philip the Generous, 
William IV, obtained the largest share in the partition, viz., the greatest- 
part of the present province of Lower Hesse (with Cassel), the ancient earl- 
dom of Ziegenhain, part of Schmalkalden, one half of the ready money, etc. 
During his reign (1567-1592) he made fresh acquisitions of territories, mostly 
by inheritance. His son and successor, landgrave Maurice, inherited Mar- 
burg, etc., and other territories were annexed during the reign of his grand- 
son, William VI. The latter's great-grandson, Frederic I. (1730-1751), was 
married to Ulrica Eleanor of Sweden, and thus ascended the Swedish throne 
in 1720 ; while he, after his father's death (in 1730 ), succeeded also in Hesse- 
Cassel, though he continued to reside in Stockholm. He died in 1751, and 
was succeeded by his brother, landgrave William VIII., whose successor 
(since 1760) was Frederic II, who died in 1785, and was succeeded by his son, 
William IX., who in 1803 was indemnified for the cession of his dominions 
on the Rhine, by the annexation of the towns of Fritzlar and Amoneburg, 
etc. (see page 356), while at the same time he was promoted to the dignity 
of an elector. As such he was now styled William I. In the war Napoleon 

16* 



370 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 

■waged against Prussia in 1 806, the elector of Hesse endeavored to keep neu- 
trality, but in vain ; for after the battle of Jena, Napoleon declared to him 
that he was thoroughly acquainted with his secret hostile disposition against 
him, so that if he had lost the battle, the elector would forthwith have at- 
tacked the French army. Thus, the only chance was left to William L, either 
to leave the country or to defend it against the French. As this latter would 
have been entirely unsuccessful, he retired to Austria, while in the next year 
his state became a constituent part of the kingdom of Westphalia (see page 
295). In 1813 William I. returned to his dominions, acquired the territory 
of the ancient independent bishopric of Fulda, and retained the electoral title, 
though it had since 1806 lost its actual signification. He died in 1821, and 
was succeeded by his son William II, who in 1830 appointed his son Fred- 
eric William (born in 1802, and reigning elector since 1847) co-regent, and 
died on the 20th November, 1847. 

The electorate of Hesse is divided into 4 provinces, which are 
subdivided into 21 circles, viz., the province of Lower Hesse 
into 10, that of Upper Hesse into 4, that of Fulda into 4, and 
the province of Hanau into 3 circles. The capitals of the prov- 
inces will be found marked by a cross ■(+)• 

I. The province of Lower Hesse contains : -|-Cassel, the capital of the elec- 
torate, and residence of the elector, on the Fulda (see page 17), south-west- 
ward and 28 miles distant from Gottingen, with numerous manufactures, con- 
siderable inland trade, and 32,600 inhabitants. Cassel is noted for its fine 
and solid public and private edifices, some of which are built of freestone ; 
as, for instance, the electoral palace, and the museum. At about 5 miles dis- 
tance is situated, at the foot of the Habichtswald (see page 8), the electoral 
palace of Wilhelmshohe (literally, William's Height), renowned for its gar- 
dens, fountains, colossal statue of Hercules, etc. The town of Gross- Alme- 
rode, eastward and 9 miles distant from Cassel, with 2,250 inhabitants, is noted 
for its crucibles. Allendorf, a town on the Werra, with 4,400 inhabitants, 
is already, since the 10th century, noted for its salt-springs and works. 
Carlshafen, a town on the Weser, northward and 20 miles distant from Cas- 
sel, with rather important trade, and 1,700 inhabitants. The town of Hof- 
geismar, northward and 14 miles distant from Cassel, with an electoral 



GERMANY. 311 



The Electorate of Hesse — its Geographical Divisions. 



palace and 3,500 inhabitants, is noted and much resorted to as a watering- 
place. The village of Geismar (near Fritzlar, with mineral waters and 900 in- 
habitants) was in the days of Paganism noted for a millennial oak-tree kept holy, 
which in the 8th century was cut down by Bonifacius. Homberg, surnamed 
in Hesse, a town on the little Efze river, southward and 22 miles distant from 
Cassel, with 3,800 inhabitants, and manufactures of linen, leather, and wool- 
len goods. Other more or less remarkable towns are: Melsungen (south- 
ward and 14 miles distant from Cassel, with 4,050 inhabitants), Lichtenau 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), Spangenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Waldkappel 
(with 1,300 inhabitants), Borken (with 1,400 inhabitants), Grebenstein (with 
2,500 inhabitants), Immenhausen (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zierenberg (with 
1,600 inhabitants), Wolfhagen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Gudensberg (with 
2,100 inhabitants), Felsberg (with 1,300 inhabitants), and Niedenstein (with 
700 inhabitants). Rotenburg, a town on the Fulda, 28 miles south-south-east 
of Cassel, with 3,650 inhabitants, linen and other manufactures, and a rather 
extensive castle or palace, until 1834 the residence of the landgraves of 
Hesse-Rotenburg. These landgraves were descendants of Maurice (see 
above), who having been married twice, bequeathed to his sons from the 
second matrimony, the fourth part of his dominions. His eldest son and suc- 
cessor, William V., ceded for this purpose certain cities, towns, and estates, 
in Lower Hesse, to his step-brothers, yet reserving his supreme sovereignty. 
The last descendant of these step-brothers was Victor Amadeus, who died in 
1834, and with whom this collateral line became extinct. Thus, the reigning 
house of Hesse-Cassel came again in full posssesion of the Rotenburgian 
Quarter, as this territory was styled. Other towns of it are the following 
Wannfried (on the Werra, with considerable trade, and 2,050 inhabitants), 
Esohwege (on the Werra, with various manufactures, and 6,050 inhabitants) 
Witzenhausen (on the Werra, eastward and 14 miles distant from Cassel 
with some vine culture and 3,250 inhabitants), and Sontra (with 1,800 inhab- 
itants). — The ancient earldom of Schaumburg (which in 1647 was inherited 
by the house of Hesse-Cassel and Lippe, its native earls having become ex- 
tinct in 1640), along the Weser, contains: Rinteln, a town on the Weser, 
north-westward and 72 miles distant from Cassel, and south-westward and 
32 miles distant from Hanover, has 3,200 inhabitants, was since 1621 noted 
for its university, which was abolished by the transitory Westphalian govern- 
ment in 1809. Oldendorf, a town on the Weser, with 1,400 inhabitants. Be- 
tween here and Rinteln are, on a steep hill on the Weser, the ruins of the 



372 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 



ancient castle of Schaumburg, where the earls of the same name resided. 
Obernkirchen, a town with 1;900 inhabitants, is noted for its quarries and 
coal mines. Rodenberg and Sachsenhagen, towns with respectively 1,350 and 
800 inhabitants. The village of Nenndorf (with 750 mhabitants) is noted 
and much resorted to as a watering-place. To the electorate of Mentz (see 
above and page 355) did belong: Fritzlar, a town on the Eder river, 18 
miles south-south-west of Cassel, with some manufactures and 3,050 inhabi- 
tants. In the middle ages, Fritzlar was by far more noted than at present. 
Numburg, or Naumburg, a town with 1,800 inhabitants. The town of Volk 
marsen, north-westward and 18 miles distant from Cassel, with 2,850 inhabi- 
tants, did formerly belong to the duchy of Westphalia (see under the head 
of Prussia). 

II. The province of Upper Hesse contains : -|-Marburg, the capital of the 
province, on the Lahn, half-way between Cassel and Frankfort, has 8,000 in- 
habitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287) and its 
highly remarkable Gothic St. Elizabeth's church, whose foundation was laid 
in the 13th century. Frankenberg, a town on the Eder river, with some 
leather and cloth manufactures, and 3,250 inhabitants. Other towns are: 
Wetter (with 1,550 inhabitants), Franhenau (with 1,050 inhabitants), Rosen- 
thal (with 1,600 inhabitants), Gemunden (with 1,450 inhabitants), Kirchhain 
(with 1,800 mhabitants), Rauschenberg (with 1,550 inhabitants), and Schweins- 
berg (with 1,000 inhabitants). Ziegenhain, a formerly fortified town, 23 
miles east-north-east of Marburg, and southward and 32 miles distant from 
Cassel, with 1,750 inhabitants and an ancient castle, once the residence of the 
earls of Ziegenhain, who became extinct in 1450, upon which Hesse-Cassel 
inherited the earldom. Treysa, a town in the neighborhood of Ziegenhain, 
with some manufactures and 2,550 inhabitants. Neukirchen, a town in the 
vicinity of Ziegenhain, with various manufactures and 2,150 inhabitants. 
Schwarzenborn, a very ancient town, with 1,000 inhabitants. The town of 
Amoneburg (on the Ohm, eastward and 9 miles distant from Marburg, with 
1,200 inhabitants), and Neustadt (between Amoneburg and Ziegenhain, with 
1,800 inhabitants), did formerly belong, together with Fritzlar, etc., to the 
electorate of Mentz (see page 355). 

III. The province of Fulda, comprising chiefly the ancient independent 
bishopric of Fulda, and the dominion of Schmalkalden. 1. The bishopric of 
Fulda took its origin from an abbey instituted in 744 by the holy Bonifacius, 
and which in the course of time was endowed with various privileges, and in 



GERMANY. 373 



The Electorate of Hesse — its Geographical Divisions. 



1752 raised to the rank of an independent bishopric, which in the beginning 
of the present century had a territory to the extent of 788 square miles, with 
70,000 inhabitants. In 1803 it was secularized, and, by the title of a princi- 
pality, ceded to the prince of Orange (subsequently King William I. of the 
Netherlands), But as this prince was in 1806 general in the Prussian ser- 
vice, Napoleon deprived him, after the battle of Jena, of the principality of 
Fulda, and annexed it in 1809 to the grand-duchy of Frankfort (see page 294). 
In 1815 Prussia became possessed of it, but soon ceded it to Hesse-Cassel, 
with the exception of some districts, which were annexed to Bavaria. It 
since bears the title of a grand-ducby, and contains : -+-Fulda, its former capi- 
tal, and residence of the bishop, on the Fulda river, 62 miles south-south-east 
of Cassel, with various and numerous manufactures and 9,600 inhabitants, is 
noted for its magnificent palace and its cathedral containing the sepulchre of 
the holy Bonifacius. The neighboring village of Salzschlierf (with 1,100 in- 
habitants) is a watering-place. Huenfeld, a town on the high-road between 
Fulda and Eisenach, with noted linen manufactures, and 2,150 inhabitants. 
Burghaun, a market-town, with 1,800 inhabitants. 2. The dominion of 
Schmalkalden (144 square miles, and 27,300 inhabitants), which partly 
was purchased, partly inherited by the house of Hesse-Cassel respectively 
in 1360 and 1583, contains: Schmalkalden, a town at the Thiiringer- 
wald Mountains, about half-way between Fulda and Weimar, with 5,500 in- 
habitants, is renowned for its cutlery, and also noted in the history of the 
Reformation, especially with reference to the years 1531 and 1537. The 
neighboring market-town of Klein- Schmalkalden (Little Schmalkalden), part 
of which belongs to Saxe-Gotha, has 1,050 inhabitants, who carry on a con- 
siderable trade in those articles fabricated at Schmalkalden. Brotterode, a 
market-town, with manufactures of hardware and cutlery, and 2,400 inhabi- 
tants. The villages Oberschonau (with 960 inhabitants) and Seligenthal (with 
1,150 inhabitants), are noted for their iron-works. 3. The market-town of 
Philippsthal (on the Werra, 30 miles north-north-east of Fulda, with 900 
inhabitants) is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Hesse-Cassel. 
Other market-towns are Niederaida (with 1,350 inhabitants), and Heringen 
(with 1,250 inhabitants). Hersfeld, a town on the Fulda river, northward 
and 24 miles distant from Fulda, with manufactures of leather and woollen 
goods, and 7,000 inhabitants. The market-town of Barchfeld, with 1,600 
inhabitants, is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Hesse-Cassel. 
Friedeioald, a market-town, with 1,550 inhabitants. 



374 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Electorate of Hesse. 



IV. The province of Hanau, comprises chiefly the ancient earldom of 
Hanau-Munzenberg (which in 1736 was inherited by the house of Hesse- 
Cassel), and containing: -(-Hanau, the capital of the province, on the 
right bank of the Mayne, eastward and 9 miles distant from Frankfort, with 
numerous and various manufactures, considerable trade, and 15,300 inhabi- 
tants. Hanau is noted for the battle on the 30th Oct., 1813, in which the Ba- 
varian and Austrian troops were defeated by Napoleon, then retreating from 
Leipsic. Near Hanau is the electoral palace of Philippsruhe, and the water- 
ing-place of Wilhelmsbad. On the left bank of the Mayne is situated the 
palace of Rumpenheim, until 1837 the residence of the late landgrave Frede- 
ric, father of the duchess of Cambridge. The market-town of Nauheim (with 
1,450 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-springs. Bockenheim, a town on the 
Mayne and in the neighborhood of Frankfort, with 3,500 inhabitants. In its 
vicinity is situated the market- town of Praunheim, with 700 inhabitants. 
The market-town of Bergen, not far from Frankfort, with 2,000 inhabitants, 
is remarkable for a victory obtained by the French in 1759. G-elnhausen, 
anciently an imperial city and frequently the residence of Emperor Frederic 
I. (see page 300), is situated on the Kinzig, and the high-road between Hanau 
and Fulda, and has 4,050 inhabitants. Of the ancient imperial residence some 
remains are still extant. Between here and Fulda is to be noticed Schxuech- 
tern, a town with 2,250 inhabitants. The town of Steinau, on the Kinzig 
river, has 2,550 inhabitants. To the former bishopric of Fulda (see above) 
once belonged the towns of Salmuenster (with 1,650 inhabitants) and Soden 
(with 1,100 inhabitants). The market-town of Birstein (with a palace and 
1,100 inhabitants) belongs to the prince of Isenburg-Birstein (see page 355). 
To other lines of the princely house of Isenburg do belong : Waechtersbach, 
a town in the neighborhood of Salmunster, with 1,400 inhabitants, and Meer- 
holz, a market-town, noted for its quarries, has 900 inhabitants. 



GERMANY. 375 



The Principality of Waldeck — its History. 



XIV.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF WALDECK. 

Area : 458 square miles. 
Population: 62,000 inhabitants. 

This principality, situated between Hesse-Cassel and West- 
phalia, consists of two detached sections about 30 miles from 
each other. The larger section (426 square miles, and 55,000 
inhabitants) comprises Waldeck proper ; and the by far smaller 
section (32 square miles, and 7,000 inhabitants) consists of the 
earldom or principality of Pyrmont, and is situated on the We- 
ser. The inhabitants, being Evangelicals (see page 291), depend 
for subsistence chiefly on agriculture and other branches of hus- 
bandry. The government is a somewhat limited monarchy 
The public revenue and expenditure amount to about 250,000 
Prussian dollars annually, and the 'public debt to 600,000 Prus- 
sian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 519 
men. 

History. — Waldeck was primitively an earldom, whose first historically 
known earl was Wittekind (not to be confounded with the famous Saxon 
duke of this name), who lived in the beginning of the 11th century. His de- 
scendants formed several lines, most of which became extinct in the course 
of time. In 1625 the reigning 1 house of Waldeck inherited the earldom of 
Pyrmont, and was respectively in 1692 and 1*712 promoted to the princely 
rank and dignity. In 1807 Waldeck became a member of the Rhenish, and 
in 1815 of the German confederation. The reigning sovereign is prince 
George, born in 1831. 

The principality of Waldeck is divided into 4 bailiwicks, one 
of which comprises the earldom of Pyrmont. We shall first de- 
scribe Waldeck proper, and next to it Pyrmont. 



37 G EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Principality of Waldeck. 

1. Waldeck proper (see p. 315) contains : Corbach, or Korbach, the capital 
of the whole principality (the princely residence is in Arolsen), on the Itter 
river, 30 miles west-south-west of Cassel, with a remarkable church, and 
2,500 inhabitants. Arolsen, residence of the prince and seat of the govern- 
ment, on the little Aar river, 20 miles west-north-west of Cassel, with, 2,200 
inhabitants), various manufactures, and a remarkable and extensive princely 
palace, founded in 1116. Wildungen (or Niederwildungen), a town south- 
eastward and 14 miles distant from Corbach, with a remarkable church, and 
1,850 inhabitants, is noted for its mineral waters. In the neighborhood of 
Corbach are the ruins of the castle of Schwalenberg, ancestral seat of the 
reigning princely house. The neighboring town of Sachsenhausen, with 1,200 
inhabitants, is noted for its breweries. Waldeck, a town 9 miles east-south- 
east of Corbach, with the ancient castle of the same name, and 800 inhabi- 
tants. Other towns are : Mengeringhausen (with 1,750 inhabitants), Sachsen- 
berg (with 1,150 inhabitants), Freienhagen (with 800 inhabitants), and Rhoden 
(with 1,750 inhabitants). The market-town of Bergheim, with 600 inhabi- 
tants, is the residence of the earl of Waldeck, who belongs to a collateral 
line of the princely house. 2. The earldom, or at present principality of 
Pyrmont (see above), contains : Pyrmont, a town on the Weser, northward 
and 52 miles distant from Cassel, has a remarkable princely palace, and 
3,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral waters, and annually visited by 
many strangers. 



XV.— THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. 

Area : 5,793 square miles. 
Population : 1,809,000 inhabitants. 

The former electorate, but since 1806 kingdom of Saxony, is 
situated towards the centre of Germany, between Bavaria and 
Silesia, and between Bohemia and the Prussian province of 
Saxony. 



GERMANY. 377 



Tbe Kingdom of Saxony— its Natural Products and Manufactures. 



Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans, though the royal family- 
is Catholic since the days of Frederic Augustus I. (1694-1733). 
In 1843 the number of Catholics (chiefly in Lusatia) in the coun- 
try was 30,375, and that of Calvinists was 2,074, while the num- 
ber of Jews (who are allowed only to live in Dresden and 
Leipsic) was restricted to 882. 

The surface is mostly hilly and mountainous, yet level in the 
northern part of the country. The principal mountain range 
here is the Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains (see page 7). The 
Highland of Meissen is usually called Saxon Switzerland, on 
account of its sublime natural scenery. The principal river 
is the Elbe. 

The soil is in the level and hilly parts of the country, both 
fertile and eminently cultivated ; nevertheless corn is not suffi- 
ciently raised for home consumption. The vine is cultivated to a 
rather great extent, but the wines which are produced are not fit 
for being exported. Fruits of various kinds are produced in 
abundance. The rearing of cattle is very considerable, and vast 
flocks of sheep are raised, the wool of which, noted for its fine- 
ness, is largely exported. The greatest part of German wool 
imported into England in 1828, amounting to more than 230,000 
quintals, was Saxon wool. In 1765 Spanish sheep were intro- 
duced for improving the native breed, and in 1829 Saxon sheep 
were introduced in Spain to improve the Spanish breed ! Sax- 
ony is moreover rich in metals and other minerals. In 1844 the 
nett produce of the Saxon mines had a value of 2,197,873 Prus- 
sian dollars, and consisted chiefly of silver (74,272 marks), lead 
(8,940 quintals), tin (2,409 quintals), iron (at the value of more 
than 600,000 Prussian dollars), etc. 

Saxony is noted for its manufactures, which consist chiefly of 
cotton and ivoollen goods, linen, lace, straw hats, etc., musical in- 
struments and porcelain. The inland trade is very considerable, 



378 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Geimany. — Kingdom of Saxony. 

and for several years the exports have surpassed the imports by 
about 3 million Prussian dollars in value. 

With regard to the means of education, Saxony ranks among the 
first countries of Germany in this point. Beside the university 
at Leipsic (see page 287), which in 1846 was frequented by 835 
students, there are 2 so-called princely schools (arranged in a 
similar manner, as for instance, the colleges at Eton and Win- 
chester in England), 9 gymnasia, 9 seminaries, the renowned 
mining academy at Freiberg, 2,155 common schools (beside nu- 
merous private schools), etc. 

The government is a limited monarchy like that of Wirtem- 
berg. In the budget for the period 1846-48, the public revenue 
was estimated at 5,798,648 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure 
at 5,786,059 annually. The actual public debt amounted at the 
close of the year 1846, to 13,092,600 Prussian dollars. The 
regular army consists of 16,691 men. The troops for the con- 
federal army, 12,000 men. 

There are the following orders of honor: 1. The order of the. 
Rue Crown, instituted in 1807, in one single class. 2. The 
military order of St. Henry, instituted in 1736, and renewed 
respectively in 1796, and 1829, in 4 classes. 3. The civil order 
of Merit, in 3 classes, instituted in 1815. 

History. — The first historically known inhabitants of this country were the 
Hermunduri (a Germanic tribe) ; and at a later period and until the end of 
the 10th century, we find here the Sorbes and other Slavonic tribes predom- 
inant. Thus, while Slavonic tribes occupied a country which at present is 
known only by the name of Saxony, the ancient and genuine Germanic tribe 
of the Saxons, lived at a rather great distance from it in the north-western 
part of Germany, between the Rhine and Eider rivers (see page 298). In 
short, the ancient Saxons (whose principal seat is in common life still fre- 
quently called Lower Saxony) had nothing in common with the fore- mentioned 
country ; and the latter would, but for the political alterations the ancient 
duchy of Saxony underwent towards the end of the 12th century, perhaps 



GERMANY. 379 



The Kingdom of Saxony — its History. 



have retained its primitive political name of Meissen until the present day. 
This name was derived from that of the stronghold of Meissen, which Em- 
peror Henry I. erected in 930 on the Elbe, to protect the eastern frontier of 
Germany against the inroads on the part of the neighboring Slavonic tribes. 
He annexed a territory to that place, appointed a margrave to represent him 
here, and in this way the margraviate of Meissen came to existence. In 
1046 Emperor Henry III. invested with the margraviate the earl Dedo II. 
of Wettin, who is the ancestor of the present reigning houses in the kingdom, 
as well as in the grand- duchy and duchies of Saxony. In the course of time 
the margraviate was gradually enlarged, especially by the ancient landgra- 
viate of Thuringen (see under the head of Saxe- Weimar), which was inher- 
ited in the 13th century. Meanwhile the powerful duchy of Saxony (i. e. the 
present Hanover, Westphalia, etc., see page 299) had been dismembered 
since the year 1179 (when the Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, was out- 
lawed on account of his felony), and with its north-eastern part and the elec- 
toral privileges (see page 293), the Duke Bernard of Ascania (see under the 
head of Anhalt) been invested. In 1422 the electoral line of the Ascanian 
house became extinct, and Emperor Sigismund now conferred that named 
part of the ancient duchy of Saxony and the electoral dignity upon the mar- 
grave Frederic of Meissen, and since that period the name of a margraviate 
of Meissen became gradually obsolete, and was supplanted by the more illus- 
trious title of the electorate of Saxony. For the same reason that circle of 
the German Empire which chiefly embraced this electorate, was styled the 
Upper Saxon circle (see page 293). The Margrave Frederic, or Elector 
Frederic I., died in 1428, and was succeeded by his son Frederic II, sur- 
named the MeeJc, who resided in Altenburg, and died in 1464, leaving be- 
hind two sons, Ernest and Albert. Ernest succeeded his father as elector, 
and the electoral residence was henceforth usually in Wittenberg. But he 
ceded the ancient margraviate of Meissen (comprising among others Dresden 
and Leipsic) and part of Thuringia, to his younger brother Albert, who took 
his residence in Dresden, and with whom, and his descendants, we have only 
to do here. For Ernest's grandson, John Frederic, surnamed the Generous, 
having taken up arms against the emperor, and for this reason been deposed 
in 1547, Albert's grandson, Maurice, was invested with the electorate, how- 
ever at the same time obliged to cede to the deposed elector and his descen- 
dants, the districts of Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, etc., to which in 1554 
was added that of Altenburg. In this way the Saxon grand-duchy and 



380 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. 

duchies, ruled by descendants of Ernest and respectively of John Frederic, 
came into existence. Elector Maurice died in 1553, and was succeeded by 
his brother, Augustus I, who died in 1586, and was succeeded by his son, 
Christian I, etc. The elector Frederic Augustus I (1694-1133) ascended 
the Polish throne as King Augustus II. He died in 1133, and was succeeded 
both in Saxony and Poland by his son Frederic Augustus II. (Augustus III.), 
who died in 1763. His grandson, Frederic Augustus (1*763-1827), became 
in 1806, member of the Rhenish confederation (see page 294), as king of 
Saxony, and in the following year possessed of the duchy or grand-duchy of 
Warsaw, created by Napoleon. He continued to be the ally of Napoleon, 
even until the battle of Leipsic in 1813, and for this reason he was by the 
powers allied against the French emperor, treated as prisoner, and in 1815 
deprived of the larger half (7,961 square miles, and in 1815, with 845,218 
inhabitants) of his kingdom, in favor of Prussia, to which this half was ceded. 
King Frederic Augustus I. died in 1827, and was succeeded by his brother, 
Anton, who died in 1836, and was succeeded by his nephew, the at present 
reigning king, Frederic Augustus II, born in 1797. 

Until 1835 the kingdom was divided into 5 circles or provinces, 
which since have been reduced to 4 (of Dresden, Leipsic, Zwickau 
and Bautzen), styled districts of circle directions (Kreisdirektions- 
Bezirke). Those of Dresden, Leipsic and Zwickau comprise the 
ancient margraviate of Meissen and part of Thuringia ; while that 
of Bautzen comprises the greater part of the Upper Lusatia, an- 
nexed to Saxony in 1635. For the sake of brevity, we shall use 
the term of provinces, whose capitals will be found marked with a 
cross (+)• 

I. The province of Dresden contains: -{-Dresden, the capital of the king- 
dom and royal residence, on both sides of the Elbe (crossed here by one of 
the finest bridges, built of freestone, 1,380 feet long and 42 feet broad), had, 
at the close of the year 1846, 3,706 houses and 85,707 inhabitants, exclusive 
of the military and strangers. Dresden is noted for a great many magnifi- 
cent or at least remarkable public buildings ; as for instance, the Catholic 
church (reared in the period of 1739-1756), the church of Our Lady (with 
a fine cupola), the royal palace with a steeple of 353 feet in height, the so- 



GERMANY. 381 



The Kingdom of Saxony— its Geographical Divisions. 



called Japanese palace containing the royal library (see page 288), the new 
building for the highly renowned gallery of paintings, the former palace of 
Marcolini (where Napoleon resided in 1813), etc. Near Dresden is the beauti- 
ful valley called Plauenscher Grund, after the village of Plauen, where it 
ends, while it begins at the town of Tharand, with 1,800 inhabitants and an 
academy for forest-concerns. The neighboring village of Kesselsdorf is 
noted for a battle between the Prussians and Austro-Saxons on the loth Dec, 
1*745. Meissen, once the capital of the ancient margraviate of Meissen, on 
the Elbe, 13 miles below Dresden, with 8,200 inhabitants, vine culture, and a 
college or so-called princely school (see above), instituted in 1543. Meissen 
is at present chiefly noted for its eminent porcelain-manufactory, which in 
1710 was established in the ancient and extensive castle, where the mar- 
graves had resided. Another remarkable edifice is the ancient Gothic cathe- 
dral ; for Meissen was until 1587 the seat of a Catholic bisbop. The neigh- 
boring town of Lommatzsch (with 2,800 inhabitants) is situated in a district 
of the same name that is highly renowned for the fertility of its well-cultivated 
soil. Freiberg, a city near the Freiberger Mulde river, south-westward and 
18 miles distant from Dresden, is highly renowned both for its numerous 
mines and mining academy, which was founded in 1765 and has ever since 
been much resorted to, even from foreign countries. The mines of Freiberg 
were for the first time wrought in the 12th century, and have since produced 
quantities of silver to the value of 240,000,000 Prussian dollars. Hainichen, a 
town, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Freiberg, with numerous manu- 
factures and 5,600 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of the amiable 
German poet Gellert. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Wilsdruf 
(with 2,150 inhabitants), Riesa (with 2,300 inhabitants), Brand (with 2,400 
inhabitants), Sayda (with 1,250 inhabitants), Franenstein (with 1,150 inhabi- 
tants), Altenberg (with important tin mines, and 2,100 inhabitants), Glas- 
hutteiyfith. 1,100 inhabitants), Dohna (with 1,200 inhabitants), Dippoldiswalde 
(with 2,550 inhabitants), CfrossenJiai?i (with 6,500 inhabitants), Radeburg 
(noted for its corn and cattle-markets, has 2,100 inhabitants), and Radeberg 
(with linen manufactures and 2,300 inhabitants). The town of Liebstadt, in 
the neighborhood of Pirna, with 800 inhabitants, is noted for its ancient moun- 
tain-castle of Kuhukstein. In its vicinity is situated the village of Maxen 
where on the 21st Nov., 1759, the Prussian general Fink capitulated with 
15,000 men. Kreischa, a market-town, between Dresden and Pirna, with 
900 inhabitants, is noted as a watering-place, and situated in a district that 



382 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. 



may be considered as the principal seat of the Saxon straw-hat manufactures. 
Moritzburg, a palace northward and 7 miles distant from Dresden, and 
reared in 1542 by the elector Maurice, contains more than 220 rooms and 
apartments, and is noted as a royal hunting-seat. The palace of Pillnitz, in 
the neighborhood of Dresden, and noted for its gardens and park, is the resi- 
dence of the king in the summer season. Schandau, a town on the right bank 
of the Elbe, and near the frontier of Bohemia, with 1,650 inhabitants, may 
be considered as the principal place of the above-mentioned Saxon Switzerland. 
Between Schandau and Dresden is situated, on the left bank of the Elbe, the 
town of Pirna, with 6,000 inhabitants, noted for its quarries, and for its ancient 
castle of Sonnenstein, standing on a high rock and at present arranged for a 
madhouse. Opposite Pirna, on the right bank of the Elbe, is situated the 
town of Konigstein, with 2,050 inhabitants, and the renowned mountain-fort 
of the same name, which is as impregnable, for instance, as that of Gibraltar. 
The well of this fort is 1,172 feet deep. 

II. The province of Leipsic, comprising part of a district anciently well 
known by the name of Osterland, contains : -[-Leipsic (in German Leipzig), 
a city on the Pleisse, at its junction with the Elster riyer, 10 miles west-north- 
west of Dresden, had, at the close of the year 1846, 1,980 houses and 60,103 
inhabitants. Leipsic may in some respects be considered as the centre of the 
inland trade of Germany, and is noted not only for its great fairs, held 
thrice a year, but also for its highly important book-trade, and its univer- 
sity (see page 287). The most remarkable public edifices here are: the 
JPleissenburg (celebrated as a stronghold in the thirty years' war, and erected 
in 1549), the so called Paulinum (with a church inaugurated by Luther on 
the 12th Aug., 1545), St. Nicholas' church, St. Thomas' church, etc. The en- 
virons of Leipsic were the scenes of important battles in 1631, 1642, and es- 
pecially on the 16th and 18th Oct., 1813. Grimma, a town on the Mulde 
river, south-eastward and 17 miles distant from Leipsic, has 5,200 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its manufactures and its princely school or college (see above), 
founded in 1543. Wurzen, a town on the rail-road between Leipsic and Dres- 
den, is noted for its ancient cathedral (whose foundation was laid in 1114), and 
has 4,200 inhabitants. Mutzschen, a town north-eastward and 7 miles dis- 
tant from Grimma, with 1,650 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated 
the palace of Hubertsburg, formerly noted as a hunting-seat, and for the 
treaty of peace concluded here in 1763. The town of Colditz (south-east- 
ward and 25 miles distant from Leipsic, with 3,000 inhabitants) is noted for 



GERMANY. 883 



The Kingdom of Saxony— its Geographical Divisions. 

its hospital, that of Rochlitz (southward and 32 miles distant from Leipsic, 
■with 4,200 inhabitants), for its manufacture of woollen goods, and the town 
of Waldheim (between Leipsic and Freiberg, with 3,500 inhabitants), for its 
house of correction. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Taucha (with 
2,100 inhabitants), Markranstddt (with 1,050 inhabitants), Pegau (with 3,600 
inhabitants), Zivenkau (with 2,650 inhabitants), Borna (with 4,200 inhabitants), 
Gerhigswalde (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Leimig (with important manufac- 
tures and 5,200 inhabitants). Penig, a town on the Mulde river, between 
Leipsic and Chemnitz, with 4,100 inhabitants, is noted for its cotton manufac- 
tures, and belongs to a collateral line of the dependent princely house of Schon- 
burg (see under the head of the following province), together with the town 
of Wechselburg (with 1,200 inhabitants), and the village of Rochsburg (with 
600 inhabitants, and a remarkable ancient castle or palace). 

III. The province of Zwickau, comprising among others the ancient Voigt- 
land (which name is derived from voigt or bailiff, because the district was in 
the middle ages under the sway of an imperial bailiff or governor), contains : 
-(-Zwickau, the capital of the province, in a romantic valley on the Zwickauer 
Mulde river, southward and 46 miles distant from Leipsic, has 9,000 inhabi- 
tants and several remarkable churches, and is noted for its coal mines. 
Zwickau carried on a very considerable trade in the middle ages, and was an 
imperial city until 1308. The towns of Crimmitzschau (with remarkable 
Gothic church and 5,800 inhabitants) and Werdau (with 6,300 inhabitants), 
are noted for their woollen manufactures. Schneeberg, a noted mining town 
in the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains, southward and 12 miles distant from 
Zwickau, with various manufactures, especially of lace, and 7,300 inhabitants. 
Its silver mines wrought for the first time in 1411, were so productive, that 
when in 1477 the margrave Frederic of Meissen dined in one of them, he sat 
at a table consisting of a piece of ore, 80,000 marks of silver in value. An- 
naberg, a likewise noted mining town near the frontier of Bohemia, is more- 
over noted for its ribbon and lace manufactures, and has 7,850 inhabitants- 
Other more or less remarkable mining towns are: Scheibenberg (with 1,850 
inhabitants), Schwarzenberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), Aue (with 1,400 inhabi- 
tants), Johanngeorgenstadt (John George's town, has 4,000 inhabitants), 
Eibenstock (with 5,300 inhabitants), Geyer (with 3,600 inhabitants), Johstadt 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Elterlein (with 2,150 inhabitants), Wolkenstein (with 
1,950 inhabitants), and Marienberg (with 4,500 inhabitants). The most im- 
portant manufacturing town is Chemnitz, south-eastward and 50 miles distant 



884 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Saxony. 

from Leipsic, with 28,650 inhabitants. Its manufactures consist chiefly of 
cotton goods. Oederan, a town between Chemnitz and Freiberg, has 4,650 
inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of cloth, cassimere, flannel, etc. 
Frankenberg, a town on the Zschopau river, north-eastward and 8 miles dis- 
tant from Chemnitz, has 6,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its cotton manu- 
factures. Gruenhain, a town between Schneeberg and Annaberg, is noted for 
its lace, and has 1,550 inhabitants. The above-mentioned Voigtland contains: 
Plauen, its ancient capital, on the Elster, westward and 23 miles distant from 
Zwickau, with important manufactures of muslin, and 11,050 inhabitants. 
Reichenbach, a town half-way between Plauen and Zwickau, has 6,800 inhab- 
itants, and is likewise noted for its manufactures of muslin and of cloth, etc. 
Other more or less important manufacturing towns are : Oelsnitz (with 4,250 
inhabitants), Netzschkau (with 1,900 inhabitants), Mylau (with 2,600 inhabi- 
tants), Elsterberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Lengenfeld (with 4,050 inhabi- 
tants), Treuen (with 4,500 inhabitants), Muhltroff (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
and Pausa (with 2,450 inhabitants). The towns of Adorf (with 2,700 inhab- 
itants) and Markneukirchen (with 2,750 inhabitants), are noted for their mu- 
sical instruments. Auerbach, a town on the Golzsch river, with considerable 
corn-markets, manufactures of black lace and pins, and 3,700 inhabitants, 
who make much pitch and smoke-black in the neighboring pine forests. Wil- 
denfels, a town between Zwickau and Schneeberg, with 2,400 inhabitants, 
and a palace, the residence of the earl of Solms-Wildenfels (belonging to the 
house of Solms, mentioned page 357). The dependent dominions of the 
princes and earls of Schonburg (241 square miles, and 105,300 inhabitants), 
contain: Waldenburg, a town romantically situated on the Zwickauer Mulde 
river, southward and 36 miles distant from Leipsic, has 2,400 inhabitants, and 
is the residence of the prince of Schonburg- Waldenburg, to whom also do 
belong the towns of Lichtenstein (with 3,250 inhabitants), Callenberg (with 
2,250 inhabitants), Hartenstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Lossnitz (with 
4,900 inhabitants). The towns of Hohenstein (with 4,700 inhabitants and con- 
siderable manufactures of cotton goods), and Meerane (with woollen manu- 
factures and 5,550 inhabitants), belong to the earl of Schonburg- Wechselburg. 
G-LAUCHAU, a town westward and 18 miles distant from Chemnitz, with 8,250 
inhabitants, is the residence of the earl of Schonburg-Hinterglauchau, and at 
the same time the capital of the above-named dependent dominions. 

IV. The province of Bautzen consists of ancient Upper Lusatia. Lusatia, in 
general, was a margraviate, instituted in 931, arid since the year 1370, belong- 



GERMANY. 385 



Kingdom of Saxony — its Geographical Divisions. 



ing entirely to Bohemia. In 1635, Emperor Ferdinand II. ceded (in his quality 
as king of Bohemia) Lusatia to the electorate of Saxony, of which it has since 
formed a constituent part. ' Yet in 1815 the king of Saxony was constrained to 
cede that part known by the name of Lower Lusatia, and also part of Upper 
Lusatia, to Prussia. The remainder of Upper Lusatia. or the present province 
of Bautzen (969 square miles, and 282,600 inhabitants), contains : -{-Bautzen 
(officially styled Budissin), the ancient capital of Upper Lusatia, on the Spree 
river, eastward and 32 miles distant from Dresden, has 1 1,000 inhabitants and 
several remarkable public buildings, and is noted for its numerous manufactures, 
especially of linen, paper, and leather. Napoleon's victory on the 20th and 21st 
May, 1813. Zittau, a highly renowned manufacturing city near the Neisse 
river and the frontier of Bohemia, south-eastward and 30 miles distant from 
Bautzen, with numerous manufactures, linen and damask, and 9,350 inhabitants. 
To the city belong 36 villages, both industrious and populous, as, for instance, 
SeifJiennersdorf, or Hennersdorf hi Seifen (with 5,600 inhabitants, and linen 
manufactures), and Gross-Schonau, with 4,800 inhabitants, fabricating damask 
of unparalleled beauty and fineness. A damask table-cloth, which was given 
to the duke of Wellington by King Frederic Augustus I., was made in Gross- 
Schonau. Camenz, a city on the Black Elster, north-westward and 12 miles 
distant from Bautzen, has 4,450 inhabitants, and is noted for its gingerbread. 
Lobau, a city south-eastward and 14 miles distant from Bautzen, with 2,800 
inhabitants, and considerable trade in linen and cloth. Konigsbrueck, a town 
on the Pulsnitz river, 14 miles north-north-east of Dresden, with a palace 
(residence of the count of Hohenthal) and 1,750 inhabitants, is noted for its 
potteries. Reibersdorf, a market-town in the neighborhood of Zittau, with a 
magnificent palace of the count of Einsiedeln, and 1,000 inhabitants. Schir- 
giswalde, a town on the Spree river, is noted for its fustian, and has 1,400 in- 
habitants. The village of ffochkirch, south-eastward and 5 miles distant 
from Bautzen, is noted in the history of the seven years' war, by the defeat 
of the Prussians in the night of the 14th Oct., 1158. Herrnhut, a town at 
the railroad between Lobau and Zittau, with 1,000 inhabitants, is remarkable 
as the original seat of the Moravian Brethren since 1722. Other places in- 
habited exclusively by Moravian Brethren are, Grosshennersdorf, or Markt- 
hennersdorf (with 2,000 inhabitants), Berthehdorf (with 1,850 inhabitants), 
and Kleinwelka (with 600 inhabitants). StoLPEN, a town on the Wesenitz, 
eastward and 14 miles distant from Dresden, with a remarkable ancient 
mountain castle, and 1,300 inhabitant ■-. 

17 



386 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar. 



XVI— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF SAXE-WEIMAR. 

Area: 1,427 square miles. 
Population : 254,000 inhabitants. 

This state, officially styled Saxe- Weimar- Eisenach, is situated 
in the centre of Germany, surrounded by other Saxon territories. 
The majority of the inhabitants consist of Lutherans, and the re- 
mainder of about 10.200 Catholics, and 1,450 Jews. The surface 
of the country is hilly ; timber and wood, iron and manganese, are. 
the chief natural products. The manufactures consist, for the 
most part, of hardware, woollen goods and linen. Besides the 
university of Jena (see page 287), in 1846 frequented by 419 stu- 
dents, there are 2 gymnasia, 72 Latin schools, 445 common 
schools, etc. The government is a limited monarchy. According 
to the budget for the period of 1845-47, the public revenue was 
estimated at 765,282, and the expenditure at 754,705 Prussian 
dollars annually. The revenues of the grand-ducal domains 
amount, upon an average, to 680,000 Prussian dollars per annum. 
The public debt amounts to about 3,750.000 Prussian dollars. To 
the confederal army are to be furnished 2,010 men. There is 
an order of honor, viz., the Falcon order, instituted in 1732 and 
renewed in 1815, in 3 classes. 

History. — That all Saxon territories and reigning houses have one and the 
same origin, has already been told, page 379. The electors Maurice and Au- 
gustus I. ceded to the deposed elector, John Frederic the Generous, the dis- 
tricts named in the history of Saxony. John Frederic kept them together, 
but soon after his death, which occurred in 1554, his three sons divided them ; 
which example was frequently followed by their descendants, so that in this 
way the other Saxon duchies, Ootha,, Altenburg, etc., came into existence. In 
Weimar succeeded duke John (grandson of the elector John Frederic), who 



GERMANY. 387 



The Grand-Duchy of Weimar — its History and Geographical Divisions. 

died in 1605. In 1690 Jena with its dependencies, and in 1*741 the dominion 
or principality of Eisenach was inherited by the reigning dukes of "Weimar. 
In this way the duchy of Saxe- Weimar enlarged gradually its limits to the 
extent of 166 square miles, and had in 1806 a population of 109,000 inhabi- 
tants. In the last-named year, and after the battle of Jena, the then reigning 
duke Charles Augustus, joined the Rhenish Confederation, but in 1813 the 
allied powers. According to the stipulations of the Congress of Vienna in 
1S15, some districts of the kingdom of Saxony, of the electorate of Hesse, etc., 
(together 661 square miles, with 7*7,000 inhabitants), were annexed to the 
duchy, which at the same time was raised to the dignity of a grand-duchy. 
Charles Augustus died in 1828, and was succeeded by his son, the still reign- 
ing grand-duke Charles Frederic, born in 1783. 

The grand-duchy is divided into two provinces, styled princi- 
palities, viz., the province or principality of Weimar, and the 
province or principality of Eisenach, and is subdivided into 25 
bailiwicks. 

I. The province of "Weimar contains : "Weimar, capital of the grand-duchy 
and residence of the grand-duke, on the Ilm river, eastward and 14 miles dis- 
tant from Erfurt and south-westward and 60 miles distant from Leipsic, with 
a magnificently-furnished grand-ducal palace, an admirably arranged public 
library of 130,000 volumes, and 12,000 inhabitants. Weimar has frequently 
been called German Athens on account of its having been the seat of eminent 
authors and poets, as Gothe, Schiller, Herder, Wieland and Musaus. Jena, 
a town romantically situated on the Saale, 12 miles east-south-east of 
"Weimar, has 6,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see page 
287), and for the battle gained by Napoleon over the Prussians on the 14th 
Oct., 1806. Buttstadt, a town north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Wei- 
mar, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse-marts. The town of 
Apolda, with 4,600 inhabitants, is noted for its hosieries. Blankenhayn, a 
town southward and 9 miles distant from Weimar, with various manufactures, 
considerable breweries, and 1,800 inhabitants. Stadtsulza, or Suiza, a town 
near the Saale river, has 1,250 inhabitants, and derived its name from valu- 
able salt-springs, which were discovered in 966, but are at present the prop- 
erty of Saxe-Meiningen. Berka, a town on the Ilm, with mineral waters, 
quarries, and 1,300 inhabitants. Remda, a town with cotton and woollen 



388 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weimar. 

manufactures, breweries, and 1,050 inhabitants. Allstedt, a town northward 
and 32 miles distant from Weimar, is noted for its eminent grand-ducal stud, 
and has 2,250 inhabitants. Allstedt is situated in a district that anciently was 
called the Saxon Palatinate. The town of Ilmenau, at the foot of the Kick- 
elhahn (see page 7), south-westward and 32 miles distant from Weimar, with 
some manufactures, breweries, and 2,850 inhabitants, is situated on the terri- 
tory of the ancient earldom of Henneberg (724 square miles, and in 1803 
with 104,000 inhabitants), whose native earls became extinct in 1583, when it 
was inherited by the different lines of the Saxon houses, but especially by the 
descendants of the elector John Frederic the Generous. The eastern part of 
this province, forming at present the circle or district of Neustadt, was in 
1815 ceded by the king of Saxony to Saxe-Weimar, and contains : Neustadt 
an der Orla, a town on the Orla river, south-eastward and 28 miles distant 
from Weimar, with cloth and other manufactures, and 4,450 inhabitants. 
Weida, a town with 4,100 inhabitants, is noted for its potteries. Other towns 
are : Triptis (with 1,500 inhabitants), Auma (with 1,800 inhabitants), and 
Berga (with 650 inhabitants). 

II. The province of Eisenach contains : Eisenach, its capital, on the Nesse 
and Horsel rivulets, about half-way between Weimar and Cassel, with seve- 
ral remarkable public edifices, various manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants. 
At a distance of 1| mile from here is situated, on a high mountain of the 
Forest of Thuringia (see page 7), the highly renowned ancient castle known 
by the name of Wartburg, erected in 1067, and at present completely re- 
stored. Luther lived here incognito from the 4th May, 1521, to the 6th 
March, 1522. As this castle was the residence of the landgraves of Thuringia 
until the beginning of the 15th century, we shall give an historical sketch of 
Thuringia in general here. The Thuringians themselves have already been 
mentioned in the History of Germany (see page 298). They were primitively 
ruled by native kings, the first of whom was named Merwig and lived in the 
beginning of the 5th century. The last king, Hermannfried by name, was 
murdered by the Franks in 530, and since the kingdom of Thuringia became 
a prey of the Saxons, Sorbes and Franks. That part the latter took posses- 
sion of, is until the present day known by the name of Thuringia, and Erfurt 
(already founded in the 5th century) was considered as its capital. The Car- 
lovingians in France having been supplanted by the Capetians in 987 (see 
page 32), the last descendant of the former, Louis, took his refuge to Empe- 
ror Conrad II. (reigning in the period of 1024-1039), who appointed him 



GERMANY. 389 



The Grand-Duchy of Saxe-Weiraar. — The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen. 

earl of Thuringia. Louis was succeeded by his son, Louis surnamed the 
Jumper, who was raised to the dignity of a landgrave. The reigning land- 
grave since the year 1190 was Hermann, whose daughter was given in mar- 
riage to the margrave Theodoric of Meissen, and who died in 1216, when he 
was succeeded by his eldest son Louis IV., consort of the holy Elizabeth, and 
father of the duchess Sophia of Brabant (see Hessian History, page 353). 
With his brother Henry Raspe, who died in 1247, the male line of the land- 
graves of Thuringia became extinct, and the greatest part of the landgraviate 
was now inherited by the house of Saxony (see page 379). Since the 16th 
century the descendants of the elector Ernest and respectively of John 
Frederic the Generous (see page 379) are possessed of Thuringia (and be- 
side them, since 1815, Prussia). That part belonging to Saxe-Weimar 
contains, beside Eisenach, the following places: Ruhla, a village with 
1,550 inhabitants, is noted for its considerable manufacture of hardware and 
cutlery. Creuzburg or Kreuzburg, a town on the Werra, with 2,250 in- 
habitants, is noted for its salt-springs. Wilhelmsthal, a grand-ducal palace 
with a beautiful park. Berlca and Gerstungen, market-towns with respectively 
1,250 and 1,400 inhabitants. To the ancient earldom of Henneberg (see 
above) belonged the towns of Ostheim (southward and 45 miles distant 
from Eisenach, is noted for its cherries, and has 2,650 inhabitants), Kalten- 
nordheim (with manufactures of cutlery and linen, and 1,650 inhabitants), 
and Kaltensundheim (with 900 inhabitants). Vacha, a town south-westward 
and 16 miles distant from Eisenach, has 2,250 inhabitants, and did until 1815 
belong to Hesse-Cassel. The town of Geysa, with 1,900 inhabitants, for- 
merly belonged to the bishopric of Fulda (see page 372). 



XVn.— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-MEINTNGEK 

Area : 980 square miles. 
Population : 157,000 inhabitants. 

This duchy, since 1826 officially styled Saxe-Meiningen- Hild- 
burghausen, is situated at the northern frontier of Bavaria, at and 



390 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen— its History. 

on the Thuringerwald (see page 7). separating Coburg from Gotha, 
and bordering upon Weimar and Altenburg likewise. The in- 
habitants are Lutherans, with the exception of about 1,000 Cath- 
olics^ and 1,550 Jews. On account of the thoroughly mountain- 
ous surface of the country, the rearing of cattle is to be con- 
sidered as rather considerable. There are extensive forests, 
yielding valuable products for exportation. The manufactures 
of linen and woollen goods, of hardware and wooden toys, are 
considerable, as is likewise the inland trade. The university 
at Jena is considered as possessed in common by Saxe-Weimar 
and the Saxon duchies. In Saxe-Meiningen itself are 2 gymna- 
sia, 1 seminary, 212 common, and 20 other schools. The govern- 
ment is a limited monarchy. In the financial year, ending 1844, 
the public revenue and expenditure amounted to 1,475,746, 
and the public debt to 4,587,776 florins. To the confederal 
army are to be furnished 1,150 men. The Saxon dukes have in 
common the so-called House and Merit Order, in 4 classes, prim- 
itively instituted in 1690 by the duke Frederic of Gotha, and 
renewed in 1838. 

History. — When Duke John, grandson of the elector John Frederic the 
Generous (see page 386), died in 1605, he left behind 11 sons, of whom John 
Ernest succeeded in Weimar, while the other" dominions were divided among 
the remaining 10 brothers. These died however one after the other, within 
a rather short period, with the exception of Ernest, surnamed the Pieus, who 
died in 1675, leaving behind 1 sons, who divided again the dominions, which 
their father had gradually inherited from his deceased 9 brothers. By this 
arrangement duke Bernard (third son of Ernest) became possessed of Mein- 
ingen, or that part of the ancient earldonno f Henneberg (see back under 
the head of Jlmenau in Saxe-Weimar), which the ducal line of the Saxon 
house had become possessed of in 1583. Bernard entailed upon his descend- 
ants in direct line, the subsequently styled duchy of Meiningen. The present 
reigning duke, like his ancestor named Bernard, and born in 1800, became 
in 1826 possessed of the former duchy of Hildburghausen, the principality of 



GERMANY. 391 



The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen — its Geographical Divisions. 

Saalfeld, and some other territories, in. consequence of the death of the duke 
Frederic IV. of Gotha, in 1825 ; for the Saxon line of G-otha having become 
extinct, this duchy was inherited by the three other ducal lines, represented by 
the dukes of Coburg, Hildburghausen, and Meiningen. They agreed that the 
duke of Coburg should retain G-otha proper, and the duke of Hildburghau- 
sen the other half of the inheritance, comprising Altenburg ; while the duke 
of Meiningen should be indemnified by the annexation of Hildburghausen 
and Saalfeld to his duchy. 

Thus, the duchy of Saxe-Meiningen comprises, beside Mein- 
ingen proper (which, as we have seen, in reality but forms a 
part of the ancient earldom of Henneberg), since 1826 the 
former duchy of Hildburghausen (whose duke exchanged it 
at that period for Altenburg), and the former principality of 
Saaljeld (which until 1826 belonged to the duke of Coburg). 

Meiningen (anciently sometimes styled Meinungen), the capital of the 
duchy, and residence of the duke, on the Werra, southward and 34 miles dis- 
tant from Eisenach, and eastward and 40 miles distant from Fulda, with a 
remarkable ducal palace (erected in 1681), various manufactures, and 6,300 
inhabitants. Not far from here are the ruins of the castle of Henneberg, once 
the ancestral seat of the ancient earls of this name. Wasungen, a town on 
the Werra, with manufactures of cutlery, and 2,600 inhabitants. Steinbach, 
a market-town noted for its iron mines, has 1,500 inhabitants. Romhild, a 
town on the Milz "river, is noted for its leather manufactures, and has 1,750 
inhabitants. Themar, a very ancient town on the Werra, south-eastward and 
13 miles distant from Meiningen, with paper manufactures and 1,500 inhabi- 
tants. Salzungen, a town romantically situated on the Werra, is noted for 
its salt-springs, and has 3,100 inhabitants. Not far from here, and south- 
ward and 10 miles distant from Eisenach, is situated the village of Mohra, 
where Luther's father and mother lived in a house which still is extant. 
Luther, was, it is true, born in Eisleben ; but it was only a short time before 
that his father had moved from Mohra to Eisleben. Schweina, a market- 
town on the rivulet of the same name, has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for 
manufactures of carded woollen articles in the adjacent GlucJcsbrunn. The 
neighboring village of Liebenstein is noted as a watering-place, and romanti- 



392 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Duchies of Saxe-Meiningeu and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

cally situated in a valley of the Thiiringerwald. Sonnenberg, or Sonneberg, 
on the southern declivity of the Thtiringerwald, eastward and 20 miles dis- 
tant from Hildburghausen, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is renowned for its chil- 
dren's toys, which are also made in the neighboring villages of Steinach 
(with 2,100 inhabitants), Judenbach (with 900 inhabitants), and Steinheide 
(with 650 inhabitants). Hemersdorf, a market-town, with breweries, and 
800 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade in timber. Hildburg- 
hausen, until 1826 the capital of a duchy of the same name (see back), on 
the "Werra, south-eastward and 20 miles distant from Meiningen, with several 
literary institutions, and 4,400 inhabitants, Msfeld, a town on the Werra, is 
noted for its fairs, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Heldburg, a town with 1,300 
inhabitants. Saalfeld, until 1826 the capital of a principality of the same 
name (see back), on the Saale river, southward and 23 miles distant from 
Weimar, with a remarkable Gothic church, various manufactures, and 4,500 
inhabitants. Near Saalfeld an action between the French and Prussians took 
place on the 10th of October, 1806 (four days before the battle of Jena), in 
which the prince Louis of Prussia was killed. Posneck, a town noted for 
its manufactures of cloth, leather, and porcelain, has 3,800 inhabitants. 
Ernstthal, a little village noted for its glass manufactory. 



XVIII— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-COBURG-GOTHA. 

Area: 188 square miles. 
Population : 144,000 inhabitants. 

This duchy consists of two detached sections, Ooburg and 
Gotha, separated from each other by the duchy of Saxe-Meinin- 
gen. Coburg, situated on the south side of the Thtiringerwald, 
and at the northern frontier of Bavaria, is mountainous and rich 
in valuable forests, with beautiful valleys and well-cultivated 
soil ; and Gotha, situated on the northern side of the Thuringer- 



GERMANY. 393 



The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha— its History. 



wald, is a fertile hilly country, with likewise well-cultivated soil.* 
Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans, and the remainder of the 
population consists of about 2.300 Catholics, and 1,200 Jews. 
Grain, flax, and timber, are chief staples. In the mountainous 
part of Gotha, great quantities of pitch, tar, and smoke-black, are 
made. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen, woollen goods, 
and cutlery. Gotha carries on a considerable trade. Beside 
the university at Jena (see Introduction of Saxe-Meiningen), 
there are 3 gymnasia, 2 seminaries, 35 Latin and 300 common 
schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The amount 
of the public revenue and of the expenditure for several years, has 
been about 500,000 Prussian dollars. The public debt amounts 
to nearly 1,750,000 Prussian dollars. To the confederal army 
are to be furnished 1,116 men. For the order of honor, see 
under the head of Saxe-Meiningen. 

History. — When the seven sons of Ernest the Pious divided the inherited 
dominions (see History of Saxe-Meiningen), the second son, Duke Albert, 
became possessed of Coburg, and the youngest son, Duke John Ernest, be- 
came possessed of Saalfeld, to which in 1699 (when the line of Albert be- 
came extinct), the principal part of Coburg was annexed. John ErnevSt 
died in 1729, and was succeeded by his son Francis Josias, who in 1745 
transferred his residence from Saalfeld to Coburg, and assumed the title of 
a duke of Coburg-Saalfeld. The duke Ernest (1806-1844), having been in 
the active military service of Prussia, was deprived of his duchy by order of 
Napoleon, who however subsequently restored it to him in 180*7. Accord- 
ing to the stipulations of the congress at Vienna, the principality of Lich- 
tenberg, on the left bank of the Rhine, was annexed to the duchy, but in 
1834 ceded to Prussia (see the note below). About his acquisition concern- 
ing Gotha, in 1826, see History of Saxe-Meiningen. He died in 1844, and 

* Since 1815 the duchy contained also a small district on the left bank of 
the Rhine, styled principality of Lichtenberg (234 square miles, with 30,000 
inhabitants). But in 1834, the duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ceded it to 
Prussia, for an annuity of 80.000 florins. 

17* 



394 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany.— Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

was succeeded by his son, the presently reigning duke Ernest II, born in 
1818. (His brother is Prince Albert, consort of the British queen, Victoria.) 

The duchy is both naturally and politically divided into the 
above-mentioned two sections, viz., the duchy or province of 
Coburg, and the duchy or province of Gotha. 

1. The duchy or province of Coburg (192 square miles, and 43,000 inhab- 
itants), contains : Coburg, or Koburg, its capital, and usual residence of the 
duke (at least in the summer season), on the Itz river, 44 miles south-south- 
east of Gotha, with a stately ducal palace, several other remarkable public 
edifices, and 10,100 inhabitants. In the vicinity are the ducal palaces of 
Rosenau and Kallenberg, noted for their parks and gardens. Rodach, a 
town with a ducal stud, and 1,700 inhabitants. Neustadt an der Heide, a 
town on the Rotha river, has 2,250 inhabitants, and is noted for its toys and 
hops. Konigsberg, surnamed in Franken, a town in a district which is en- 
tirely surrounded by Bavarian territory, with vine culture, and 1,100 inhab- 
itants. 

2. The duchy or province of Gotha (596 square miles, and 101,000 inhab- 
itants), contains : Gotha, its capital, at present frequently the residence of 
the duke of Coburg-Gotha, half-way between Eisenach and Erfurt, has 
14,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its remarkable public edifices and liter- 
ary institutions, and for its various manufactures. On the neighboring hill 
of Seeberg, stands a celebrated observatory. The village of Elgersburg 
(with 800 inhabitants) is noted as a watering-place, and for its porcelain and 
manganese, the village of Manebach for its coal mines, and the village of 
Krawinkel (with 1,100 inhabitants) for its millstones and musical instru- 
ments. W altershausen, a town on the Horsel river, south-westward and 
7 miles distant from Gotha, with linen and woollen manufactures, numerous 
breweries, and 3,300 inhabitants. In its vicinity is the noted boarding-school 
of Schnepfenthal, founded in 1785. Rheinhardsbrunn, anciently a Benedic- 
tine monastery, at present a ducal palace. Tambach, a market-town on the 
Thiiringerwald, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its linen manufac- 
tures and iron-works. Blasien-Zella, or Zella, a town at the Thiiringerwald, 
has 1,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its iron-works and manufactures of 
fire-arms. The town of Ohrdruf, with 4,400 inhabitants, belongs at present 
to the house of Hohenlohe (see page 336). 



GERMANY. 395 



The Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg — its Statistics and History. 



XIX.— THE DUCHY OF SAXE-ALTENBURG. 

Area : 522 square miles. 
Population: 127,500 inhabitants. 

It is situated between the kingdom of Saxony and the grand- 
duchy of Saxe- Weimar, and comprises that part of the ancient 
margraviate of Meissen, which in early times, was more usually 
called the Osterland (see page 382). The inhabitants are (with 
the exception of rather few Catholics) Lutherans. The soil is 
very fertile, and all branches of husbandry are in a highly pros- 
perous state. Of manufactures there are in general but few ; 
the trade however is very considerable. Besides the university 
at Jena, which is considered as possessed in common by the 
Saxon grand-duchy and duchies, there are 1 lyceum, 1 gymna- 
sium, 1 seminary, 6 Latin and numerous common schools. The 
government is a limited monarchy. To the confederal army are 
to be furnished 982 men. According to the budget for the 
period of 1845-48, the public revenue, was estimated at 631,940 
Prussian dollars annually, and the expenditure at about the same 
amount. The public debt was at that period 930,687 Prussian 
dollars. About the order of honor, in common with the other 
Saxon duchies, see page 390. 

History. — In the history of the kingdom of Saxony, it has already been 
told, that to the districts ceded by Maurice to the deposed elector, was in 
1554 added that of Altenburg. Duke Ernest the Pious (see History of 
Saxe-Meiningen) inherited it in 1672, and when his 7 sons divided the do- 
minions, the eldest, Duke Frederic of Gotha, became possessed of Altenburg. 
Since, or in the whole period from 1680 to 1825, when the line of Frederic 
became extinct, Gotha and Altenburg were constantly united. By the ar- 
rangements agreed upon in 1826, on the part of the three reigning Saxon 



396 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg. 



dukes (see History of Saxe-Meiningen), the duke Frederic of Hildburghau- 
sen ceded this duchy to Saxe-Meiningen, and acquired instead of it the 
wealthy duchy of Altenburg, whither he now transferred his residence. He 
died in 1834, and was succeeded by his son, the still reigning duke, Joseph, 
born in 1789. 

The duchy of Saxe-Altenburg consists of two detached sec- 
tions; the eastern one (with the capital) bordering upon the 
kingdom of Saxony, and the western section (styled the Kahla- 
Eisenberg circle) bordering upon the grand-duchy of Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Altenburg, the capital of the duchy and residence of the duke, near the 
Pleisse river, southward and 28 miles distant from Leipsic, with considera- 
ble corn trade and 15,300 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive, and in vari- 
ous other respects, remarkable castle or ducal palace, whence in the night 
of the 8th July, 1455, the princes Ernest and Albert, sons of Frederic the 
Meek (see History of the kingdom of Saxony), were kidnapped by the 
knight Kunz of Kaufungen. Lucka, a town on the Schnauder river, north- 
ward and 10 miles distant from Altenburg, has 1,300 inhabitants, and is his- 
torically noted for a battle in 1307, between the emperor Albert I, and the 
margrave Frederic of Meissen. Ronneburg, a town south-eastward and 13 
miles distant from Altenburg, with considerable corn trade, and 5,400 inhab- 
itants. Eisenberg, a town westward and 18 miles distant from Altenburg, 
with 4,900 inhabitants, considerable timber trade, and a ducal castle, in the 
period of 1680-1 *707, the residence of Duke Christian of Eisenberg, fifth 
son of Duke Ernest the Pious (see History of Saxe-Meiningen). Roda, a 
town on a river of the same name, with 2,100 inhabitants. Kahla, a town 
on the Saale, with a remarkable Gothic church, and 2,500 inhabitants. 
Orlamunde, a town near the Saale, with 1,200 inhabitants. 



GERMANY. 391 



The Principalities of Reuss. — Statistics, etc. 



XX.-XXI— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF REUSS. 

Area : 596 square miles. 
Population: 108,800 inhabitants. 

They are situated at the north-eastern frontier of Bavaria, and 
at the Frankenwald (see page 7), and consist of two distinct sec- 
tions, separated but a short distance from each other, and be- 
longing the one to an Elder, the other to a Younger line of the 
princely house of Reuss. The surface is partly mountainous, 
partly hilly, yet the soil is generally fertile. The chief natural 
products are like those of the neighboring countries, Altenburg 
and Meiningen. The manufactures consist in substance of wool- 
len and cotton goods. There are 1 gymnasium, 3 seminaries, 2 
Latin, and numerous common schools. The inhabitants are Lu- 
therans, with the exception of about 400 Jews. The government 
is in both principalities a limited monarchy. There are but few 
states where the public finances are so well arranged and settled 
as in the principalities of Reuss. The taxes are at an extraordi- 
nary low standard, and in the dominion of Grera (belonging to the 
younger line) even lower than the above (see page 308) stated 
ratio indicates upon an average for the whole. Some years ago 
the public debt of the principalities amounted to 120,000 Prus- 
sian dollars, but has since been considerably reduced by paying 
off. The public expenditure is for a great part covered by the 
revenues of the princely domains, amounting to respectively 
133,400 and 140,000 Prussian dollars (Younger line), and 
100,000 Prussian dollars annually (Elder line). To the confede- 
ral army are to be furnished 223 men by the elder, and 522 by 
the younger line. 



398 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Principalities of Reuss. 

History. — The ancestor of the house of Reuss is Earl Henry I. of Glitz- 
berg or Gleitberg, descending from the house of Luxemburg, who had his 
estates in the present Hessian territories, and lived towards the end of the 
11th century. By his consort, a countess of Schwarzenberg, he became pos- 
sessed of considerable estates in the above (under the head of Saxony, page 
388) mentioned Voigtland, and his descendants were appointed imperial 
governors of it. One of them, Henry, Earl of Plauen (ancient capital of 
the Voigtland), was surnamed the Rusen, or Ruzzo (an obsolete name), and 
thus sprung up the family name of Reuss. The domestic dominions of this 
house were since the 16th century restricted to the present territories. The 
earls, since respectively 1778 and 1807 princes of Reuss, have for centuries 
borne the Christian name of Henry. 

There are at present only two reigning princes, viz.. the prince 
of Reuss-Greiz, representing the Elder line, and the prince of 
Reuss-Schleiz representing the Younger line of the house of 
Reuss. (Prior to 1848 the younger line was represented by two 
princes.) 

1. The principality of Reuss-Greiz (149 square miles, and 33,800 inhabi- 
tants), since 1836 governed by Henry XX. (born in 1794), contains: Greiz, 
its capital and princely residence, on the Elster, and near the frontier of 
Saxony, has 3 princely palaces, and 7,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
cotton and woollen manufactures. Zeulenroda, a town with a remarkable 
church, and 5,100 inhabitants, is noted for its hosieries. 

2. The territories of the Younger line (447 square miles, and 75,000 in- 
habitants), which latter is represented by the prince Henry LXI1. of Reuss- 
Schleiz (born in 1785), comprise the principality of Reuss-Schleiz proper, 
the former sovereign principality of Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf, and the do- 
minion of Ger a which was until 1848 possessed in common by both princes of 
this line. They contain : Schleiz, the capital and residence of the prince of 
Reuss-Schleiz, on the little Wiesenthal river, south-eastward and 42 miles 
distant from Weimar, with considerable trade, important cotton and wool- 
len manufactures, and 5,100 inhabitants. Ebersdorf, until 1848 the capital 
and princely residence of Reuss-Lobenstein-Ebersdorf (160 square miles, and 
21,600 inhabitants), south-westward and 10 miles distant from Schleiz, with 
a stately palace, various manufactures, and 1,250 inhabitants. Lobenstein, 



GERMANY. 399 



The Principalities of Reuss and Schwarzburg. 



a town not far from Ebersdorf, has considerable manufactur&s, and 2,500 in- 
habitants, and was until 1824 the residence of the princes of Reuss-Loben- 
stein, which line then became extinct. The above-mentioned dominion of 
Gera (149 square miles, and 32,300 inhabitants) contains: Geea, a town ro- 
mantically situated on the Elster, 38 miles south-south-west of Leipsic, is 
one of the most industrious towns in this quarter, and has 10,000 inhabi- 
tants. The town of Saalburg, on the Saale, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted 
for its iron-works. Kostritz, a village on the Elster, with 1,200 inhabitants, 
is the residence of a collateral line of the house of Reuss. 



XXII-XXIII— THE PRINCIPALITIES OF SCHWARZBURG. 

Area: 660 square miles. 
Population: 128,000 inhabitants. 

Both of these principalities, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen and 
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, consist of two detached sections about 
25 miles from each other, and situated in the centre of Germany. 
One section, styled the Lower Dominion, is encircled by the ter- 
ritory of the Prussian province of Saxony ; and the other sec- 
tion, styled the Upper Dominion, is surrounded by the Saxon 
duchies, and situated at the Thuringerwald. The former is situ- 
ated in and near a district noted for its great fertility, and proba- 
bly for this reason, called the Guldene Ami (golden plain or field). 
Both principalities have a generally hilly but fertile soil. The 
natural productions are chiefly grain, flax, timber, freestone, 
cattle, sheep of improved breed, etc. In the forests much pitch 
and smoke-black is made ; moreover there are iron-works, and 
some woollen manufactures The inhabitants are (with the ex- 
ception of about 300 Catholics and 400 Jews) Lutherans. Tbe 
government is in both principalities a limited monarchy. In the 



400 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Principalities of Sctawarzburg. 

principality of Sondershausen the public revenue is about 1 60,000 
Prussian dollars, and the expenditure upon an average much 
less than this amount. (The revenues of the princely do- 
mains are estimated at 230,000 Prussian dollars.) The public 
debt was some years ago 114,000 Prussian dollars. To the con- 
federal army are to be furnished 451 men. — In the principality 
of Rudolstadt the public revenue amounted to 268,000, and the 
expenditure to 248,541 florins in the year 1844; the public debt 
was 100,540 florins. (The revenue of the princely domains are 
estimated at 180,000 Prussian dollars.) To the confederal army 
are to be furnished 539 men. 

History. — The former earls, at present princes of Schwarzburg, are de- 
scendants of Sizzo, earl of Schwarzburg and Kafernbnrg. Sizzo died in 
1195, and left behind two sons, Henry and Giinther, by whom the earldom 
was divided. But in the beginning of the 14th century it was under the 
sway of one single line; and to this belonged earl Giinther, who hi 1347 
was elected Roman emperor (see History of Germany). Meanwhile the 
earldom had been aggrandized both in the Upper and Lower Dominion 
Earl Gimther XL., who died in 1552, left behind two sons, John Gunther 
and Albert Anton, who divided the earldom again, and are the ancestors of 
the present reigning lines of Sondershausen and Rudolstadt, In 1697 and 
1710 the earls of Schwarzburg were raised to the dignity of princes. 



I. SCHWARZBURG-SONDERSHAUSEN. 

This principality has an extent of 330 square miles, with 
58,000 inhabitants, and its reigning sovereign is, since 1835, 
prince Giinther (Frederic Charles), born in 1801. It contains: 

1. In the Lower Dominion: Sondershausen, the capital of the principal- 
ity and princely residence, on the Wipper river, south-eastward ami 7 miles 
distant from Nordhausen, with an extensive palace and 5,000 inhabitants. 
Greussen and Ehrig, towns with respectively 2,600 and 1,100 inhabitants 



GERMANY. 401 



The Principalities of Schwarzburg. 



Clingen (with 1,100 inhabitants), Ebeleben (with 1,000 inhabitants), Schern- 
berg (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Keula (with 1,050 inhabitants). 2. In the 
Upper Dominion : Arnstadt, a town on the Gera river, south eastward and 
15 miles distant from Gotha, with remarkable public edifices, considerable corn 
trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Plane, a little town with 850 inhabitants, is 
noted for its porcelain manufactory. Gehren, a market-town with 1,800 in- 
habitants, and the neighboring ruins of the princely ancestral castle of 
Kafernburg. 



IL SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT. 

This principality is exactly of the same extent as the former, 
but its population amounts to 70,000 inhabitants. The reigning 
sovereign since 1814, is prince GiXnther (Frederic), born in 
1793. It contains : 

1. In the Upper Dominion : Rudolstadt, the capital of the principality 
and princely residence, on the Saale, southward and 20 miles distant from 
Weimar, with a celebrated palace, and 5,500 inhabitants. The neighbor- 
ing town of Blanhenburg , with 1,300 inhabitants, is remarkable for the ruins 
of an ancient castle, where Earl Gunther, who was elected German emperor, 
was born. Paulinzelle, once a Cistercian monastery; its ruins are still 
notable ; as is also the neighboring and well-preserved ancestral castle 
of Schwarzburg. Konigsee, a town with 2,100 inhabitants. Stoat llm, an 
industrious town on the llm river, north-westward and 10 miles distant 
from Rudolstadt, with 2,300 inhabitants. 2. In the Lower Dominion : 
Frankenhatjsen, a town on the "Wipper river, eastward and 7 miles distant 
from Sondershausen, with considerable trade in wool, and 5,000 inhabitants, 
is noted for its salt-works. Near Frankenhausen, on the 15th May, 1525, 
the notorious Thomas Mtinzer, at the head of 8,000 rebellious peasants, was 
defeated and taken prisoner. Not far from here are the ruins of the 
anciently renowned castle of Kyffhausen, where the emperors of the house 
of Hohenstaufen, especially Frederic I, frequently resided. 



402 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — The Duchies of Anhalt. 



XXIV.-XXV.— THE DUCHIES OF ANHALT. 

Area: 1,022 square miles. 
Population: 158,000 inhabitants. 

The duchies (until 1806 principalities) of Anhalt, are situated 
along the Elbe, between Wittenberg and Magdeburg, and are 
almost wholly surrounded by the territory of the Prussian prov- 
ince of Saxony. The inhabitants are (with the exception of 
about 1,350 Catholics, and 2,450 Jews) Protestants, i. e. partly 
Lutherans (prevailing in Anhalt-Bernburg). and partly Calvinists 
(prevailing in Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Cothen). The duchies 
of Anhalt rank among the most fertile countries of Germany, 
and are especially noted for their fine breed of cattle and sheep. 
The dairy produces excellent butter. Linen and woollen goods 
are the staple manufactures ; near the Hartz are iron-works. 
The inland trade is very considerable. Beside numerous com- 
mon schools, there are 4 gymnasia. The government is since 
1848 a limited monarchy. Until recently, Anhalt-Dessau had to 
furnish 529, Bernburg 370, and Cothen 325 men, to the federal 
army. About the public finances, see below. In 1837 the dukes 
of Anhalt instituted in common the order of Albert the Bear, in 
3 classes. 

History. — The territories of the present duchies of Anhalt were formerly 
under the sway of the eastern margraves, who so early as in the 10th cen- 
tury, had become possessed of considerable dominions along the Saale and 
Elbe rivers. Esico of Ascania, nearly related with these margraves, and 
living at the end of the 10th century, is to be considered as the ancestor of 
the house of Anhalt ; which latter name came into vogue towards the end 
of the 12th century. Esico's grandson Otto, surnamed the Rich, was mar- 
ried to Eilika, daughter of the duke Magnus of Saxony (i. e. of primitive 



GERMANY. 403 



The Duchies of Anhalt— their History. 



Saxony, subsequently named Lower Saxony, see page 378), while her sister 
"Wulf hild was married to the duke Henry of Bavaria, grandfather of the 
renowned Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion. Thus, when the latter was 
outlawed in 1179, his cousin, the earl Bernard of Anhalt, was the nearest 
heir to the duchy of Saxony, and was indeed invested with it and the elec- 
toral dignity (see page 379). However his son and successor, Henry L, 
ceded both to his younger brother Albert (ancestor of the electors of Sax- 
ony from the house of Ascania, and of the dukes of Lauenburg, who became 
extinct in 1689), while he himself was contented with his patrimonial domin- 
ions, and assumed the title of a prince of Anhalt. After his death, which 
occurred in 1252, three lines of his house sprung up, two of which became 
extinct ; but since the death of the prince Joachim Ernest of Anhalt-Zerbst 
(reigning from 1570 to 1586), four new lines were formed by his four sons, 
viz., the lines of Dessau, Bernburg, Cothen, and Zerbst. In 1793 the last- 
named line (to which belonged the empress Katharine II., of Russia) be- 
came extinct, and its principality was divided among the three other lines, 
that respectively in 1806 and 1807, were raised to the ducal dignity. In 
1847 the line of Anhalt-Cbthen became extinct, and since that period, its 
duchy devolved to the. remaining two reigning lines, is previously adminis- 
tered on common account of them. 

We shall first describe the duchies of Anhalt- Bernburg and 
Anhalt-Dessau, as independent states, and lastly the former 
duchv of Anhalt-Cothen in 1847 devolved to both in common. 



I. THE DUCHY OF ANHALT-BERNBURG. 

It has an extent of 341 square miles, with 51,000 inhabitants, 
and consists of two detached sections, the one of which, styled 
the Lower Duchy, is situated on the Saale and Elbe, and the 
other, styled Upper Duchy, at the Lower Hartz (see page 8). 
The public revenue (including the revenues of the domains) 
amounts to 450,000 florins, and much exceeds the expenditure. 
Some years ago there was, however, a public debt to the amount 



404 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Duchies of Anhalt-Bernburg and Anhalt-Dessau. 

of 600,000 florins. The nigher ancestor of the line of Bernburg 
is Christian, son of the above-mentioned prince Joachim Ernest. 
The late prince Alexius, reigning since 1796, was still shortly 
before the dissolution of the German Empire in 1806 created 
duke by the emperor, and joined as such the Rhenish Confedera- 
tion. He died in 1834, and was succeeded by his son, the pres- 
ent reigning duke Alexander (Charles), born in 1805. The 
duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg contains : 

1. In the Lower Duchy : Bernburg, the capital of the duchy and seat of 
the government (but not of the duke, who usually resides in Ballenstedt), 
on the Saale, southward and 23 miles distant from Magdeburg, with a ducal 
castle, 3 remarkable churches, considerable trade, and 6,200 inh. Plbtzkau, 
a town noted for a castle with a remarkable steeple. KoswicJc, a town on the 
Elbe, with several public edifices, breweries, and 2,850 inhabitants. Muhlin- 
gen, a village with ancient ducal castle, and 1,050 inhabitants. 2. In the Upper 
Duchy : Ballenstedt, a town at the foot of the Hartz, westward and 20 
miles distant from Bernburg, is the usual residence of the duke (his palace 
was primitively founded in 940), is noted for its breweries, and has 3,850 
inhabitants. Harzgerode, a town south-westward and 7 miles distant from 
Ballenstedt, with 2,450 inhabitants. In its neighborhood are the noted 
watering-place of Alexisbad, the important iron-works of Magdesprung, 
and a silver mine. Near this are the ruins of the ancestral castle of Anhalt. 
The town of Gernrode, with 2,200 inhabitants, is noted for its church and 
manufactures of fire-arms. The town of Hoym, on the Selke river, north- 
ward and 5 miles distant from Ballenstedt, with a ducal palace, and 2,300 
inhabitants, is noted for its flax, and was until 1812 the seat of a collateral 
line of the house of Anhalt. Gunthersberge is one of the most ancient 
towns in Germany, and has 850 inhabitants. 



II. THE DUCHY OF ANHALT-DESSAU. 

It has an extent of 362 square miles, with 65,000 inhabitants, 
and is situated along the Elbe and Mulde (see page 16) rivers. 



GERMANY. 405 



Germany. — Duchies of Anhalt-Dessau and Anhalt-Cothen. 

The public revenue (including the considerable revenues from the 
ducal domains) amounts to 600,000 florins, and exceeds by far 
the expenditure. Nevertheless there was some years ago a public 
debt of 1,500,000 florins, contracted for various purposes in pub- 
lic concerns. The nigher ancestor of the line of Dessau is John 
George, eldest son of the above-mentioned prince Joachim Er- 
nest. His great-grandson, John George II., who died in 1693, 
was the father of the well-known rough swordsman, prince Leo- 
fold, who was general in the Prussian service, and died in 1747. 
His grandson, Leopold Frederic Francis, joined in 1807 the Rhe- 
nish Confederation as duke. He died in 1817, and was suc- 
ceeded by his grandson, the present reigning duke Leopold Fred- 
eric, born in 1794. The duchy of Anhalt-Dessau contains: 

Dessau, the capital of the duchy and ducal residence, on the Mulde river, 
near its junction with the Elbe, with several beautiful public edifices (the 
foundation of the ducal palace was laid in 1341), considerable corn and 
wool trade, and 12,500 inhabitants. Oranienbaum, a town eastward and 7 
miles distant from Dessau, with ducal palace, and 2,100 inhabitants. Half- 
way between Dessau and Wittenberg, is Worlitz, with 2,000 inhabitants, 
noted for its ducal gardens and park. Ragulin and Jessnitz, industrious 
towns on the Mulde, with respectively 1,750 and 2,454 inhabitants. Zerbst, 
until 1793 the capital of a principality of the same name (see History of 
Anhalt), on the Nuthe river, north-westward and 13 miles distant from Des- 
sau, with several public edifices, manufactures, considerable trade, and 9,500 
inhabitants. 

III. The former duchy of Anhalt-Cothen (319 square miles, 
and 42,000 inhabitants), since 1847 administered on the com- 
mon account of the remaining two reigning lines of the house 
of Anhalt (see above), is situated chiefly between the Saale and 
Mulde rivers, and partly on the right bank of the Elbe. (Politi- 
cally annexed to Anhalt-Cothen are the dependent principality 
of Pless in Silesia, to the extent of 383 square miles, with 54,000 



406 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Duchies of Anhalt. 



inhabitants, and the Ascanianova, a tract of land 320 square miles 
in extent, in the southern part of Russia). The nigher ancestor 
of the line of Cothen was Emanuel, grandson of the above-men- 
tioned prince Joachim Ernest. The prince Augustus Christian 
Frederic (1789-1812) joined in 1807 the Rhenish Confedera- 
tion as duke. He was succeeded by his nephew Louis, who died 
in 1818 and was succeeded by his cousin duke Ferdinand of An- 
halt-Pless, who in 1825 turned a Roman Catholic, and died in 
1830. Ferdinand was succeeded by his brother Henri/, who died 
on the 23d Nov., 1847, and with whom the line of Anhalt-Cothen 
became extinct. The former duchy contains : 

Cothen or Kothen, formerly its capital and ducal residence, about half- 
way between Bernburg and Dessau, with various remarkable public edi- 
fices, leather manufactures, considerable trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. In 
its neighborhood is situated the village of Baasdorf, with only 400 inhabi- 
tants, but noted for the wealth of its peasantry. Nienburg, surnamed an 
der Saale, a town on the Saale, with considerable trade, and 2,000 inhabi- 
tants. Rosslau, an industrious town near Dessau, with 1.600 inhabitants. The 
village of JDornburg is noted for its extensive ducal palace. 



XXVI— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 

Area : 4,856 square miles. 
Population: 515,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated on the Baltic Sea, between Pomerania and Hol- 
stein, on the south separated from Hanover by the Elbe river. 
The inhabitants are (with the exception of few Calvinists and 
Catholics, and of about 3,350 Jews) Lutherans. 

The country forms part of the extensive plain mentioned 



GERMANY. 401 



The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin — its Geography, etc. 

page 4 ; thus its surface is generally level, and only here and 
there intersected by ridges of low hills. A natural curiosity, 
somewhat similar to the Giant's Causeway in Ireland, is on the 
coast, the so-called Holy Causeway (Heiliger Damm), rising from 
12 to 15 feet above the water, and of a length of nearly 2£ miles, 
by about 1 00 feet broad. 

The soil is for the most part fertile and well cultivated, while 
other parts of the country are covered with extensive and valu- 
able forests. All branches of husbandry are in Mecklenburg 
managed with a skill unsurpassed in Germany. The country is 
especially noted for the fine breed of its horses (see page 285). 
The manufactures are rather insignificant ; but the more consid- 
erable is the trade and commerce, which latter is carried on chiefly 
by Rostock and Wis mar. The principal exports are grain, butter, 
cattle, horses, timber, and wool. 

There are, with regard to the means of education, besides a 
university at Rostock (see page 287), which in 1844 was fre- 
quented by 120 students, 5 gymnasiums, 2 seminaries, 43 Latin 
and 1,048 common schools. The government is a limited mon- 
archy. The amount of the public revenue and of the expenditure 
was, according to the budget for 1843-44, estimated at 3,162.751 
Prussian dollars. The public debt amounted in 1845 to 6,962,429 
Prussian dollars. To the confederal army are to be furnished 
3,580 men. 

History. — The grand-ducal families, both in Mecklenburg-Schwerin and 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz, are descended in direct male line from the last king 
or prince of the Obotrites, Pribislav II., who died in 1181. The capital of 
the Obotrites was named Mikelenborg (at present a village, and situated in 
the neighborhood of Wismar), hence the name of Mecklenburg. The Obo- 
trites belonged to the great tribe of the Slavonians (see pages 18 and 19), 
and had immigrated here since about the 5th century. They were subdued 
by Charlemagne, but became independent in the days of Louis the Pious, 



408 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany.— Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. 



and were since 820 ruled by a native prince, Ceodrag by name. In 1161 
the country was conquered by Henry, surnamed the Lion, duke of Saxony 
and Bavaria, who however retained only a part of it, while he in 1166 
restored the remainder to the native prince, the above-mentioned Pribidav 
II., who embraced the Christian creed, and became in 1170 prince of the 
German empire. The German language began since to supplant gradually 
the Slavonic idiom. Pribislav died in 1181, and was succeeded by his son 
Borowin, whose four sons, by dividing the country, formed as many reigning 
lines (of Mecklenburg, Rostock, Parchim, and Werle), which in the course 
of time became extinct, with the exception of the line of Mecklenburg, that 
in 1348 was raised to the ducal dignity by Emperor Charles IV. Subse- 
quently there sprung up new lines, but towards the end of the 17th century 
(in 1695), they were restricted to two, that of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz. The duke Frederic of Mecklenburg-Schwerin died in 
1785, and was succeeded by his nephew, Frederic Francis, who in 1803 
bought back at the price of 1,200,000 dollars, from Sweden, the city of 
Wismar (which Mecklenburg had been obliged to cede to that power in 
1648), joined in 1807 the Rhenish, and in 1815 the German confederation, 
as grand duke. He died in 1837, and was succeeded by his grandson, Paul 
Frederic, who died so early as in the year 1842, and was succeeded by his 
son, the present reigning grand duke, Frederic Francis, born in 1823. 

The ancient constituent parts of the present grand-duchy are: 
the duchies of Schwerin and Gustrow, the principality or former 
bishopric of Schwerin, and the dominions of Rostock and Wis- 
mar. The country is still divided into these parts, and subdi- 
vided into 45 bailiwicks. In the following topography the for- 
mer will be found separated from each other by dashes. The 
first period embraces the ancient duchy and earldom of Schwerin 
(2,598 square miles, and 268,000 inhabitants), containing : 

Schwerin, the capital of the whole country and grand-ducal residence, on 
the lake of the same name, eastward and 60 miles distant from Hamburg, 
and south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Lubec, has several remarkable 
public edifices (among them the cathedral founded in 1170), nnd 17,500 
inhabitants. Barizlcow (with 1,250 inhabitants), Crivitz (with 2,300 inhabi- 



GERMANY. 409 



The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin— its Geographical Divisions. 

tants), Hagenow (with 2,700 inhabitants), Wittenburg (with 2,200 inhabi- 
tants), and Lubtheen (with 2,300 inhabitants), towns. The town of Neustadt 
(on the Elde, a little tributary of the Elbe), with 1,900 inhabitants, is 
remarkable for two palaces, the older of which was the residence of a col- 
lateral line of the house of Mecklenburg from 1726 to 1735. Parchim, a 
privileged city, on the Elde (tributary of the Elbe), south-eastward and 18 
miles distant from Schwerin, carries on a rather considerable trade, has 
6,500 inhabitants, and was, until 1840, the seat of the supreme tribunal of 
Mecklenburg. Boizenburg, one of the most industrious towns of the coun- 
try, on the Elbe, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Hamburg, with 
considerable trade and 3,600 inhabitants. Grevismuhlen, a town situated 
between two lakes, 12 miles west-south-west of Wismar, with 2,550 inhabi- 
tants. Klutz, a market-town with 2,200 inhabitants, lies in a district of 
nearly the same name, noted for its fertility. Gadebusch, a town on the 
Radegast river, north-westward and 12 miles distant from Schwerin, has 
2,400 inhabitants, and is noted for a battle between the Swedes and Danes, 
on the 20th December, 1712. Rehna, a town in the neighborhood of Gade- 
busch, with woollen manufactures, and 2,250 inhabitants. Doberan, a mar- 
ket-town near the Baltic Sea and Rostock, has 2,200 inhabitants, a grand- 
ducal palace, and a remarkable Gothic church, and is much resorted to for 
sea-bathing. Sternberg, a town on a lake of the same name, north-eastward 
and 16 miles distant from Schwerin, has 2,300 inhabitants. Here, alter- 
nately with Malchin, the diets of Mecklenburg are held. The town of Gra- 
bow (on the Elde, tributary of the Elbe, with 3,350 inhabitants) is noted for 
its butter-markets. Ludwigslust, a market-town on the Hamburg-Berlin 
railroad, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its grand-ducal palace, until 
1837 the residence of the grand duke. Domitz, a somewhat fortified town 
on the Elbe, at its junction with the Elde, with 2,250 inhabitants. — Buetzow, 
anciently the capital of the independent bishopric of Schwerin (instituted in 
1171, and secularized in 1648), with an extensive castle or palace, manufac- 
tures, and 4,050 inhabitants. In 1760 a university was founded here, which 
however in 1789 was united with that of Rostock. — Guestrow, a privileged 
city on the Nebel (see page 17), southward and 18 miles distant from Ros- 
tock, with several public edifices, important trade, and 9,100 inhabitants. Tete- 
row (with 4,000 inhabitants), Stavenhagen (with 2,250 inhabitants), Waren 
(with 5,200 inhabitants), Penzlin (with 2,400 inhabitants), and JPlau (with 
8,100 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. The town of Malchin 

IS 



410 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchies of Mecklenbuig-Schwerin and Strelitz. 



(on the Peene and near the frontier of Pomerania), with linen and woollen 
manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants. Here, alternately with Sternberg, the 
diets of Mecklenburg are held. Dobbertin, anciently a Benedictine nunnery, 
but since the Reformation an establishment for ladies of rank, to which 
belong 31 villages, is situated in the neighborhood of Goldberg (a town on a 
lake, eastward and 27 miles distant from Schwerin, with 2,900 inhabitants). 
The towns of Malchow (on a lake of the same name, eastward and 27 miles 
distant from Parchim, with cloth manufactures, and 2,900 inhabitants) and 
Ribnitz (on the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Ros- 
tock, with fishery, and 3,350 inhabitants), are likewise noted for ancient 
wealthy nunneries, at present establishments for ladies of rank. — Rostock, 
a commercial city on the Warnow (see page 17), about 10 miles from the 
Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 48 miles distant from Schwerin, has 20,500 
inhabitants, several celebrated churches and other public edifices, and is 
noted for its university (see above and page 287), its manufactures, consider- 
able shipping, and other similar business. The seaport of Rostock is War- 
nemunde, a market-town at the mouth of the Warnow, with 1,700 inhabi- 
tants. — Wismar, a commercial city on the Baltic Sea, south-westward and 
32 miles distant from Rostock, and northward and 18 miles distant from 
Schwerin, with considerable shipping and commerce, and 11,500 inhabitants. 
It has already been noticed, that Wismar belonged to Sweden in the period 
from 1648 to 1803 (see above). Neukloster, a village with 1,400 inhabitants. 



XXVII— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

Area : 1,107 square miles. 
Population : 96,000 inhabitants 

It is situated between Mecklenburg-Schwerin and the Prus- 
sian provinces of Pomerania and Brandenburg, nowhere border- 
ing upon the sea, with the exception of a section, styled the prin- 
cipality of Ratzeburg (144 square miles, and 16,000 inhabitants), 



GERMANY. 411 



The Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz — its History. 



which lies at the north-western frontier of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
in the neighborhood of Lubec. About the surface, soil, natural 
productions, etc., almost the same may be said as has been stated 
under the head of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The inhabitants are 
(with the exception of a few Catholics and about 900 Jews) Lu- 
therans. There are 3 gymnasiums, 221 common, and several 
other schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The 
amount of the public revenue, and of the expenditure for several 
years, has been about 388,500 Prussian dollars. The public debt 
amounted, some years ago, to 1,200,000 Prussian dollars. To 
the confederal army are to be furnished 718 men. 

History. — That this grand-duchy and its reigning family have had the 
same origin as Mecklenburg-Schwerin, is already noticed in the history of 
the latter. When since the death of the duke John Albert I. of Giistrow 
(in 1695), the lines of the house of Mecklenburg were restricted to two, of 
Schwerin and Strelitz, the dukes Frederic William and Adolphus Frederic, 
then representing these lines, made in 1701 an arrangement, according to 
which Adolphus Frederic became possessed of the duchy of Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz and the principality of Ratzeburg. The successors of Adolphus 
Frederic, who died in 1708, were : Adolphus Frederic II. (+in 1721), Adol- 
phus Frederic III. (+1752), and Adolphus Frederic IV. (+1794). The 
last-named duke was succeeded by his brother Charles (the father of the 
queen Louisa of Prussia, who died in 1810), who in 1808 entered the Rhe- 
nish, and subsequently the German Confederation as grand duke. He died 
in 1816, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning grand duke 
George, born in 1779. 

The grand-duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz thus consists of two 
detached sections, the one or Mecklenburg-Strelitz proper, offi- 
cially styled the dominion of Stargard, having an area of 963 
square miles, with 80.000 inhabitants, and the other smaller one 
(see back), styled the principality of Ratzeburg. The former 
contains : 

New-Strelitz (in German JSFeu-Strelitz), the capital of the grand-duchy 



412 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Duchy j>f Holstein. 

and grand-ducal residence, on a lake, south-eastward and 66 miles distant 
from Schwerin, and northward and 62 miles distant from Berlin, is well-built, 
and has 1,500 inhabitants. About 2 miles from here is Old Strelitz (Alt- 
Strelitz), or simply Strelitz, a town noted for its horse-marts, with 3,800 
inhabitants. New Brandenburg (in German Neubrandenburg), a privileged 
city near a lake, 16 miles north-north-east of New Strelitz, is very regularly 
built, and noted for wool-markets, cloth and linen manufactures, hops, etc., 
and has 1,000 inhabitants. John I., margrave of Brandenburg, laid the 
foundation of this city in 1248, hence its name. Stargard, an anciently 
noted town, eastward and 5 miles distant from Neubrandenburg, with 1,600 
inhabitants. Friedland, a town, founded in 1244 by the margraves John 
and Otto III. of Brandenburg, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 4,700 
inhabitants. Fuerstenberg, a town on the Havel, is noted for its butter, 
and has 2,800 inhabitants. The so-called principality of Ratzeburg (which 
has but very little, or nearly nothing in common with the town of this name, 
capital of the duchy of Lauenburg), which primitively was an independent 
bishopric, instituted in 1058 and secularized in 1648, contains: Schonberg, a 
town near the Baltic Sea, 12 miles east-south-east of Lubec, with a palace 
(once the residence of the bishops of Ratzeburg), linen manufactures, and 1,550 
inhabitants. The so-called Dotnhof and Palmberg are to be considered as a 
suburb of the town of Ratzeburg, with 350 inhabitants, subjected to the 
grand duke of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. 



XXVIII.— THE DUCHY OF HOLSTEIN, TOGETHER WITH THE 
DUCHY OF LAUENBURG. 

Area : 3,138 square miles. 
Population: 524,000 inhabitants. 

Holstein is the most northern state of Germany, on the west 
washed by the North Sea, and on the east by the Baltic. On the 
south-west and south it is by the Elbe separated from the kingdom 



GERMANY. 413 



The Duchy of Holsteirv — its Statistics. 



of Hanover, and its south-eastern frontier is formed by the duchy 
of Lauenburg. The latter has an area of 404-£- square miles, and 
a population of 47,000 inhabitants ; while Holstein has an area 
of 3,333£ square miles, and a population of 477,000 inhabitants. 
The population in both duchies consists of Lutherans (with the 
exception of about 650 Calvinists, 850 Catholics, 200 Mennon- 
ites, and 3,500 Jews). — We shall first describe Holstein, and 
after this Lauenburg. 

About the rivers and lakes in Holstein see pages 11, 14 and 
17. The surface and soil of the country is much the same as in 
the neighboring Mecklenburg. The various branches of hus- 
bandry form the chief source for sustenance in Holstein as well 
as in Mecklenburg; and previous to the unreasonable war against 
Denmark so wantonly contrived and prosecuted since 1848, Hol- 
stein was unrivalled in its wealth and prosperity. There was 
scarcely a beggar to be found there, and even thefts very seldom 
occurred. Agriculture was on a high scale of improvement, as 
the rearing of cattle and horses. The latter are of the first breed, 
and many of them were annually exported to France, for the 
French cavalry. The butter of Holstein is renowned for its ex- 
cellency throughout Germany, England, and other countries. 
The fisheries, the commerce and the manufactures, all formerly 
important, have been seriously reduced by the recent war with 
Denmark. The university at Kiel (see page 288 ; in 1846 it was 
frequented by 207 students), 6 gymnasiums, (in Altona, Kiel, 
Gluckstadt, Meldorf, Plon and Rendsburg), 1 seminary for school- 
teachers, and 1,051 common schools were in the best order. The 
government sine* 1834 is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
being vested in the king of Denmark as duke of Holstein, and in 
a provincial assembly. To the German confederal army were 
to be furnished 3,600 men (i. e. both from Holstein and Lauen- 
burg). 



414 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 

Germany. — Duchy of Holstein. 

History. — The present duchy of Holstein embraces the ancient countries of 
Holstein proper (containing among others the towns of Rendsburg, Kiel, 
Itzehoe, Wilster, etc.), of Stormam (with G-luckstadt, Krempe, Wandsbeck, 
etc.), of Dithmarschen (with Meldorf, Brunsbuttel, Lunden), of Wagrien 
(with Plon, Oldesloe, Segeberg, Heiligenhafen, Aldenburg, Neustadt), and 
the former dominion of Pinneberg (with Altona, Ottensen, Pinneberg). In 
the early times of the middle ages the whole was known by the name of 
North Albingia, or Saxony beyond the Elbe, because it was chiefly inhabited 
by Saxons (see page 298). Charlemagne conquered it, and since the treaty 
concluded at Verdun in 843 (see page 31), it formed a constituent part of 
the ancient duchy of Saxony (see page 299). With this duchy Emperor 
Henry V. invested in 1106 the earl Lothar of Supplinburg (subsequently 
Emperor Lothar II. ; see page 300). The latter now again invested the 
earl Adolphus of Schaumburg (belonging to that house, mentioned page 
311) with Holstein as a fief; according to the general custom in the middle 
ages (see pages 35 and 36). At a later period Holstein became an actual 
independent member of the German empire, and the earls of Schaumburg 
remained in possession of it until 1459, when the last male descendant, Earl 
Adolphus XII., died childless. His only heiress was his sister, the countess 
Hedwig of Oldenburg, whose eldest son, Christian, had ascended the throne 
of Denmark in 1448, and who now, after the death of Earl Adolphus XII, 
in 1459, also inherited Holstein. In this way Holstein (in 1474 raised to 
the dignity of a duchy by Emperor Frederic III.) came into connection with 
Denmark. Unfortunately, the succeeding Danish kings did not continually 
exercise the governmental power in Holstein directly, but by vassals (see 
page 36), i. e. by younger princes of the royal family, who were invested 
with the duchy as a fief. In the course of time the dukes of Holstein acted 
almost as independent sovereigns, though their feudal dependency upon the 
Danish crown remained unaltered. Several collateral lines originated, and 
frequently divisions of the duchy took place, till at length all the parts were 
reunited as a whole under the duke Frederic IV. of Holstein- Gottrop, who 
died in 1702. He was succeeded by his son, Charles Frederic, who in 1725 
entered into matrimony with the grand duchess Ann, eldest daughter of Pe- 
ter I. of Russia. Their son, Duke Peter, who succeeded Ms father in 1739, 
ascended the Russian throne in 1762, and bequeathed his patrimonial duchy 
of Holstein to his son Paul (subsequently emperor of Russia). Paul, as 
heir of the most powerful empire in Europe, not liking to be at the same 



GERMANY. 415 



Holstein — its History. 



time vassal of a foreign kingdom, loosened the ties of his vassalage by re- 
storing the duchy of Holstein to its feudal lord, the king of Denmark, in 
1773. Since that period the duchy has been again ruled directly by the 
kings of Denmark, without prejudice to its political connection first with the 
German Empire, and then with the German Confederation. In short, Hol- 
stein was in the same political condition as, for instance, Hanover was from 
1714 (when George I. ascended the British throne; see page 233) until 1837 
(when Ernest Augustus ascended the Hanoverian throne), during which pe- 
riod this Electorate (since 1814 a kingdom) formed part of the German em- 
pire, although its rulers sat on the British throne and resided in London. 
Likewise the ruler of Holstein resided, as king of Denmark, in Copenhagen ; 
but as duke of Holstein, he was a member of the German Empire and Con- 
federation. No alteration in the political condition of Holstein had been 
proposed or thought of previous to 1830. Moreover, the people of this 
duchy did not in the least wish for it ; and indeed the prosperity of Holstein 
was the most striking evidence of the liberal administration of the Danish 
government. The natural and intellectual resources of the country had 
been freely allowed to improve, and no attempt had ever been made to 
infringe upon the liberties of the people, or to supplant the German lan- 
guage by the Danish. But there were in Holstein and Sleswick some 
lawyers, almost clientless, who being unable to subsist by their profession, 
for this reason had long desired to make a living in some other way. Af- 
ter the revolution of July, 1830, in France, they became intimate with the 
revolutionary party in Germany, who received secret instructions from the 
revolutionary central-union in France ; and now it was resolved upon to 
transform both Holstein and Sleswick gradually into the head-quarters of 
revolutionary operations in the northern states of Germany. It would lead 
us too far, were we to describe all the intrigues and machinations employed 
by the lawyers and their friends to instigate the quiet and happy people 
in the duchies to sever the ties connecting them with Denmark. All their 
exertions, however, would have been frustrated by the sound sense of the 
people, had not the revolutions in Germany in 1848 come to their assistance. 
Of course, they had been in the moral necessity to allege an ostensible mo- 
tive of their exertions ; and for this purpose they brought upon the tapis 
the fact, that the presumptive heir of the Danish crown, present (since the 
20th of January, 1848) reigning king, Frederic VII., has hitherto been with- 
out children, and the possibility that he may die without any. In this case 



416 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Duchy of Holstein. 

the Danish throne would be inherited by a female line ; and now those in- 
stigators pretend that not a female, but a male line of succession, and there- 
fore especially the grand duke of Oldenburg, is entitled to the inheritance of 
Holstein. (The claims of the dukes of Sonderburg-Augustenburg and of 
G-lucksburg have in substance only reference to Sleswick.) The futility of 
this pretension is evinced first by the fact that King Christian I., in 1459, in- 
herited Holstein not by the right of his father, but by the right of his 
mother; and secondly by the fact, that Holstein was from the years 1481 
and 1533 until 1713 not an independent hereditary duchy, but a fee of the 
Danish crown, and escheated to it in the last-named year. The losses which 
both Holstein and Sleswick have sustained since the commencement of the 
insensate war with Denmark (in 1848), are immense. That all their public 
resources have been ruined, their trade and commercial intercourse inter- 
rupted, their ports blockaded, the exportation of cattle, horses and other 
productions reduced to nothing, and their agricultural enterprises in general 
paralyzed, has already been alluded to above. In the second place, the 
people in the duchies have sustained incalculable direct losses, by feeding 
the German troops and a host of adventurers, by paying war -taxes, and by 
ravages and devastations of foreigners. The resources of the duchies have 
until the commencement of the war been almost inexhaustible ; but if these 
disasters continue, there will at last remain nothing more to be lost. For 
what, then, will all these losses have been sustained ? Why has a flourish- 
ing country been transformed into a wilderness ? For what has a happy, 
industrious, wealthy people been reduced to beggary ? For nothing but to 
gratify the ambition of some German lawyers, — to realize the idle dreams 
of some book-learned fancy-mongers, and to furnish the means of temporary 
existence to sluggards and adventurers. (The historical and other particu- 
lars about Sleswick will be found under the head of Denmark.) 

The duchy of Holstein is in substance divided into its ancient 
above-mentioned constituent parts, which are subdivided into 
towns, bailiwicks, and various other districts. The duchy of 
Holstein contains : 

Glueckstadt, a commercial town on the Elbe, 30 miles below Hamburg, 
is the seat of several provincial magistrates, and may for this reason be 
considered as the capital of Holstein, though it is officially not styled so ; 



GERMANY. U1 



The Duchy of Holstein— its Topography. 



hitherto it carried on a considerable commerce and whale-fishery, and has 
6,000 inhabitants. Wandsbeck, a market-town north-eastward and 2£ miles 
distant from Hamburg, was, until the commencement of the war against 
Denmark, noted for its cotton and other manufactures, and has 3,100 inhabi- 
tants. Rendsburg, a town on the Eider, and exactly on the frontier of Ger- 
many and Denmark, 50 miles north-north-west of Hamburg, is noted for 
its fortifications, and has 10,500 inhabitants. Kiel, a town on the bay of the 
same name, forming an excellent harbor, northward and 60 miles distant 
from Hamburg, is noted for its university (see above and page 288) and 
annual fairs, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Itzehoe, a town on the Stoer, 
north-westward and 33 miles distant from Hamburg, with various manufac 
tures, trade in cattle, and 5,800 inhabitants. Wilster, a town on a little 
river of the same name, northward and 12 miles distant from Gluckstadt, is 
noted for its fine church, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Kellinghusen, a market- 
town on the Stoer, north-eastward and 10 miles distant from Itzehoe, with 
timber trade, and 1,100 inhabitants. Neumunster, a market-town at the 
Kiel and Altona railroad, 18 miles south-south-west of Kiel, with noted 
manufactures, and 4,200 inhabitants. Preetz, a market-town on the Schwen- 
tine river, 22 miles south-south-east of Kiel, with manufactures, and 4,100 
inhabitants. Ploen, a town romantically situated on the lake of the same 
name, south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Kiel, with a stately palace, 
once the residence of a collateral line of the dukes of Holstein, and 3,000 
inhabitants. Oldenburg (not to be confounded with the capital of the grand- 
duchy of Oldenburg), a town near the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 22 
miles distant from Ploen, and 33 miles north-north-east of Lubeck, with 
2,500 inhabitants. Heiligenhafen, a town on the Baltic Sea, opposite the 
isle of Femern, with 2,000 inhabitants. JSfeustadt, a town on the Baltic Sea 
northward and 12 miles distant from Travemunde (the sea-port of Lubeck), 
with considerable corn-trade, and 2,700 inhabitants. Lutjenburg, a town 
near the Baltic Sea, eastward and 22 miles distant from Kiel, with 2,10G 
inhabitants. Oldedoe, a town romantically situated on the Trave, south- 
westward and 14 miles distant from Lubeck, is noted for its salt-springs, and 
has 2,800 inhabitants. Segeberg, a town near the Trave, northward and 30 
miles distant from Hamburg, is noted for its gypsum, and has 3,300 inhabi- 
tants. Northward and 9 miles distant from here, is situated the village of 
Bornhbved, noted in history for three battles, in the years 1227, 1319, and 
1813. Bramstedt, a market-town near the head of the Alster river, west- 

18* 



418 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany.— Duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg. 



ward and 15 miles distant from Segeberg, with 1,600 inhabitants. The pal- 
ace of Travendahl, on the Trave river, was once frequently the residence of 
the dukes of Holstein -Ploen, and is noted for a treaty of peace concluded 
here between Sweden and Denmark, on the 17th August, 1700. The coun- 
try or province of Dithmarschen (514 square miles, and 62,000 inhabitants), 
along and towards the mouth of the Elbe, was, in the middle ages, an inde- 
pendent state, but in 1559 conquered by the dukes of Holstein and Sleswick. 
It contains: Meldoef, formerly the capital of all Dithmarschen, 26 miles 
north-north-west of G-luckstadt, with corn trade, and 3,150 inhabitants. 
Brunsbuttel, a market-town on the Elbe, opposite Cuxhafen, with 1,250 in- 
habitants. Marne, a market-town, with considerable trade in corn and cattle, 
and 1,250 inhabitants. Heide, the capital of the northern district of Dith- 
marschen, northward and 7 miles distant from Meldorf, is noted for its hand- 
some market-place, and has 5,500 inhabitants. Lunden, a town with 1,500 
inhabitants. The ancient dominion of Pinneberg (188 square miles, and 
40,000 inhabitants), of which in 1640 the crown of Denmark became 
possessed, contains : Pinneberg, a market-town, north-westward and 9 miles 
distant from Altona, with 1,100 inhabitants. Ottensen, a village near Altona, 
is the burial-place of the German poet, Klopstock, and has 2,400 inhabi- 
tants. Blankenese, a village on the Elbe, is noted for its considerable river- 
navigation, and has 3,000 inhabitants, among whom are many pilots. Flott- 
beck, a village between Ottensen and Blankenese, is noted for its botanic and 
nursery -gar dens. Wedel (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Uetersen (with 3,400 
inhabitants), market-towns. Altona, a very important commercial city, on 
the Elbe, only 1 mile below Hamburg, is not only noted for its commerce, 
but also for its manufactures, and has 32,000 inhabitants. Altona was still, 
in the 16th century a little village, but since the middle of the 17th century, 
it became gradually an important city. The market-towns of Barmstedt 
(with 1,700 inhabitants) and Elmshorn (with 5,400 inhabitants), belong to 
the ancient earldom of Ranzau, of which the Danish crown became pos- 
sessed in 1731. 

The Duchy of Lauenburg (404| square miles, and 47,000 
inhabitants) is on the north-west bordering upon Holstein, on 
the south separated from the kingdom of Hanover by the Elbe, 
and for the rest bound by Mecklenburg. Soil, natural produc- 
tions, etc., are almost the same as in Holstein and Mecklenburg. 



GERMANY. 419 



The Duchy of Lauenburg — its History. 



The country was, together with Mecklenburg (see page 408), 
conquered by Henry, surnamed the Lion, and annexed to his 
duchy of Saxony. After he had been outlawed in 1180, and the 
earl Bernard of Anhalt invested with the duchy (see page 403), 
Bernard's second son Albert became possessed of this Saxon 
dominion, which subsequently was styled the duchy of Lauen- 
burg. Duke Erich, of Saxe-Lauenburg, entered into a heredi- 
tary alliance with the house of Brunswick, in 1369; and as in 
1689 his line became extinct, the Brunswick line, subsequently 
represented by the electors and kings of Hanover, inherited the 
duchy of Lauenburg. It continued to form a constituent part 
of Hanover for 120 years, when in 1814 it was ceded to Prussia. 
Meanwhile Denmark had been deprived of Norway (with about 
1,000,000 inhabitants), and poorly indemnified for this loss by 
Swedish Pomerania (with about 150,000 inhabitants). But 
Prussia desired to annex this latter country to the remainder of 
Pomerania, and, of course, Denmark was compelled to yield to 
this desire, by ceding Swedish Pomerania, and contenting itself 
with the duchy of Lauenburg (whose population then fell short 
of 40,000 inhabitants), which Prussia ceded to it in 1815, At 
present Denmark is about to be deprived of this last poor indem- 
nification likewise, though the duchy of Lauenburg has never had 
anything at all in common, either with Holstein or Sleswick. 
But the German contrivers of the war with Denmark, on account 
of Holstein and Sleswick, are of the opinion that one act of in- 
justice, more or less, makes no difference. The duchy of Lau- 
enburg contains : 

Ratzeburg, its capital, on a lake of the same name, northward and 25 
miles distant from Lauenburg, with considerable inland trade and 2,400 
inhabitants. (About the principality of Ratzeburg, see under the head 
Mecklenburg-Strelitz.) Lauenburg, once the residence of the dukes of Lau- 
enburg, on the Elbe, 32 miles above Hamburg, with considerable trade, and 



420 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 



3,500 inhabitants. Mblln, a town on the Steckenifcz, with breweries, and 
1,800 inhabitants. Buchen, Schwarzenbelc, and Aumuhle, are more or less 
remarkable villages. 



XXIX.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 

Area: 2,411 square miles. 
Population : 2^4,050 inhabitants. 

This grand-duchy consists of three distinct territories, viz. : 
Oldenburg proper, styled the duchy of Oldenburg (on the North 
Sea, and surrounded by the kingdom of Hanover), the principal- 
ity of Lubec (which has nothing in common with the city of Lu- 
bec, though it is situated in its neighborhood), and the princi- 
pality of Birkenfeld (on the left bank of the Rhine, and in the 
neighborhood of Treves). They being at rather great distance 
from each other, they must be described separately. 

Oldenburg proper forms part of the extensive plain mentioned 
page 4 ; thus its surface is generally level, and the coast as well 
as the bank along the Weser, is sheltered against inundations by 
vast dikes, having an aggregate length of 152 miles. The Weser 
separates the country on the east from Hanover, and is joined 
here by the Hunte (see page 17). The most remarkable of the 
lakes here is the lake of Zwischenahn. Some parts of the coun- 
try, especially along the Weser and towards the North Sea, are 
noted for their fertility, but in the interior there is generally but 
a poor soil. Yet, upon the whole, Oldenburg rears both cattle 
and horses of a very fine breed, and raises amply grain, rape-seed 
(lamp-oil made of it, is commonly used both in Germany and 



GERMANY. 421 



The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg — its Statistics and History. 

other European countries, in place of train-oil), flax, and hemp. 
There are many peat bogs which supply fuel, the more valuable 
as wood and coal are scarce. In the sandy and heathy parts of 
the country, the rearing of bees affords a productive source for 
sustenance. The inland trade is rather considerable, but there 
are but few manufactures. 

Most of the inhabitants of the grand-duchy are Lutherans, 
yet in the southern part of Oldenburg proper, and in the princi- 
pality of Birkenfeld, there are numerous Roman Catholics (their 
total number being about 74,800) ; the remainder of the popula- 
tion consists of somewhat more than 2,300 Calvinists, and of 
about 1,400 Jews. There are beside numerous common schools, 
4 gymnasia, 2 seminaries, 1 military, and 3 Latin schools. 

The government was until the commotions in 1 848, an unlim- 
ited monarchy. The amount of the public revenue and of the 
expenditure for several years, has been about 900,000 Prussian 
dollars annually. There is no public debt. The troops to be fur- 
nished to the confederal army : 3,030 men, with 4 pieces of ord- 
nance. — In 1838 an order of honor was instituted, by the name 
of " House and Merit order of Duke Peter," etc., in 4 classes. 

History. — The primitive ancestor of the reigning house of Oldenburg, was 
the celebrated duke or king Wittekind, who led the valiant Saxons in the 
wars with Charlemagne. One of Wittekind's descendants was earl Egilmar 
II., of Rustringen and Ammerland, who lived in the period from 1062 to 
1110, and whose dominions comprised in substance what at present is called 
Oldenburg proper. Egilmar's son, Christian I., reared in 1155 the castle of 
Oldenburg, and since, the earls of Rustringen and Ammerland named them- 
selves earls of Oldenburg. In 1232 they became actual members of the 
German empire. In 1241 the dominion of Delmenhorst was acquired, and 
finally annexed to Oldenburg in 1436, by the earl Theodoric, surnamed the 
Fortunate. It was this sovereign whose eldest son mounted in 1448 the 
Danish throne, by the name of Christian I, and inherited the earldom (sub- 
sequently duchy) of Holstein in 1459 (see above under the head of Holstein) ; 



422 EUROPE, PAST AND T RESENT. 



Germany. — Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 



while his younger son Gerard, propagated the reigning line of Oldenburg. 
Gerard acquired the districts of Varel and Neuenburg, and his great-grand- 
son, John VI., the dominions ot Jever and Eniphausen. But in 1667, when 
Earl Anton Gunther of Oldenburg died, this line became extinct, and now the 
collateral line of Denmark succeeded, and acquired the earldom of Olden- 
burg by way of inheritance. Anton Giinther's natural son Anton, earl of 
Aldenburg, became however possessed of the lordship of Kniphausen ; and 
his nephew, a prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, became possessed of the dominion of 
Jever. The main body of the earldom of Oldenburg continued to be in pos- 
session of Denmark until 1773, when this crown ceded the earldom to the 
Russian grand duke Paul, in exchange for the duchy of Holstein (see His- 
tory of Holstein). Yet the grand duke ceded it again, in the same year, to 
his cousin the bishop sovereign of Lubec, Frederic Augustus, belonging to a 
younger line of the house of Holstein- Gottorp. At the same time the 
emperor Joseph II. raised the earldom of Oldenburg to the dignity of a 
duchy. Duke Frederic Augustus died in 1785, and as his only son and legiti- 
mate heir, Peter Frederic William, was perturbated in mind, his brother 
Peter (Frederic Louis) took the reins of government with sovereign power. 
In 1803 the former sovereign bishopric of Lubec was transformed into a 
principality and annexed to the duchy, which at the same time acquired 
several districts of the former independent bishopric of Munster. In Novem- 
ber, 1806, Oldenburg was occupied by French troops, but in the following 
year restored to the duke, who in 1808 joined the Rhenish Confederation. 
Napoleon had meanwhile established the continental system, and as Olden- 
burg appeared to him as affording too many opportunities for smuggling to 
the English, he incorporated the whole country with the French empire, in 
February, 1811. He offered the dominion of Erfurt as an indemnification to 
the duke, who however refused it and went to Russia, where his second son, 
George, was married to the grand duchess Catharine, in 1809. Towards the 
end of the year 1813 he returned to Oldenburg, and entered upon its reign 
again. By the stipulations of the Congress at Vienna, he acquired a district 
on the left bank of the Rhine, by the name of a principality of Birkenfeld, 
and the title of a grand duke, of which title, however, he himself made no 
use. He died in 1829, and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning 
grand duke, Augustus Paul Frederic, born in 1783. 

For the reason mentioned above, we must describe the three 



GERMANY. 423 



The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg — its Geographical Divisions. 

distinct territories of the grand-duchy separately. We begin 
with the description of 

I. THE DUCHY OF OLDENBURG. 

It has an area of 2,119-£ square miles, and a population of 
223,000 inhabitants (among whom are 69,300 Roman Catholics 
and 720 Jews), comprises the ancient earldoms of Oldenburg 
and Delnienhorst, former districts of the ancient bishopric of 
Minister, the dominion of Jever, and the lordship of Kniphau- 
sen, and contains : 

Oldenburg, the capital of the grand-duchy and grand-ducal residence, 
on the Hunte, -westward and 23 miles distant from Bremen, is well-built and 
noted for its handsome grand-ducal palace and other remarkable public edi- 
fices, and has 8,100 inhabitants. Elsfleth, a town on the Weser, at its junc- 
tion with the Hunte, with a landing-place for smaller vessels, and 1,600 in- 
habitants. In the period from 1628 to 1820 Oldenburg was entitled to levy 
a toll here, which all ships trading to Bremen were obliged to pay. Some- 
times it amounted to 50,000 Prussian dollars annually. Neuenburg, a mar- 
ket-town anciently noted for its fortress, has at present only 600 inhabitants. 
The village of Rastede is noted for its grand-ducal palace and gardens. 
Ovelgonne, a market-town near the Weser, with 1,000 inhabitants. Brake, 
a market-town on the Weser, with a landing-place for sea-ships, and 1,300 
inhabitants. Blexen or Blexum, a village on the Weser, opposite Bremer- 
haven, with 400 inhabitants. Brake and Blexum are situated in a district, 
styled Butjadingerland, and noted for the fertility of its soil. Delmenhorst, 
a town on the little Delme river, half-way between Oldenburg and Bremen, 
with noted horse-marts, and 1,900 inhabitants. — Wijldeshausen, a town on the 
Hunte and near the frontier of Hanover (which ceded it to Oldenburg in 
1803), with cutlery manufactures, and 2,100 inhabitants. — Kloppenburg, a 
town the Soeste river, westward and 14 miles distant from Wildeshausen, 
with 950 inhabitants. This town and the towns of Friesoyte (with 1,100 in- 
habitants), of Vechta (with 2,300 inhabitants), of DinMage (with 1,400 in- 
habitants), and Loningen (with 1,200 inhabitants), belonged until 1803 to the 



424 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 



then secularized bishopric of Munster. The dominion of -fever (138 square 
miles, and 20,300 inhabitants), forming the most northerly province of the 
grand-duchy and situated on the North Sea, is noted both for the fertility" 
of its soil, and the excellent breed of its cattle and horses. In the middle 
ages it was ruled by native chieftains or Barons, and in 1573 inherited by 
the reigning house of Oldenburg. In the History of Oldenburg it has 
already been noticed, that Earl Anton Gunther, who died in 1667, be- 
queathed the dominion of Jever to his nephew, Prince John of Anhalt- 
Zerbst, who entailed it upon his descendants. When, in 1793, the male line 
of Anhalt-Zerbst became extinct (see History of Anhalt), the Russian em- 
press Katharine II., belonging to this line, inherited the dominion of Jever 
and entailed it upon her son and grand-children. But the emperor Alexan- 
der ceded it in 1818 to Oldenburg, which in 1823 took formal possession of 
it. It contains : Jever, formerly its capital, near a bay of the North Sea, 
north-westward and 34 miles distant from the city of Oldenburg, with some 
manufactures, considerable trade, and even commerce, and 4,200 inhabi- 
tants. The seaport of Jever is at Hooksiel, a village with 750 inhabitants. 
Near the coast lies the isle of Wangeroog, with 400 inhabitants, and much 
resorted to for sea-bathing. The Lordship of Kniphausen, belonging to the 
carl of Bentink under the supremacy of the grand duke of Oldenburg, has 
an area of only 21 square miles, and a population of 3,100 inhabitants. In 
the history of Oldenburg we have seen, that Earl Anton Gunther, who died 
in 1667, bequeathed this lordship to his natural son, Anton earl of Alden- 
burg, together with the dominion of Varel, politically connected with it. By 
way of marriage the earl William of Bentink became possessed of these 
two dominions in 1738, and entailed them upon his descendants. When in 
1806 the German empire was solved, the earl of Bentink attained to politi- 
cal independency, but in 1807 he was by Napoleon subordinated to the 
kingdom of Holland, and in 1810 to the French empire. In 1814 he re- 
quired in vain to be admitted as actual and independent member of the 
German Confederation, and was subordinated to the supremacy of the duke 
or grand duke of Oldenburg, yet allowed to retain some special privileges. 
The lordship contains, beside 3 villages (with noted horse-marts), the castle 
of Kniphausen, seat of the dependent government. The above-mentioned 
dominion of Varel (43 square miles, and 6,000 inhabitants), belonging likewise 
to the earl of Bentink, contains : Varel, its capital and residence of the earl, 
northward and 16 miles distant from Oldenburg, with noted horse-marts, 



GERMANY. 425 



The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg — its Geographical Divisions. 

and 3,500 inhabitants. Dangast, a village with 250 inhabitants, is resorted 
to for sea-bathing. 

II. THE PRINCIPALITY OF LUBEC. 

It has an area of 170-£ square miles, and a population of 21,550 
inhabitants, and is situated in the neighborhood of the city of Lu- 
bec, wholly surrounded by territories of Holstein, north-eastward 
and about 92 miles distant from the main body of the grand- 
duchy. It consists of an undulated fertile plain, romantically 
intersected by woods, lakes and ridges of low hills. The inhabi- 
tants subsist almost entirely on the various branches of hus- 
bandry The present principality of Lubec was formerly an in- 
dependent or sovereign bishopric^ primitively instituted in 948. 
Its seat, at first in the town of Oldenburg in Holstein (see above 
under the head of Holstein), was in the latter half of the 12th 
century transferred to the city of Lubec, where a handsome cathe- 
dral was reared, and in 1164 consecrated. However, the bishop 
himself did not reside in this city, but in Eutin. Only the name 
of Lubec rested with the bishopric, which at the end of the 12th 
century became independent, or sovereign, The Reformation 
brought about no alteration in its political condition, yet in 1535 
the bishop and the chapter turned Protestants. In 1586 the 
chapter elected for the first time a prince of the house of Holstein- 
Gottorp their bishop, and continued to do so with other princes 
of this house until 1756, when a Danish prince was chosen, who, 
however, in 1773 resigned, in favor of the eldest son of the reign- 
ing bishop Frederic Augustus, who in the same year became pos- 
sessed of the duchy of Oldenburg (see above). In 1803 the 
bishopric was transformed into a principality, as has already been 
stated above. It contains : 

Edtin, its capital, romantically situated on a lake of the same name, 30 
miles north-north-west of the city of Lubec, with a handsome grand-ducal 



426 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — The Grand-Duchy of Oldenburg. 

palace and park, and 2,850 inhabitants. Bosau, a village with one of the 
most ancient churches in the country, and 650 inhabitants. The village of 
Sielbeck is noted for its romantical environs and grand-ducal palace. Schwar- 
tau, a market-town noted for its cattle-marts, has 1,050 inhabitants. The vil- 
lage of Rathekau (with 50 inha3bitants) is remarkable for a capitulation con- 
cluded here on the 7th Nov., 1806, between the Prussian general, Blucher, 
and the French general, Bernadotte. 



III. THE PRINCIPALITY OF BIRKENFELD. 

It has an area of 181 square miles, and a population of 29,500 
inhabitants (5,500 of whom are Roman Catholics), and is situated 
on the left bank of the Rhine in the neighborhood of Treves, 
southward and about 250 miles distant from the main body of 
the grand-duchy. Its surface is mountainous, being traversed by 
branches of the Hundsruck (see page 8). The Nahe river (see 
page 16), has its sources here. There are various manufactures 
here ; besides them iron mines are wrought, and the vine is culti- 
vated. The present principality of Birkenfeld comprises the an- 
cient lordship of Oberstein, since 1766 belonging to the electorate 
of Treves; and the ancient earldom of Sponheim, since the 15th 
century belonging to the princes of Zweibrucken (see under the 
head of Bavarian Palatinate). It contains : 

Birkenfeld, its capital, on the Nahe, south-westward and 60 miles dis- 
tant from Mentz, was anciently the residence of the Palatines of Zwei- 
brucken-Birkenfeld, and has 2,100 inhabitants. Oberstein, a market-town on 
the Nahe, is noted for cutting precious and half-precious stones, and has 
2,300 inhabitants. Idar, a village with the same branch of industry as in 
Oberstein, and 1,050 inhabitants. 



GERMANY. 427 



The Principality of Lippe-Detmold— its Statistics and History. 



XXX.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF LIPPE-DETMOLD. 

Area : 447 square miles. 
Population : 108,000 inhabitants. 

This principality (whose sovereign bears the official title of 
Prince zur Lippe) is situated on the left bank of the Weser, and 
almost entirely surrounded by territories of the Prussian province 
of Westphalia. The inhabitants are (with the exception of 5,100 
Lutherans and 1,600 Roman Catholics) Calvinists. The sur- 
face is partly hilly and woody, intersected by fertile valleys, and 
partly traversed by the Osning (see page 8). The south-western 
part of the country consists of an extensive heath, called the 
Senner- Heath (Senner-Haide) and noted for the excellent breed 
of horses reared here. Flax, timber, horses are the chief staples ; 
cattle and sheep are likewise reared in great numbers, and of 
good breed. The manufactures consist chiefly of linen. There 
are 2 gymnasiums, 1 Latin school, 1 seminar} r , and a great many 
common schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The 
amount of public revenue, and of the expenditure for several years, 
has been about 490,000 florins. There is no public debt. Troops 
to be furnished to the confederal army : 69 1 men. 

History. — The ancestors of the reigning house of Lippe were wealthy ba- 
rons or lords of the same name, who long before the 12th century had their 
estates in the neighborhood of the Osning. One of their descendants, Ber- 
nard VIII., who died in 1563, bore the title of an earl, and his son, Simon 
VI, who united all patrimonial dominions under his sway, is to be considered 
as the nigher ancestor of the reigning houses both of Lippe-Detmold and 
Schaumburg-Lippe. He died in 1613, and was succeeded in Lippe-Detmold 
by his eldest son, earl Simon VII., whose earldom was in 1*720 raised to the 
dignity of a principality, though not before the year 1789 the father of the 
present reigning prince, made use of the princely title. This sovereign died 



428 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Principalities of Lippe-Detmold and Sohaumburg-Lippe. 



in 1802, and was succeeded by his son, prince Leopold (Paul Alexander), 
born in 1*796, who until 1820 has reigned under the guardianship of his 
mother, and since independently. 

The most remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the principality of 
Lippe-Detmold, are the following : 

Detmold, the capital and princely residence, on the little "Werre river (not 
to be confounded with the Werra mentioned page 17), south-westward and 
18 miles distant from Pyrmont, and 48 miles north-north-west of Cassel, 
with an extensive princely palace, and 5,000 inhabitants. Near Detmold 
Charlemagne obtained a victory over the Saxons in 783. Horn, a town with 
linen manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. Blomberg, a town with various 
manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Lemgo, a city on the Bega river, 
northward and 7 miles distant from Detmold, with a noted gymnasium, con- 
siderable manufactures, especially of linen, and 4,100 inhabitants. In the 
middle ages Lemgo was both an imperial city and a member of the Hanse- 
atic League (see page 54). Lopshorn, a princely palace, south-westward 
and 5 miles distant from Detmold, with a renowned stud containing more 
than 100 horses of the above-mentioned breed from the Senner-Haide. 
Lippstadt, a city on the Lippe river, with 6 churches, various branches of 
industry, considerable corn trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. One half of this 
city belongs since the 17th century to the house of Brandenburg or Prussia. 



XXXI.— THE PRINCIPALITY OF SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE. 

Area: 170 square miles. 
Population : 30,000 inhabitants. 

This principality (in common life frequently called Lippe- 
Buckeburg) is situated on the right bank of the Weser. between 
the city of Hanover and the Prussian city of Minden. Its main 
body formed anciently a constituent part of the earldom of 



GERMANY. 429 



The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe— its Statistics and History. 



Schaumburg (see page 371), and for this reason this latter name 
is officially prefixed to that of Lippe. The soil is fertile, partly 
covered with valuable forests, and intersected with ridges of low 
hills. The chief staples are cor?i, flax and timber. Cattle of va- 
rious kinds are raised amply. The manufactures consist chiefly 
of linen. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 3,600 
Calvinists and 100 Catholics) Lutherans. Besides a noted gym- 
nasium at Biickeburg, there are several other and many common 
schools. The government is a limited monarchy. The revenues 
amount to about 215,000 Prussian dollars, and are principally 
yielded by the princely domains. The expenditure is by far less ; 
and a public debt does not exist. Troops to be furnished to the 
confederal army: 240 men. 

History. — The reigning house of Schaumburg-Lippe has one common 
ancestor with that of Lippe-Detmold (see History of Lippe-Detmold). 
When Earl Simon VI. of Lippe died in 1613, he bequeathed to his youngest 
son Philip some bailiwicks of the earldom. Philip's sister Elizabeth was 
married to the earl of Schaumburg, inherited this earldom, and bequeathed 
a considerable part of it to her brother in 1640. Philip, assuming now the 
title of an earl of Schaumburg-Lippe, died in 1681, and was succeeded by 
his eldest son, Frederic Christian, whose male line became extinct in 17 77, 
when Earl Philip of a collateral line succeeded. This latter died in 1787, 
and was succeeded by his son, the present reigning (until 1807 under the 
guardianship of his mother) prince George William, born in 1784. He as- 
sumed the princely title in 1807, when he joined the Rhenish Confederation. 
In 1815 he became a member of the German Confederation. 

The most remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the principality of 
Schaumburg-Lippe are the following : 

Bueckeburg, the capital and princely residence, 24 miles west-south-west 
of Hanover, with a stately palace and handsome park, and 4,300 inhabi- 
tants. Eilsen, a village noted for its mineral waters and much resorted to 
on account of them. Stadthagen, a town north-eastward and 9 miles distant 



430 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 

from Buckeburg, with an ancient remarkable castle, a well-arranged orphan 
asylum, and 1,850 inhabitants. Steinhude, a market-town on a lake of the 
same name, with linen manufactures, and TOO inhabitants. On this lake is 
likewise situated a remarkable little fortress, called Wilhelmstein, and 
reared in 1765. 



XXXII.— THE KINGDOM OF HANOYER. 

Area : 14,803 square miles. 
Population : 1,790,000 inhabitants. 

This kingdom, whose main body is situated between the Elbe 
and Weser, comprises the largest part of the German North Sea 
coast, where it encloses the main body of the grand-duchy of 
Oldenburg, and the territory of the city of Bremen. On the 
west it is bounded by the kingdom of the Netherlands, on the 
north-east it is by the Elbe river separated from Holstein and 
Mecklenburg, and on the south (where it comprises the greatest 
part of the Hartz mountains, and encloses territories of Bruns- 
wick) it is chiefly bound by the Prussian province of Saxony and 
by Hesse-Cassel. 

Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; yet beside them there 
are more than 90,000 Calvinists (prevailing in the province of 
East Frieseland), about 230,000 Roman Catholics, 500 Mennon- 
ites and Moravian Brethren, and more than 12,000 Jews. 

The northern half of the kingdom, is a part of that extensive 
plain mentioned page 4. Towards the south the surface is hilly, 
and rises finally to mountains marked with the name of Hartz 
(see page 7 and 8), besides which the Sollinger Wald, Deister, 
Suntel (page 8), are to be noticed. 



GERMANY. 431 



The Kingdom of Hanover — its Geographical Features and Statistics. 

The tributaries of the Elbe : Ilmenan, Luke and Schwinge have 
their sources in the kingdom as well as those of the Weser, viz., 
the Alter with the Lei?ie, the Wumme, Lesion, and Geeste (see 
page 17). In East Frieseland is the Ems river with the Haase 
(see page 17). The most remarkable lakes are the Dummer I^ake 
and the lake of Bodenteich. At the western frontier the bay of 
Dollart (see page 9) is to be noticed. 

The soil is diversified : along the coasts and the banks of the 
principal rivers highly fertile, and in other parts rather sterile. 
In the northern section are partly extensive peat bogs, which sup- 
ply immense quantities of fuel, but are useless for other purposes; 
partly extensive heaths, the most remarkable of which are the heath 
of Luneburg (which however in recent times is more and more 
brought under cultivation) and the Hummlitig (in the province 
of Osnabriick). 

Nevertheless corn is raised sufficiently, not only for home con- 
sumption, but even for exportation. Besides agriculture, which 
is the chief employment, the rearing of cattle of various kinds 
is very considerable. The black cattle along the banks of the lower 
Weser and Elbe, in East Frieseland and in the Hartz, is of excel- 
lent breed ; and the horses in East Frieseland and some other parts 
of the kingdom, rival in every respect those of Mecklenburg and 
Holstein. Sheep of improved breed are reared, especially in the 
southern sections of the country, in great numbers. In the 
Wcstphalian districts the rearing of hogs is considerable. In 
the above-mentioned heaths, numerous hives of bees are kept, and 
the trade in honey and wax yields a considerable profit annually. 
It is still to be remarked that the flax raised in the province of 
Luneburg, is renowned throughout Germany for its fineness. 
The extensive forests in the mountainous districts, in the prov- 
ince of Luneburg, etc., produce valuable timber; and a district in 
the neighborhood of Stade, is noted for its fruits, especially cher- 



432 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany, — Kiwgdom of HaDover. 



ries. The mines in the Hartz are important, extensively wrought, 
and produce on an average, annually, 50,000 marks of silver, 
100,000 quintals of lead and litharge., 80,000 quintals of iron, and 
between 2,000 and 3,000 quintals of copper. The produce in 
gold is very insignificant. Tn Luneburg is one of the most pro- 
ductive salt springs in Europe. Manufactures are not very flour- 
ishing, yet linen is an important fabric, and is (inclusive flax 
yarn) exported annually at the value of 2,500,000 Prussian dol- 
lars. The inland trade, and even the commerce, is upon the 
whole considerable. 

The means of education are well arranged, and managed in 
conformity with sound principles. Among them ranks first, the 
university at Gottingen (see page 288), liberally endowed, and in 
1846 frequented by 649 students. Besides it, there are at G-ot- 
tingen a royal society of sciences, and a philological seminary. 
Colleges similar to that of Eton in England, are in Luneburg 
and Ilefeld. The number of gymnasiums amounts to 15, and 
that of common schools to 3,561 ; beside which there are rather 
numerous other schools, as for instance, 7 seminaries, 13 Latin 
schools, etc. 

The government is a limited monarchy, the sovereign power 
being vested in a king and two legislative chambers. According 
to the budget of 1845-1846, the public revenue amounted to 
3,996,606, and the expenditure to 3,961,058 Prussian dollars, thus 
yielding a surplus of 35,548 Prussian dollars, beside which there 
was still a surplus of 1,227,725 Prussian dollars extant from 
preceding years. On the first October, 1843, the public debt was 
at the amount of 13,496,489 Prussian dollars. 

The regular army consists of 22,176 men, and the troops 
which hitherto were to be furnished to the confederal army, 
amounted to 13,054 men. 

There are two orders of honor: 1. The order of St. George, in 



GERMANY. 433 



The Kingdom of Hanover — its History. 



1 class, and instituted in 1839. 2. The Guelph order, instituted 
in 1815, and since 1841 in 5 classes. 

History. — The present kingdom of Hanover and the duchy of Brunswick 
have one and the same origin, because both formed anciently a constituent 
part of the once so renowned duchy of Saxony (see pages 298 and 299). A 
duchy of Saxony, in the political meaning of this word, did not yet exist in 
the days of Charlemagne ; as the celebrated Wittekind was to be considered 
rather as the leader, than as the actual duke or king of the Saxons. Yet his 
great-grandson Ludolph was raised to this dignity. He died about the year 
870, and was succeeded as duke of Saxony by his son Otto, the father of the 
great German emperor or king Henry I. (see History of Germany). Henry 
retained his Saxon duchy, yet his son, Emperor Otto I. (936-972), invested 
with it a valiant Saxon noble, Hermann Billung, who moreover was already 
possessed of wealthy estates in the southern and eastern parts of the duchy. 
In respectively 1101 and 1106, the male line of his house became extinct, 
and the last Billung, Duke Magnus, who died in 1106, left behind two daugh- 
ters, Wulfhild and Eilike, as the only heiresses of the family estates. Eilike 
was married to the earl Otto of Ballenstedt and Anhalt ; and "Wulfhild was 
married to the duke Henry of Bavaria, surnamed the Black, descended from 
the renowned house of the Guelphs. The latter had large estates in Swabia 
and Franconia, and were again descendants of the mighty house of Este in 
Italy (see page 118). Henry the Black was succeeded by his son, Henry 
surnamed the Proud, who, by Emperor Lothar II. (1125-1137), was invested 
with the duchy of Saxony, and became in this manner the ruler of two pow- 
erful duchies, Bavaria and Saxony. His son and successor in both duchies, 
was the celebrated duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, who, as has already 
been mentioned frequently (see pages 379 and 403), was, on account of his 
felony, outlawed in 1180. and deprived of his duchies as fiefs, while he was 
allowed to retain the above-mentioned family estates (in the present province 
of Luneburg, in Brunswick, etc.). The duchy of Saxony (as a fief of the 
empire) was divided and annexed to several other states of the German 
empire ; and how the name of Saxony was subsequently transferred to the 
margraviate of Meissen, is explained in the history of the kingdom of Saxony 
and of Anhalt (see pages 379 and 403). Henry surnamed the Lion, died in. 
1195, and bequeathed his family estates to his son William, who bequeathed 
them again to his son Otto, surnamed the Child, who in 1235 surrendered 

10- 



434 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 

them to Emperor Frederic II., and received them as a duchy of Brunswick, 
and as a hereditary fief of the empire. Otto acquired moreover the cities of 
Hanover, Gottingen, Miinden, the earldom of Stade, and bequeathed when 
he died (in 1252), his duchy considerably enlarged to his two sons, Albert 
and John, who divided it in 1267, and from which act sprung up different 
lines of the reigning house, until, in 1546, two principal lines were formed by 
the two sons of Ernest, surnamed the Confessor, who died in the just-named 
year, 1546. His eldest son, or properly his grandson, duke Augustus, 
became the ancestor of the ducal house of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel (or 
Brunswick proper), and his youngest son William, surnamed the Younger, 
became the ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick-Liineburg, i. e. of 
Hanover. William the Younger died in 1589, and left behind 8 daughters 
and 7 sons. The latter succeeded him one after the other. Meanwhile sev- 
eral collateral lines had sprung up, but they became gradually extinct, and all 
their dominions were in the beginning of the 18th century reunited by the 
principal line of Brunswick-Liineburg, or Hanover. Here reigned in the 
period from 1679 to 1698, the duke Ernest Augustus, who married the prin- 
cess Sophia (daughter of the unfortunate elector Frederic V. of the Palati- 
ate, who was the son-in-law of King James I., of Great Britain), and was in 
1692 raised to the dignity of an elector. He died in 1698, and was succeeded 
by his son George William, who in 1714 mounted the British throne as 
George I. (see page 233). The remaining part of the history of Hanover, is 
in substance connected with that of the reigning British royal family ; and it 
may only be added here, that George I. and his successors continued ever to 
be the actual electors or (since 1814) kings of Hanover, though this country 
was ruled in their name, by a special government established in the city of 
Hanover. How it was aggrandized in the period from 1715 to 1813, shall 
be noticed below in the topography. When in 1837, King William IV. died, 
his niece Victoria, who succeeded him in Great Britain, could not also suc- 
ceed him in Hanover, because the so-called Salic law prevails here, which 
excludes all females from the throne. Thus his brother, the duke of Cumber- 
land, Ernest Augustus, born in 1771, succeeded him as king of Hanover. 

The kingdom is since 1823 divided into 6 provinces, styled 
Landdrosteien (or properly Landdrostei-Bezirke, because Land- 
drostei means a provincial government), which are subdivided into 



GERMANY. 435 



The Kingdom of Hanover — its Geographical Divisions. 



bailiwicks with different special names. As a seventh, province 
may be considered the mining district (Berg-hauptmannschaft) of 
Clausthal, with a special government, superintending the mines, 
etc., of the Hartz. The term of Landdrostei being rather unu- 
sual, especially to an English reader, we shall substitute for it 
the term of province; but as the historically settled condition of 
the different constituent parts of the kingdom is in substance 
left untouched, and moreover as their names still frequently 
occur both in writings and common life, we shall follow here a 
similar plan, as for instance in France, and combine the ancient 
names with the modern provincial names. 



1. THE PROVINCE OF HANOVER. 

It comprises the ancient principality of Calenberg and the 
ancient earldoms of Hoy a and Diepholz. 

1. The ancient principality of Calenberg contains: Hanover, the capital 
of the kingdom, and royal residence, on the Leine, south-eastward and 60 
miles distant from Bremen, with various manufactures, considerable inland 
trade, and 40,500 inhabitants (exclusive of the garrison). Hanover is noted 
for its royal stables, containing among other horses of the finest breed, sev- 
eral teams of white-born (without the least gray or black spot) and Isabella- 
colored horses. The royal palace is a handsome building. The neighboring 
village of Limmer (with 600 inhabitants) is noted for its mineral waters, as is 
likewise the town of Rehburg (23 miles west-north-west of Hanover, with 
1,600 inhabitants). The village of Loccum (with 1,500 inhabitants) is remark- 
able for its ancient Cistercian monastery, in 1593 secularized, and at present 
transformed into a seminary for ministers. Hameln, a city on the "Weser, 26 
miles south-south-west of Hanover, has 6,500 inhabitants, and was until 1806 
noted for its fortress. Not far from here is the village of Hastenbeck, noted 
for a battle between the French and the Hanoverians, on the 26th July, 1*757. 
Wunstorf, a town near the Leine, north-westward and 12 niiles distant from 
Hanover, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its establishment for ladies 



436 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 



of rank. Sahhemmendorf, a market-town, noted for its salt-works, has 2,050 
inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable market-towns are : Lauenau 
(with 900 inhabitants), Grohnde (with 850 inhabitants), Polle (with 1,200 
inhabitants), Coppenbrugge (with 1,400 inhabitants), Aerzen (with 1,500 
inhabitants), and Lauenstein (with 1,100 inhabitants). More or less remark- 
able towns are: Springe (with 1,950 inhabitants), Munder (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), Pattensen (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bodenwerder (with 1,600 inhabi- 
tants), Eldagsen (with 2,300 inhabitants), and Neustadt am Rubenberge (with 
1,600 inhabitants). 

2. The ancient earldom of Hoy a, which in 1543 was inherited by Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg or Hanover, contains : Nienburg, a city on the Weser, about 
half-way between Hanover and Bremen, has some manufactures, and 4,100 
inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its fortress. Hoya, a market-town on 
the Weser, 14 miles below Nienburg, with linen manufactures, and 2,200 
inhabitants. The neighboring village of Mem sen is noted for its royal stud, 
Vilsen, a market-town on the Weser, at 5 miles distance from Hoya, is noted 
for its considerable trade, and has 1 ,050 inhabitants. Other more or less 
remarkable towns are : Liebenau (with 2,900 inhabitants), Alt-Bruchhausen 
(with 1,100 inhabitants), Stolzenau (with 1,800 inhabitants), Diepenau (with 
550 inhabitants), Suhlingen (with 1,200 inhabitants), Syke (with 950 inhabi- 
tants), Uchte (with 1,250 inhabitants), and Bassum (with 1,700 inhabitants). 

3. The ancient earldom of Diepholz, which in 1585 was inherited, contains : 
Diepholz, a market-town on the Hunte river, about half-way between Osna- 
briick and Bremen, with linen and woollen manufactures, and 2,600 inhabi- 
tants. Lemfbrde, a market-town with several branches of industry, and 950 
inhabitants. 



2. THE PROVINCE OF LUNEBURG. 

It comprises in substance only the ancient principality of the 
same name, and besides it two bailiwicks of the duchy of Lauen- 
burg (see page 418). 

1. The ancient principality of Luneburg (which formed part of the family 
estates of tha above-mentioned house of Billung) contains : Lueneburg, its 
ancient capital, and at present the seat of the provincial government, on the 



GERMANY. 431 



The Kingdom of Hanover — its Geographical Divisions. 



Ilmenau river, south-eastward and 28 miles distant from Hamburg, has 
12,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its highly valuable salt-spring and salt- 
works (producing annually about 300,000 quintals of salt), its lime-stone quar- 
ries, its college (see back), and gymnasium. BardewiJc, a market-town on 
the Ilmenau river, below Luneburg, is noted for its greens and stately Gothic 
church, and has 1,400 inhabitants. In the middle ages, Bardewik was an 
emporium and considerable city, but was in 1189 barbarously devastated by 
Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion. Uarburg, a town on the Elbe, opposite 
Hamburg, with an ancient castle, manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,200 
inhabitants. Winsen an der Luhe, a town on the Luhe river, with consider- 
able trade, and 2,200 inhabitants. Soltau, an industrious town in the above- 
mentioned heath of Luneburg, south-westward and 28 miles distant from the 
city of Luneburg, with 1,200 inhabitants. Walsrode, a town on the Bohme 
river, with an establishment for ladies of rank (anciently a nunnery instituted 
in 986), and 2,100 inhabitants. Ahlden, a market-town on the Aller, with 
800 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and an ancient castle, where in the years 
1694-1726, Sophia Dorothea, the divorced consort of King George I, of 
Great Britain, resided. Celle or Zelle, a city on the Aller, with various manu- 
factures, a remarkable royal stud, and 12,200 inhabitants, is noted as the seat 
of the supreme tribunal of the kingdom, and for its royal palace, reared in 
1485, and until 1105 the residence of the dukes of Luneburg. Uelzen, a town 
on the Ilmenau, 22 miles north of Luneburg, is noted for its flax, and has 
3,100 inhabitants. Other towns are: Burgdorf (with 2,400 inhabitants), Gif- 
hom (with 2,500 inhabitants), Dannenberg (with 1,500 inhabitants), Hitzacker 
(with 1,050 inhabitants), Luchow (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Wustrow (with 
considerable linen manufactures, and 800 inhabitants). 

2. The bailiwicks of Artlenburg and Neuhaus, formerly (until 1814) be- 
longing to the duchy of Lauenburg, contain the villages of Artlenburg (on 
the left bank of the Elbe, with 600 inhabitants), and Neuhaus (on the right 
bank of the Elbe, with an ancient castle, and 450 inhabitants). 



3. THE PROVINCE OF STADE. 



It comprises the ancient duchies of Bremen and Verden, and 
the territory of Hadeln. 



438 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 

1. The ancient duchy of Bremen, which has at present nothing in common 
with the city of this name, but was once chief part of the sovereign arch- 
bishopric of Bremen, which was instituted as a bishopric by Charlemagne in 
788. The renowned converter of pagans, Ansgarius, was the first arch- 
bishop of Bremen. He died in 865, and among his successors, who resided 
in this city, were several of great political authority. Since the Reforma- 
tion, the city of Bremen and even the archbishop embraced the doctrines of 
Protestantism, the former became independent, and the territory of the arch- 
bishopric was secularized, and in 1648 with the title of a duchy ceded to 
Sweden. In the northern war (1700-1102) the duchy was conquered by the 
Danes, and, together with the duchy of Verden, sold to the electorate of 
Hanover. In the peace concluded at Stockholm in 1720, this arrangement 
was ratified. The duchy of Bremen contains: Stade, the capital of the 
province, on the Schwinge, near its junction with the Elbe, about 20 miles 
below Hamburg, with some inland trade, and 5,900 inhabitants. At the 
mouth of the Schwinge is situated the village of Brunshausen, where Hano- 
ver is entitled to levy a toll from the vessels passing here on their way up 
to Hamburg. It is commonly called the toll of Stade, and yields a revenue 
of about 40,000 Prussian dollars annually. Buxtehude, a town on the Este, 
between Stade and Harburg, with some manufactures and trade, and 2,300 
inhabitants. Harsefeld (with 950 inhabitants), Horneburg (with 1,300 inhabi- 
tants), Borum (with 750 inhabitants), Bederlcesa (with 1,100 inhabitants), 
Bremerlehe (with 1,650 inhabitants), Osterholz (with 850 inhabitants), 
ScharmbecJc (with 1,750 inhabitants), Ottersberg (with 1,100 inhabitants), and 
Zeven (with 900 inhabitants), all market-towns. 

2. The ancient principality or duchy of Verden, which originated from a 
bishopric of the same name, instituted in 786 by Charlemagne, and since 1648 
underwent the same political vicissitudes as the duchy of Bremen, contains : 
Verden, a town on the Aller, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Bre- 
men, is noted for its ancient Gothic cathedral, and has 5,000 inhabitants. 
Rotenburg, a market-town on the Wumme river, at the high-road between 
Bremen and Hamburg, with 1,600 inhabitants. 

3. The territory of Hadeln, which mi til 1689 formed a constituent part of 
the duchy of Lauenburg (see page 418), contains: Otterndorf, a town near 
the mouth of the Elbe, with several branches of industry, and 1,800 inhabi- 
tants. Altenbruch and Lildingworth, market-towns, with respectively 2,500 
and 2,000 inhabitants. 



GERMANY. 439 



The Kingdom of Hanover— its Geographical Divisions. 



4 THE PROVINCE OF HILDESHEIM. 

It comprises the ancient independent or sovereign bishopric of 
Hildesheim, the ancient principalities of Gottingen and Grubenha- 
gen, the so-called Lower Eichsfeld, etc. 

1. The former sovereign bishopric (at present styled principality) of 
Hildesheim was in 812 instituted by Charlemagne, and in 822 transferred 
from its primitive seat Elze to the neighboring town of Hildesheim by Em- 
peror Louis the Pious. The bishops acquired in the course of time a con- 
siderable territory, which at the beginning of the present century had an 
extent of 682 square miles. The two last bishops were at the same time 
possessed of the sovereign bishopric of Paderborn. Both were secularized 
in 1803 and ceded to Prussia. In 1807 they were incorporated with the 
kingdom of Westphalia (see page 294), but restored in 1813 to Prussia, 
which retained only Paderborn, while it ceded Hildesheim to Hanover. It 
contains : Hildesheim, its former capital, at present the capital of the prov- 
ince, on the Innerste river, 23 miles west-south-west of Brunswick, and 
south-eastward and 15 miles distant from Hanover, with various manufac- 
tures, a cathedral, and other Gothic churches, and 15,500 inhabitants. Elze, 
a town near the Leine river, westward and 9 miles distant from Hildesheim, 
with 2,050 inhabitants. The first Christian church in Saxony (i. e. in ancient 
Saxony) was built here; in 786 Charlemagne resided here for a while. 
Peina, an industrious town on the Fuse river, north-eastward and 70 miles 
distant from Hildesheim, with considerable inland trade, and 4,000 inhabi- 
tants. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Gronau (with 1,900 in- 
habitants), Sarstedt (with 1,500 inhabitants), Alfeld (with 2,700 inhabitants), 
and Bockenem (with 2,200 inhabitants). The market-town of Salzdetfurt 
(with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-springs and works. Though it 
did not belong to the former bishopric of Hildesheim, we shall here mention 
also the ancient imperial city of Goslae, in the Hartz, south-eastward and 
24 miles distant from Hildesheim, with noted breweries, numerous manu- 
factures, and 7,500 inhabitants. Goslar was founded by Emperor Henry I. in 
922, and in the middle ages frequently the residence of the German em- 
perors. In 1803 it lost its independence and came under the sway of 



440 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 

Hanover; in 1807 it was annexed to the kingdom of Westphalia (see page 
294), and in 1813 restored to Hanover. 

2. The ancient principality of Gottingen contains : Gottingen, its ancient 
capital, on a branch of the Leine river, southward and 66 miles distant from 
Hanover, has 11,500 inhabitants, various and partly important manufactures, 
and is noted for its university (see above and page 288), its celebrated pub- 
lic library (see page 288), observatory, botanic gardens, etc. Bovenden, a 
market-town, with linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. Nordheim, a 
town on the Ruhme river, northward and 12 miles distant from Gottingen, 
has 4,600 inhabitants, and is noted for the vast amount of boots and shoes 
made in it. Munden, a town romantically situated at the head of the "We- 
ser, on the junction of the Fulda and Werra (see page 17), about half-way 
between Gottingen and Cassel, carries on a considerable trade, is largely en- 
gaged in manufactures, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Other towns are : Uslar 
(with considerable linen manufactures, and 2,150 inhabitants), Hedemunden 
(likewise noted for its linen, has 850 inhabitants), and Moringen (with 1,700 
inhabitants). 

3. The ancient principality of Grubenhagen, contains : Eimbeck, its ancient 
capital, near the river Leine, 22 miles north-east of Gottingen, and 43 miles 
south of Hanover, with various manufactures, especially of linen, and 5,700 
inhabitants. Salzderhelden, a market-town noted for its salt-works, has 1,250 
inhabitants. Osterode, a noted manufacturing town, at the foot of the Hartz, 
22 miles east-south-east of Gottingen, with 5,000 inhabitants. Mbingerode, 
a town on the Hartz, with important iron mines, considerable trade in tim- 
ber, and 3,200 inhabitants. Herzberg, a market-town on the Hartz, has 3,500 
inhabitants, and is noted for its manufactures of fire-arms. 

4. The so-called Lower Eichsfeld, which since the year 1334 belonged to 
the former electorate of Mentz (see page 356), and of which Prussia became 
possessed in 1803, ceding it however to Hanover in 1813. It contains: Du- 
derstadt, its ancient capital, on the little Hahle river, eastward and 12 miles 
distant from Gottingen, with various manufactures, noted horse-marts, and 
4,700 inhabitants. Gieboldehausen (with 2,200 inhabitants) and Lindau 
(noted for its linen manufactures, has 1,100 inhabitants), market-towns. 

5. The ancient earldom of Hohnstein, whose sovereigns became extinct 
towards and in the beginning of the 17 th century, when the house of Bruns- 
wick became possessed of it. It contains : Ilfeld, a borough in the neigh- 
borhood of Nordhausen, is noted for its college (see back), and has 700 inhab- 



GERMANY. 441 



The Kingdom of Hanover — its Geographical Divisions. 



itants. Neustadt, surnamed unterm Hohnstein, a town belonging to the earl 
of Stolberg-Stolberg, with a stately palace, and TOO inhabitants. 



5. THE PROVINCE OF OSNABRUECK. 

It is situated within the limits of that extensive tract of land, 
since the middle ages comprised by the general name of West- 
phalia^ and embraces politically and historically the former bish- 
opric of Osnabrilck, the dependent dominions of Aremberg-Meppen 
and Bentheim, together with some other districts acquired by 
Hanover in the present century. 

1. The former sovereign bishopric (now styled principality) of Osnabruek, 
"was founded by Charlemagne in *7l2. In 1648 it retained its political inde- 
pendence, but the strange arrangement was made, that the chapter should 
elect alternately a Catholic and a Protestant bishop, and the latter only from 
among the princes of the house of Brunswick-Luneburg (or Hanover). The 
last Protestant bishop was the duke Frederic of York, who died in 1827. In 
1803 the electorate of Hanover, which until then had only occasionally by 
one of its princes been in connection with the bishopric, became completely 
possessed of it. It contains : Osnabrueck, its former capital, and at present 
the capital of the province, on the Hase river, 62 miles south-south-west of 
Bremen, and 28 miles north-east of Munster, with various manufactures, con- 
siderable trade, and 12,200 inhabitants. The most remarkable of its public 
edifices are the former palace of the bishop, the cathedral, and the city-hall, 
where the "Westphalian treaty of peace (see page 303) was signed on the 
24 Oct., 1648. The neighboring village of Borgloh is noted for its coal-mines. 
Dissert, a market-town with a salt-spring, and 2,000 inhabitants. Fiirstenau, 
a town with linen manufactures, and 1,300 inhabitants. Melle, a market- 
town with linen and woollen manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants. Quacken- 
brucTc, a town near the frontier of Oldenburg, with linen and other manufac- 
tures, rather considerable trade, and 2,300 inhabitants. Ankmn (with 1,200 
inhabitants), Vbrden (with 850 inhabitants), and Bramsche (with 1,600 inhab- 
itants), market-towns. 

2. The so-called lower earldom, of Lingen, which since 1*702 belonged to 

19* 



442 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover. 

Prussia, and was in 1815 ceded to Hanover, contains: Lingen, its former 
capital, north-westward and 36 miles distant from Osnabruck, with linen, 
woollen, and other manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. Lengerich, a hand- 
some village, with 600 inhabitants. Schapen, a market- town, with 1,300 
inhabitants. 

3. The dependent duchy of Aremberg-Meppen, belonging to the duke of 
Aremberg (whose ancestors lived in Belgium, and who has an annual revenue 
of 750,000 florins), contains: Meppen, its capital, on the Ems, 48 miles south- 
west of Oldenburg, with linen manufactures, and 2,350 inhabitants. Clemens- 
werth, a handsome palace of the duke. Haselunne, a town with hardware 
manufactures, and 1,800 inhabitants. Papenburg, a township near the Ems 
river, amidst extensive peat-bogs, has 5,200 inhabitants, who are noted for 
industry, and even send out vessels to Brazil, etc., in commercial pursuits. 

4. The dependent earldom of Bentheim, which has an annual revenue of 
about 150,000 florins, and since 1823 is subject to Hanover, contains: Ben- 
theim, its capital, south-westward and 16 miles distant from Lingen, with a 
stately and highly remarkable princely palace, and 2,000 inhabitants. Schut- 
torf (with 1,500 inhabitants), Neuenhaus (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Nord- 
horn (with 1,450 inhabitants). 



6. THE PROVINCE OF AURIOH. 

It is situated on the North Sea, between Oldenburg and the 
Netherlands, and comprises the ancient principality of East 
Friseland (1,129 square miles, and in 1845 with 174,284 inhabi- 
tants), surnamed " East," in opposition to West Friseland, be- 
longing to the kingdom of the Netherlands (see page 272). Both 
have derived their principal name from the ancient Friselanders 
(see page 298), who had their seat and home here. In the middle 
ages, East Friseland was ruled by a great many chieftains, who 
in 1430 were subjected to the sovereignty of Edzard, lord of 
Greetsiel. Edzard's brother and successor, was in 1454 by Em- 
peror Frederic IV., raised to the dignity of an earl, and Earl 
Enno IV., in 1654, to the princely dignity. With prince Charles 



GERMANY. 443 



The Kingdom of Hanover — its Geographical Divisions. 



Edzard, who died in 1744, the line of the native princes became 
extinct, and the principality was inherited by Frederic II., king 
of Prussia. In 1806 East Friseland was annexed to the king- 
dom of Holland, and in 1810 to the French empire. In 1813 it 
was restored to Prussia, which however ceded it to Hanover. It 
contains : 

Aurioh, its ancient capital, and at present the capital of the province, 
north-westward and 38 miles distant from Oldenburg, has 4,500 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its extensive ancient princely palace, its horse-marts, and corn 
trade. Emden, an important commercial city on the Dollart (see page 9), 
south-westward and 12 miles distant from Aurich, with a fine roadstead, 
various manufactures, and 12,400 inhabitants. Norden, the oldest city in 
East Friseland, near the North Sea, is noted for its handsome market-place, 
breweries, and horse-marts, and has 5,700 inhabitants. The neighboring 
mansion of the count of In- and Kniphausen, named Lutetsburg, is noted for 
its beautiful park. Greetsiel, a market-town near the Worth Sea, is remarka- 
ble as the ancestral seat of the princely house that became extinct in 1*744, 
but has only 700 inhabitants. Leer, a town near the Ems river, is noted for 
its commerce and horse-marts, and has 6,800 inhabitants. JEsens, a town near 
the North Sea, with a remarkable ancient church, linen manufactures, and 
2,200 inhabitants. Wittmund, a town noted for its horse-marts, has 1,700 
inhabitants. The isle of Norderney (with 700 inhabitants), near the coast, is 
much resorted to for sea-bathing. 



7. THE MINING DISTRICT OF CLAUSTHAL. 

It comprises the Tipper Hartz (see pages 7 and 8), has 213 
square miles in extent, and had in 1845 a population of 35,055 
inhabitants, who are chiefly engaged in mining business, yet also 
in the rearing of cattle, and some branches of common industry. 
In this district are to be found the most valuable mines Hanover 
is possessed of, and one of them has in the period from 1701 to 
1808, yielded a produce of 838,000 marks of silver, 768,000 



444 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Kingdom of Hanover and Duchy of Brunswick. 

quintals of lead, and 2,380 quintals of copper, at the aggregate 
value of 14,737,000 Prussian dollars. The district contains: 

Clausthal, a well-built mining town, the seat of the mining superinten- 
dency, in the Upper Hartz, with a mining academy, some manufactures, and 
9,100 inhabitants. Close by is the mining-town of Zellerfeld, with 4,200 
inhabitants. Other mining towns are: Altenau (with 1,100 inhabitants), 
Andreasberg (with 4,300 inhabitants), Grund (with 1,200 inhabitants), Lau- 
tenthal (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Wildemann (with 1,200 inhabitants). 
One of the most important iron-works in the Hartz, is named Konigshuite, 
where annually more than 20,000 quintals of iron are wrought. 



XXXIII— THE DUCHY OF BRUNSWICK. 

Area: 1,533 square miles. 
Population: 210,100 inhabitants. 

Its main body is situated about half-way between the cities of 
Hanover and Magdeburg, while another section is enclosed by 
southern territories of the kingdom of Hanover. 

The inhabitants are (with the exception of 2,700 Catholics, 
of about 1,600 Jews, and of rather few Calvinists and Moravian 
Brethren) Lutherans. 

Upon the whole the soil is fertile, and for the rest the natural 
character of the country bears the same stamp as the surrounding 
territories of Hanover. Chief staples are com, flax, hops, and 
timber; black cattle, horses, sheep, and game; silver, copper, iron, 
lead, peat, and sandstone. 

Except in the capital, there are but few manufactures j but the 
inland trade is considerable. For education, there are 2 semina- 



GERMANY. 445 



The Duchy of Brunswick — its Statistics and History. 



ries, 5 gymnasiums, and 2 others, which are arranged in similar 
manner as the English colleges; 21 Latin, and 369 common 
schools. The former university at Helmstedt, was in 1809 abol- 
ished by the Westphalian government (see page 294). 

The government is a limited monarchy. According to the 
budget for the period 1843-45, the public revenue and expenditure 
was estimated at 1,250,710 Prussian dollars. The public debt, the 
interest of which amounts to 672,700 Prussian dollars annually, 
has since the year 1832, been increased by a loan of 2£ millions, 
required for the rearing of a new ducal palace, as the former 
palace was burnt down in 1830, by incendiaries. The military 
consists of 3,181 men, 2,096 of whom, are or were to be furnished 
to the confederal army. 

In 1834, the order of Henry the Lion was instituted, as an 
order of honor for civil and military officers, in 4 classes. 

History. — It has already been mentioned in the history of Hanover, that 
both this kingdom and the duchy of Brunswick have the same origin ; and 
that the nigher ancestor of the reigning royal and ducal houses, is duke 
Ernest, surnamed the Confessor, who died in 1546, and whose grandson 
Augustus became the special ancestor of the reigning house of Brunswick. 
Until the year 1154, the ducal residence was in Wolfenbuttel, but duke 
Charles transferred it in the just-named year, to the city of Brunswick. He 
died in 1780, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Charles "William Ferdinand, 
while his younger son, Frederic Augustus, became by marriage possessed of 
the dependent principality of Oels in Silesia, and assumed the name of Bruns- 
wick-Oels. Duke Charles "William Ferdinand, of Brunswick proper, com- 
manded the Prussian troops in the battle of Auerstadt (which was fought on 
the same day as the battle of Jena), in 1806, where he was severely wounded, 
and soon after died, while the French took possession of his duchy, which in 
the period from 1807 to 1813, formed a constituent part of the kingdom of 
"Westphalia. His grand-nephew, Frederic William of Brunswick- Oels, now 
succeeded him as duke of Brunswick, but was on the 16th June, 1815, killed 
in the action of Quatrebras. He left behind two sons, minors, the eldest of 
whom, Charles, succeeded him, but was, until 1823, under the guardianship 



446 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany, — Duchy of Brunswick. 



of King George IV., of Great Britain and Hanover. In 1830, after the 
French revolution of July, in Brunswick as well as elsewhere, it was for a 
while the fashion to imitate that revolution ; Herzberg, the commander of 
the ducal troops, made common cause with the rebels, the ducal palace was 
set on fire, and, to be short, Peter was exchanged for Paul, and the duke's 
brother, William (born in 1806), is since the 25th April, 1831, reigning duke. 
Both he and his brother are yet unmarried, and should they die so, the duchy 
will be annexed to Hanover, as its king and descendants are the next legiti- 
mate heirs to Brunswick. 

The duchy is divided into 6 districts, and subdivided into 
bailiwicks. The districts of Brunswick, Wolfenbuttel, Helm- 
stedt, Gandersheim, and Holzminden, comprise the ancient patri- 
monial state, styled principality of Wolfenbuttel, while the sixth 
district consists of the principality of Blankenburg, which in 
1599 was inherited by the ducal house of Brunswick. The most 
remarkable cities, towns, etc., of the duchy, are the following : 

Brunswick (in German Braunschweig), the capital of the duchy, and ducal 
residence, on the Ocker river, 46 miles west- north-west of Magdeburg, and 
south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Hanover, with 40,000 inhabitants, 
a new and magnificent ducal palace, many literary, institutions, numerous and 
important manufactures, and considerable inland trade ; while its annual 
fairs, formerly noted, have, since the construction of railroads throughout 
Germany, lost their importance. Brunswick is noted for its architectural 
monuments, among which are the St. Blasii church (with the sepulchre of 
Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, who founded this church in 1172), and sev- 
eral other churches. In the middle ages, Brunswick ranked among the first 
cities of the Hanseatic League (see page 54). Wolfenbuttel, a city next in 
rank to Brunswick, and until 1754 the ducal residence, on the Ocker river, 
southward and 7 miles distant from Brunswick, is noted for its highly valua- 
ble ducal library (containing 200,000 vols., 10,000 manuscripts, a large collection 
of bibles, etc.), for its manufactures, greens, etc., and has 9,000 inhabitants. The 
neighboring village of Salsdahlum (with 700 inhabitants) is noted for its salt- 
springs. Schoppenstedt, a town on the Altenau river, south-eastward and 14 
miles distant from Brunswick, with linen and leather manufactures, and 



GERMANY. 447 



The Duchy of Brunswick — its Geographical Divisions. 



2,400 inhabitants. Near the Hanoverian mining district of Clausthal, is the 
renowned ducal stud of Harzburg, where also the ruins are to be found, of 
the very ancient mountain castle of the same name, in the middle ages fre- 
quently the residence of the German emperors. ITelmstadt, a town on the 
common high-road between Magdeburg and Brunswick, has 6,500 inhabitants, 
and was formerly noted for its university, founded in 1576, but in 1809 abol- 
ished by the "Westphalian government. Kbnigslutter, a town between Helm- 
stadt and Brunswick, is noted for its breweries, and has 3,200 inhabitants. 
The neighboring village of Suppling enburg was the ancestral seat of the 
German emperor, Lothar II. (1125-1137). Schoningen, a town between 
Helmstadt and Schoppenstedt, is noted for its salt-works and peat, and has 
3,200 inhabitants. Vorsfelde (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Calvorde (with 
1,900 inhabitants), market- towns noted for hops. Gandersheim, a town 
between Hildesheim and Gottingen, has 2,500 inhabitants. Seesen, a town 
on the little Schildau river, is noted for a Jewish college, and has 2,300 
inhabitants. Between here and Brunswick is situated the village of Lutter 
am, Barenberge (with 1,300 inhabitants), noted in history for the victory the 
imperial general Tilly obtained here over the Danes, on the 27th Aug., 1626- 
Holzminden, a town on the Weser, westward and 18 miles distant from 
Eimbeck, with manufactures of hardware, cutlery, pins, etc. ; iron-works, 
considerable linen trade, and 3,500 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situ- 
ated the ancient mountain castle of Furstenberg, since 1753 with a porcelain 
manufactory. Eschersleben, a market-town noted for its flax and linen, has 
1,300 inhabitants. Bevern, a market-town in the neighborhood of Holzmin- 
den, with 1,500 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and an ancient ducal castle, 
in the period from 1704 to 1735, the residence of a collateral line of the 
ducal house. Stadt Oldendorf, a town north-eastward and 12 miles distant 
from Holzminden, with linen manufactures, quarries, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
Thedinghausen, a market-town on the "Weser, south-eastward and 12 miles 
distant from Bremen, with linen manufactures, and 1,500 inhabitants, is the 
chief place of the bailiwick of Thedinghausen situated entirely apart. 
Blankenburg, the capital of the above-mentioned principality of the same 
name (which has 170§ square miles in extent, and a population of 22,000 
inhabitants), at the lower Hartz, south-eastward and 37 miles distant from 
Brunswick, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its ducal palace. In the 
neighborhood are two remarkable caves (similar to Wyer's Cave, in Vir- 
ginia), known by the names of Baumannshohle and Bielsteinhohle. The 



44S EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Free City of Hamburg. 

villages of Zonjc (with 1.800 inhabitants), Wicda (with 1,100 inhabitants), 

and Jlohcaeiss (with 1,100 inhabitants), are noted for their iron-works. 
Hassdfclde, a town with 1,700 inhabitants. 



XXXIV.— THE FREE CITY OF HAMBURG. 

Area : 149 square miles. 
Population: 168,000 inhabitants. 

The city of Hamburg is situated on the right bank of the 
river Elbe, about 84 miles from the sea, and its territory partly in 
the immediate vicinity, partly at the mouth of the Elbe. In the 
above-stated area and population, are included 42^ square miles, 
and 13,000 inhabitants, as the area and population of the baili- 
wick of Bergedorf (above Hamburg on the Elbe), of which Ham- 
burg and Lubec are possessed in common. 

Most of the inhabitants are Lutherans; but besides them, there 
are about 4,100 Calvinists, 3,100 Roman Catholics, 600 Mennou- 
ites, and 8,000 Jews. 

The government is a republic, the sovereign power being vested 
in a senate and the citizenship. The public reroute amounted in 
1845, to 5,827,000 bank-marks (3 are equal to 1 dollar), and the 
expenditure to 5.996,000 marks. The public debt amounts to about 
70 million bank-marks, aud this rather high amount is chiefly 
owing to a loan which became necessary, in consequeuce of a 
dreadful fire in 1842, which destroyed a considerable part of the 
city. The troops to be furnished to the confederal army, are 
1,298 men. Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec are, as ancient mem- 
bers of the Hanseatic League (see page 54), still sometimes styled 



GERMANY. 449 



Tho Free City of Hamburg. 



Ilanseatic cities, both in common life and officially. — It is proba- 
ble that Hamburg already existed before the days of Charle- 
magne, as a city of the North Albingians (see page 298) In 
808 this emperor reared here an imperial castle, and in 834 
Hamburg became the seat of an archbishopric, which, however, a 
few years later, was transferred to Bremen. At a later period, 
Hamburg came under the sway of the earls of Holstein, who 
favored it with substantial privileges. In the 12th century it 
was already a commercial city of importance, and in 1215 it was 
raised to a sovereign imperial city by Emperor Otto IV. In 
1241 it entered into an alliance with Lubec, laying thus the foun- 
dation of the Ilanseatic League, and in the years 1258 and 
1269, it acquired a considerable territory. Its flourishing state 
continued even in the period of the thirty years 1 war, which left 
Hamburg unharmed ; as was likewise the case in the seven years' 
war, and in the period of the first French revolution. But since 
1803, Hamburg has suffered many calamities. First the Elbe 
river was shut up by the French, and blockaded by the English ; 
secondly, Hamburg was in 1806 occupied by French troops, and 
had since to pay enormous war-taxes ; thirdly, it was incorporated 
in 1810 with the French empire ; and lastly it was in 1813 occu- 
pied by a numerous body of French troops commanded by 
Davoust, who condemned Hamburg to a fine of 48 million francs, 
took considerable sums of private property from the bank, and 
transformed the city into a strong fortress, which did not surren- 
der before the peace was concluded at Paris, on the 31st May, 
1814. The losses in ready money Hamburg has suffered in the 
period from 1806 to 1814, are estimated at 140 million bank- 
marks. In 1815 Hamburg was restored to its political indepen- 
dence, and joined the German Confederation as a free city. The 
above-mentioned great fire in 1842, lasted from the 4th to the 
8th of May, and destroyed 1,992 houses, which had been the 



450 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Free City of Hamburg. 

dwellings of about 30,000 inhabitants. We shall now enter into 
some particulars of topographical description. 

Hamburg lies, as has already been stated, on the right bank of the Elbe, at 
its junction with the Alster, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Bre- 
men, and south-westward and 40 miles distant from Lubec, is universally 
known as the chief commercial city in Germany, and has 137,000 inhabitants. 
Before the great fire in 1842, Hamburg was noted for its 5 fine and high 
steeples of churches, two of which burnt down on that occasion, and are 
about to be replaced by new churches with similar high steeples. Of the 
three others that remained unhurt, St. Michael's church steeple is 458 feet in 
height, thus one of the highest in the world. The Merchant's Exchange is a 
magnificent, well-arranged, and extensive edifice, in whose vaults the silver 
ingots of the bank of Hamburg are deposited. The new post-office is like- 
wise a stately edifice. In the suburb of St. George is the city hospital, an 
immense building with a front of 700 feet, while each of its two wings has 
on the inner side a length of 375 feet. Hamburg has more than 200 own 
vessels engaged in its commerce ; and is moreover noted both for its various 
manufactures, and its numerous literary institutions. The city library con- 
tains about 200,000 vols. There are besides, an eminently-arranged gymna- 
sium, and numerous other schools. In the territory belonging to Hamburg 
exclusively, are to be noticed the handsome neighboring villages of Eppendorf, 
JBarmbeck, Hamm, and Horn, much resorted to for amusement ; and the isles 
of Ochsenwerder (with 1,900 inhabitants), Billwerder (with 4,200 inhabitants), 
Moonverder (with 300 inhabitants), and Grasbrook (with 700 inhabitants), 
between Hamburg and Harburg. At the mouth and on the left bank of the 
Elbe are situated the boroughs of Ritzebuttel (the seat of a bailiwick of the 
same name, has 1,700 inhabitants) and Cuxhafen (with a harbor, roadstead, 
sea-bathing, and 800 inhabitants). 

In common with Lubec, Hamburg is possessed of the bailiwick of Bergedorf 
(42i square miles, and 13,000 inhabitants), situated on the right bank of the 
Elbe, between Hamburg and Lauenburg. It formerly belonged to the 
duchy of Lauenburg, but was in the 15th century conquered by Hamburg 
and Lubec jointly, and since the year 1420 both cities have possessed it. It 
contains, besides the town of Bergedorf (at the Berlin and Hamburg rail- 
road, with 2,400 inhabitants), and the village of Geesthacht (with 1,000 inhab- 



GERMANY. 451 



The Free City of Lubec. 



itants), a district known by the name of Vierlande, noted for the great fer- 
tility of its soil, for its greens, and for its excellent fruits of various kinds, 
especially cherries. 



XXXV.— THE FREE CITY OF LUBEC. 

Area: 160 square miles. 
Population: 53,500 inhabitants. 

The area and population here stated include 42£ square miles, 
and 13,000 inhabitants, as the population of the bailiwick of 
Bergedorf (see above). Thus, there remains 11 7£ square miles 
and 40,500 inhabitants to Lubec and its territory alone. Lubec 
is situated on the river Trave, 9 miles from the Baltic Sea. Most 
of the inhabitants are Lutherans. The republican government is 
similar to that of Hamburg. According to the budget of 1845, 
the public revenue amounted to 834,191, and the expenditure to 
797,733 current marks (3-f = $l). The public debt, which in 
1814 amounted to 11 millions, was in 1844 reduced to 5,881,041 
current marks. There are 1 gymnasium, 1 seminary, 1 nautical 
school, etc., and numerous private and public common schools. 
Troops to be furnished to the confederal army : 407 men. — With 
regard to history, the present city of Lubec was founded in 1143 
by Earl Adolphus II. of Holstein and Schaumburg (see History 
of Holstein), who in 1158 ceded it to the frequently-mentioned 
duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Lion ; and since then Lu- 
bec was for a while both the seat of the above (under the head 
of Oldenburg) mentioned bishopric of this name, and under the 
sway of the duke of Saxony. However it soon became inde- 
pendent, being in 1226 raised to an imperial city by Emperor 



452 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Free City of Lubec. 

Frederic II. At that period it had by its widely-extended com- 
merce already grown wealthy and become an emporium on the 
Baltic. Bat it attained to the highest pitch of commercial and 
political authority and power since the establishment of the Han- 
seatic League (see page 54), whose head it became. Lubec*was 
still in the beginning of the 16th century possessed of a powerful 
navy, and had about 100,000 inhabitants. But since it went 
gradually to decay together with that League, whose formal solu- 
tion took place in 1632. After the battle of Jena in 1806, the 
Prussian general Blucher took with a detached body of troops a 
strong position in Lubec, which then was stormed by the French 
and pillaged during three days. In 1810 the city was annexed 
to the French empire, and formed part of the department of the 
mouth of the Elbe, the capital of which was Hamburg. In 1813 
Lubec was restored to its political independence, and joined sub- 
sequently the German Confederation as a free city. 

Lubec (in German Lubeek) is, as has already been remarked, situated on 
the Trave, 9 miles from the Baltic Sea, north-eastward and 40 miles distant 
from Hamburg, is the seat of the Supreme Tribunal for the 4 Free Cities (see 
page 297), and had on the 1st September, 1845, a population of 25,360 in- 
habitants, among whom were about 400 Calvinists, 300 Roman Catholics, and 
500 Jews. The commerce of Lubec is at present not very considerable, yet 
a regular line of steam-ships (at least in the summer season) connects it with 
St. Petersburg, Copenhagen, and other seaports of the Baltic. About the 
schools see above. Lubec is noted for several remarkable ancient edifices, 
among which rank first St. Mary's church (reared in the period of 1163-1170, 
containing among others an admirable picture and clock, both from the be- 
ginning of the 15th century, and whose two steeples are each 422 feet high), 
and the enormously extensive city-hall, remarkable as the former meeting- 
place of the representatives of the Hanseatic League. To the territory of 
the city belongs the town of Travemunde, at the mouth of the Trave, with a 
seaport, sea-bathing, and 1,100 inhabitants. Lubec acquired it in 1320. 
The bailiwick of Bergedorf, possessed in common by Lubec and Hamburg, 
is already described above. 



GERMANY. 453 



The Free City of Bremen. 



XXXVI— THE FREE CITY OF BREMEN. 

Area: 106^ square miles. 
Population: 1 6,000 inhabitants. 

Bremen is situated on the Weser, about 46 miles from the 
North Sea. The inhabitants are (with the exception of about 
2,000 Roman Catholics) partly Calvi?iists, partly Lutherans. 
Jews are not allowed to live in the city. The government is a 
republic, like that of Hamburg. According to the budget of 
1845, the public revenue, amounted to 602,572 rix dollars in louis 
d'or (1 rix dollar is equal to about 75 cents), and the expenditure 
to 691.640 rix dollars. The deficit of 89,068 was chiefly owing 
to the expenses occasioned by the structure of the Bremen and 
Hanover railroad, and is long since refunded. The public debt 
amounted to 2-f million rix dollars, though upon the whole the 
public finances of Bremen are in the best order. The troops 
to the confederal army : 485 men. — The more ancient history 
of the city is closely connected with that of the archbishopric of 
Bremen (see above under the head of Hanover, page 438), where 
we have seen that since the beginning of the Reformation the 
city of Bremen embraced Protestantism (at first, i. e. in 1522 
Lutheranism, and in 1562 Calvinism, which since prevailed 
until recent times) and became independent. Its commerce 
had long before that period been flourishing, especially since 
the city, in 1283, had joined the Hanseatic League. In 1640 
Bremen was endowed with the privileges of an imperial city, 
though it actually was not allowed to make use of them be- 
fore the year 1731. In 1810 the city was annexed to the French 
empire as capital of the Weser mouth department, but in 1813 
restored to its independency, and became subsequently an actual 



454 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Germany. — Free Cities of Bremen and Frankfort. 

member of the German Confederation. In 1829 it acquired from 
Hanover a small tract of land on the right bank of the Weser, 
where it since established the seaport of Bremerhaven. — We 
add the following topographical and statistical particulars. 
m 

Bremen, situated on both sides of the Weser, though chiefly on its right 
bank, about 46 miles from the sea, south-westward and 60 miles distant 
from Hanover, is next to Hamburg the chief commercial city in Germany, 
and has 53,000 inhabitants. Steam-ships connect Bremen with New York, 
and merchant-vessels (more than 230 of which belong to the city itself) are 
trading not only to New York and other ports of the United States, but also 
to South America, the West Indies, Brazil, the chief maritime towns of the 
Baltic, and even to Australia, etc. The inland trade is likewise very impor- 
tant, and Bremen is noted for its tobacco, canvass, and other manufactures. 
Besides a gymnasium, there are several other, and numerous common schools. 
The city-hall is a magnificent Gothic edifice. The ancient cathedral, or, since 
the Reformation, Lutheran church, is likewise a remarkable edifice, and was 
reared in the years 1043-10*72, though some parts of it were founded in the 
10th century. The steeple of St. Ansgarii is 324 feet high. In the territory 
of the city are chiefly to be noticed : Vegesack, a borough on the right bank 
of the Weser, at its junction with the Lesum or Wumme, with 1,500 inhabi- 
tants, who are amply engaged in ship-building, and the above-mentioned 
town of Bremerhaven, likewise on the right bank of the Weser, at its junction 
with the Geeste, with harbor, and 2,700 inhabitants. 



XXXVII.— THE FREE CITY OF FRANKFORT. 

Area : 42 1 square miles. 
Population : 68,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated towards the centre of Germany, on the river 
Mayne, about 18 miles from its junction with the Rhine, sur- 



GERMANY. 455 



The Free City of Frankfort — its Statistics, History, etc. 



rounded by Hessian territories and bordering upon the duchy of 
Nassau. The majority of the population consist of Lutherans ; 
there are, however, 6,500 Roman Catholics, and besides them 
about 2,000 Calvinists. and 6,500 Jews. The government is a re- 
public, the sovereign power being vested in a senate and a legis- 
lative body. The amount of the public revenue, and of the 
expenditure for several years, has been about 900,000 florins. 
The public debt is 8 million florins. The troops to be furnished 
to the confederal army : 693 men. — Frankfort was probably 
founded as early as the 5th century by the Franks. The Fran- 
conian dukes had in Frankfort a palace, which at a later period 
was frequently the residence of Charlemagne. His son Louis the 
Pious and his grandson Louis the German had for several years 
their residence in this city, which in the 9th century became an 
emporium of Austrasia (see page 26), and in 1254 an imperial 
city. Since the year 1356 the German emperors were elected, 
and since 1562 also crowned in Frankfort, which meanwhile had 
grown rich by its extensive inland trade and annual fairs. In 
the beginning of the year 1806 French troops occupied the city, 
and in 1810 it became the capital of the grand-duchy of Frank- 
fort (see page 294). In 1813 Frankfort was restored to its for- 
mer independency, and was in the period from 1816 to 1848 the 
seat of the Diet of the German Confederation. — We add the fol- 
lowing statistical particulars. 

Frankfort is in German called Frankfurt, and surnamed am Main (i. e. 
on the Mayne), to distinguish it from another German city of the same name, 
situated on the Oder river. The city itself has a population of 58,000 inhabi- 
tants, carries on a considerable trade, and is much engaged in banking busi- 
ness, though its annual fairs have, like those of Brunswick, lost their former 
importance since the construction of railroads throughout Germany. Its 
book-trade and manufactures may be considered as considerable. Frankfort 
is noted for its numerous literary institutions, among them two public libra- 



456 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Germany. — Free City of Frankfort. 



ries (one of which contains 80,000 volumes), a cabinet of natural curiosities, 
a fine collection of paintings, etc. Schools are various, The most remark- 
able of the public edifices are the city-hall, styled Romer (where the empe- 
rors were elected, and which in substance was already extant in 964), and 
the ancient Gothic St. Bartholomew's church (where the emperors were 
crowned). Frankfort is renowned for its extensive and comfortable hotels. 
The territory of the city contains the market-town of Bonames (with 600 in- 
habitants), and the villages of Bomheim (with 2,000 inhabitants), Niederrad 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), Oberrad (with 1,400 inhabitants), and Hansen (with 
600 inhabitants). 



THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA. 

Area: 108,214 square miles. 
Population: 16,100,000 inhabitants. 

The kingdom of Prussia (in German Preussen) consists of two 
distinct territories, situated about 40 miles apart, and separated 
from each other by Hanover and Hesse-Cassel. 

The eastern and larger section extends from the Russian fron- 
tier and the Baltic, towards the centre of Germany; while the 
western territory extends from the banks of the Weser across the 
Rhine, towards the French frontier. 

About two thirds of the population are Evangelicals (see page 
291), and somewhat more than one third Roman Catholics. At 
the end of the year 1843, the population of the kingdom was 
exactly (i. e. according to the census) 15,471,765 inhabitants. 
Of these were 9,428,911 Evangelicals (inclusive 200,000 Mora- 
vian Brethren), and 5,820,123 were Catholics. The remainder 
consisted of 1,879 followers of the Greek Church, 14,313 Men- 
nonites, 206,529 Jews, and 10 Mohammedans. The Catholics are 
under the spiritual superintendence of 2 archbishops (of Cologne 
and Gnesen) and 6 bishops (of Treves, Munster, Paderborn, Culm, 
Breslau, and Ermeland). 

With regard to the surface of the country, that of the eastern 
territory is (with the exception of Upper Silesia) generally level, 
and that of the western territory for the most part mountainous. 

The chief mountain range is the Riesengebirge (see page 6), 
besides which parts of the Hartz with the Brocken (see pag-es 7 

20 



458 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Rivers, Soil, Natural Products, etc. 



and 8), and of the Thuringerwald (see page 7), are to be noticed 
in the eastern territory ; while the chief mountain ranges in the 
western territory, are the Westerwald, Hunsrucken, Eifel, and 
Seven Hills (see page 8). 

Bays of the Baltic Sea are here, the Curische, Fresh, Great, 
and Little Haff (see page 9). Of inland lakes is the Madue 
Lake (see page 11) ; and of rivers, the Oder, the Elbe (with the 
Black Lister, Saale, and Havel), the Rhine (with the Nahe, Lahn, 
Sieg, Wupper, Lippe, Ruhr, and Moselle), the lower Vistula, the 
Pregel, etc. (see the particulars, pages 13, 16, etc.), to be noticed. 
Of canals may be mentioned the Netze, Finow, and Mullrose 
canals, connecting the Vistula, Oder, and Elbe, with each other. 

The natural character of the soil is greatly diversified. The 
most fertile province is in general the province of Saxony, where 
at the same time the soil is exceedingly well-cultivated, especially 
in the so-called Guldene Aue (see page 399) and the district of 
Magdeburg. Yet in all other provinces are highly fertile dis- 
tricts likewise, as, for instance, in the province of Prussia, those 
of Tilsit, Marienburg, Marienwerder, Dantzick; in the province of 
Posen, the districts along the Netze river; in Pomerania, the 
island of Riigen, the district of Stralsund in general, and along 
the banks of the Oder ; in Silesia, especially Lower Silesia ; in 
Brandenburg, the districts known by the names of Lenzerwische 
(meadow of Lenzen), Oderbruch, and Spreewald ; in Westphalia, 
the districts of Soest and Warburg; in the Rhenish province, 
the valleys along the Moselle, Saar, and Nahe, and the districts 
watered by the Sieg and Wupper rivers, and of Juliers. 

Thus, upon the whole, corn is raised sufficiently, not only for 
home consumption, but even for exportation. Besides grain, is 
especially cultivated vine, in the Rhenish province, principally on 
the banks of the Moselle. Nahe, and Ahr rivers. With the ex- 
ception of the provinces of Saxony and Westphalia, there are 



PRUSSIA. 459 



Natural Products, Manufactures, Trade and Commerce. 



extensive forests yielding both fuel and limber, the latter in suffi- 
cient quantities for exportation. The most remarkable forests 
are in the province of Prussia, covering there a space of 5,700,000 
Prussian acres. — The aggregate number of horses was, 1,564,554 
in the year 1843 ; and the breed reared in the royal stud of 
Trakehnen (in East Prussia) surpasses in beauty and nicety of 
external appearance, even the English breed. Yet, upon the 
whole, the kingdom of Prussia is not so generally noted for its 
horses, as for instance Mecklenburg ; and the same may be said 
of the black cattle, of which 5,042,010 heads were numbered in 
the year 1843. The number of sheep (about 4,200,000 of 
which were of the finest, and nearly 8 million of half-improved 
breed) amounted to 16,235,885, and that of hogs (especially in 
Westphalia, Pomerania, and the province of Saxony) to 2,1 15,212. 
The principal productions from the mineral kingdom are iron (in 
1843 produced at the primitive value of 17,487,481 Prussian dol- 
lars), and coal (in 1843 produced at the primitive value of 
5,307,661 Prussian dollars) ; besides which may be mentioned lead, 
copper, zinc, silver (of which latter, 30,152 marks were produced 
in 1843), salt (at the value of 1,348,794 Prussian dollars, made 
in that year), and yellow amber (only at the Baltic coast in the 
province of Prussia). 

The manufactures are both numerous and important, especially 
those of cloth and other woollens, of cotton goods (Elberfeld is at the 
same time noted for its spun cotton, dyed in Turkey red), linens 
(especially in Silesia and Westphalia), silks and velvets, and articles 
of iron and steel. (See the remarks and statements, page 286.) 

The inland trade is considerable, and though the foreign com- 
merce does not rival that of several other European countries, 
yet the exportations (consisting principally in grain, timber, salt, 
wool, linen, cloth, hardware, etc.) surpass by far the imports, both 
in quantity and value. The chief seaports are Stettin, Dant- 



460 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia — its Means of Education. 

zick, Konigsberg, Memel, and Stralsund; and in the inland 
trade are principally engaged : Cologne, Elberfeld, Magdeburg, 
Berlin, Breslau, and Frankfort on the Oder. It has been com- 
puted that the Prussian nation, in the period prior to the year 
1806, had by means of the various branches of industry, hus- 
bandry, trading business, etc., upon an average, an annual income 
of about 147 million Prussian dollars, which in 1831 had raised 
to the amount of 321 million, and in 1843 to that of nearly 461 
million Prussian dollars. 

What has been stated, page 287, etc., about the means of education 
in Germany, may in substance be applied to Prussia. The acad- 
emies of sciences and fine arts in Berlin, were founded respect- 
ively in 1701 and 1699. About the universities at Berlin (in 
1846 with 1,608 students), Halle (with 777 students), Breslau 
(with 749 students), Bonn (with 667 students), and Greifswald 
(with 212 students), see page 287. The university at Konigsberg 
was founded in 1543, and in 1846 frequented by 317 students. 
Formerly there were also universities at Cologne (founded in 
1388), Erfurt, (1392), Treves (1472), Wittenberg (1502), Frank- 
fort on the Oder (1506), Paderborn (1615), and Duisburg 
(founded in 1655), which however, in the present century, have 
been abolished or united with other universities. In Munster 
and Braunsberg, are Roman Catholic theological faculties, and in 
other places, 5 seminaries. The number of Protestant theologi- 
cal seminaries is 9, and that of seminaries for school teachers 
amounts to 41. Besides 117 common gymnasia, there are 6 
paedagogia, or gymnasia arranged in a similar manner, as for 
instance the college of Eton in England, and 3 others, styled 
Ritteracademien. Still there are to be noticed 32 progymnasia, 
100 higher secondary schools (in 1843 with 14,795 pupils), 658 
common secondary schools (with 79,101 pupils), and 23,646 pri- 



PRUSSIA. 461 



Government, Public Finances, Army, Orders of Honor. 



mar j schools, which in 1843 were frequented by 2,328,146 chil- 
dren. 

The government was until 1847 an absolute monarchy, as the 
provincial states or deputies, introduced in 1823 and 24, had only 
a deliberative vote. By decree issued on the 3d February, 1847, 
a decisive vote was conferred upon them, though only in matters 
concerning taxes and public debts. Finally the revolution in 
Berlin, on the 18th March, 1848, was followed by a constitution 
framed on modern political principles. 

According to the budget of 1844, the public revenue amounted 
to 57,677,194 Prussian dollars, and the expenditure was of about 
the same amount. The public debt was on the 1st January, 1843, 
to the amount of 138,861,087 Prussian dollars. 

The regular army (guards and troops of the line) consists on 
the peace footing of 122,897 men. But this army can in time 
of war be increased to about 553,000 men, by 250,000 of the 
reserve and landwehr (militia) of the first summons, and by 
180,000 of the landwehr of the second summons. The troops 
which Prussia had to furnish to the confederal army, amounted 
to 79,434 men. The number of fortresses in Prussia amounts to 
26. The sloop of war which Prussia has, is more a plaything 
than the embryo of a navy. 

There are the following orders of honor : 1. The order of the 
Black Eagle, instituted on the 18th January, 1701, in one class. 
2. The order of the Red Eagle, instituted in 1744, renewed in 
1792, and since 1830 in 4 classes. 3. The order pour le Merite, 
instituted in 1740, and since 1842, in two distinct classes. 

4. The order of St. John, instituted in 1812, in one class. 

5. The order of the Iron Cross, instituted in 1813, in 2, or prop- 
erly 3 classes, but since the wars in 1813-1815, not more con- 
ferred. 6. The order of Louisa, instituted in 1814, only for 
ladies. 



462 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia — its History. 

History. — The present kingdom of Prussia consists of more than 50 ancient 
territories of the German empire, united in the last four centuries by way of 
purchase, conquering, inheritance, etc. Brandenburg is the basis of the king- 
dom, and was conquered by Charlemagne, who subjected it to the authority 
of margraves. Since it was styled the margraviate of Brandenburg, which 
latter name was derived from the city of Brandenburg, founded by Slavonian 
tribes about the 7th century. In 1142 Albert surnamed the Bear, son of 
Earl Otto of Ascania (mentioned in the History of Anhalt, page 402), be- 
came possessed of the margraviate of Brandenburg, and bequeathed it to 
his descendants, who became extinct in 1320, when the margraviate escheated 
as a fief of the German empire to the emperor, who successively invested 
several German princes with it, until at last the burgrave of Nuremberg, 
Frederic VI of Hohenzollern, became possessed both of the margraviate and 
the electoral dignity in 1417. (See the particulars, pages 302 and 318.) 
Frederic, as elector and margrave of Brandenburg Frederic I, died in 1440, 
and was succeeded by the following descendants : Frederic II. (-(-1471), Al- 
bert, surnamed Achilles (-f-1486), John, surnamed Cicero (-j-1499), Joachim I, 
surnamed Nestor (-(-1535), Joachim II, surnamed Hector (-f-157l), John 
George (-j-1598), Joachim Frederic (-f-1608), John Sigismund (-[-1619), 
George William (1640), Frederic William (-{-1688) and Frederic III, who 
reigned since 1688. Meanwhile the territory on the eastern shores of the 
Baltic, since the 13th and 14th centuries conquered and possessed by the 
Teutonic Order (see pages 46 and 336), and known by the name of Prussia, 
had since the year 1525 been transformed into a duchy, whose second duke 
Albert II. had as only heirs two daughters, who were married the one to the 
elector Joachim Frederic, and the other to his grandson, the elector John 
Sigismund of Brandenburg, who in this way inherited the duchy of Prussia 
in 1618, and bequeathed it, beside the margraviate and electorate, to his de- 
scendants. His grandson Frederic William, acquired moreover considerable 
territories in Germany ; and Frederic III. (his son) having added new acqui- 
sitions by inheritance, began to harbor the desire of adding also an inde- 
pendent dignity to that dependent one of which he was already possessed as 
prince of the German empire. For this purpose he transformed his duchy 
of Prussia (which had politically nothing in common with the German em- 
pire) into a kingdom, and let himself be crowned at Konigsberg as King of 
Prussia on the 18th January, 1701. He died as King Frederic I. in 1713, 
and was succeeded by his son Frederic William I, who in some respect did 



PRUSSIA. 463 



History of Prussia. 



provide for the true welfare of his people in a more proper manner than his 
son and successor Frederic II. When he ascended the throne, he found the 
state deeply involved in debts and in great disorder ; the people were more 
or less impoverished, extensive tracts of arable land lay waste, and most 
branches of industry were in a languishing condition. Frederic William was 
indeed neither a learned man, nor a man of the latest French fashion, but he 
was endowed with common sense, and thus within rather few years all pub- 
lic debts were paid, the waste tracts of land cultivated, all branches of hus- 
bandry and industry in a flourishing state, and while in a later period the 
public revenue had increased to 71 million Prussian dollars annually (a very 
considerable amount at that period), the taxes had at the same time been 
lowered considerably. When Frederic William died (on the 31st May, 1740), 
he left behind 9 millions of ready money in the public treasury, and a well- 
disciplined army of 70,000 men to his eldest son and successor Frederic II, 
whose character is too well known than that we should need to enter in any 
particulars about it. Moreover its essential point is already alluded to in 
the History of Europe, pages 59 and 60. But for the circumstance that 
Charles VI. died in the very year of his accession and left behind no male 
descendants, Frederic would never have dared to raise his, by no means well- 
founded, claims upon Silesia ; and but for the constant disunion among his 
enemies in the field, he would not have been allowed to be finally success- 
ful in the seven years' war. During this whole period he had continually 
some poison in his pocket, for the purpose of suicide in case of total failure. 
He may be considered as the author of the atheistical principles that since 
his reigmbegan to become fashionable and even prevailing in Germany ; and 
he was by his contemporaries surnamed the Great, more on account of that he 
harbored and propagated those principles, than on account of his victories on 
the battle-field. At least indirectly, he suggested the plan for dividing Po- 
land ; and by annexing one part of it (in 1772), beside Silesia, to his king- 
dom, he indeed had finally enlarged the latter to an extent of 74,827 square 
miles, with more than 6 million inhabitants. But he considered and treated 
the people like a machinery, and put all his trust in his well-drilled army of 
200,000 men. By this predilection for soldiery he has done great mischief 
to Germany in general, whose other princes were induced to follow his ex- 
ample, thus rearing an artificial political edifice which subsequently was 
easily overturned by Napoleon. Frederic II. died in 1786, and was suc- 
ceeded by his nephew, Frederic William II, who died in 1797, and was sue- 



464 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Prussia — its Geographical Divisions. 



ceeded by his son, Frederic William III., who had to undergo many hard- 
ships and troubles since his total defeat on the 14th October, 1806, at Jena 
and Anerstadt, but was amply indemnified in 1814 and 15. He died on the 
1th June, 1840, and was succeeded by his eldest son, the present reigning 
king Frederic William IV., born on the 15th October, 1195. 

The kingdom of Prussia is divided in 8 provinces. Each prov- 
ince is subdivided into governmental districts, and each of the lat- 
ter subdivided into circles, as they are styled. Six of those prov- 
inces (together at an extent of 71,696 square miles, with 
12,230,000 inhabitants) formed constituent parts of the Ger- 
man Confederation, and for this reason we shall describe them 
first, and finally the two other provinces. (See page 310.) As 
the governmental districts are named after their capitals, we 
shall mark the latter with a cross (+). 



I— THE PROVINCE OF BRANDENBURG. 

Area: 15,634 square miles. 
Population : 2,020,000 inhabitants. 

This province, subdivided into the governmental districts of 
Potsdam and Frankfort, and being the basis of the whole king- 
dom (see above, page 462), comprises in substance its ancient his- 
torical constituent parts, in common life still known by the names 
of Mittelmark (central margraviate), Uckermark, Priegnitz, and 
Neumark (new margraviate). 

The Mittelmark contains: Berlin, the metropolis of the kingdom and 
royal residence (at least in the winter season), on the Spree, 9 miles above 



PRUSSIA. 465 



Province of Brandenburg. 



its junction with the Havel (see page 17), south-eastward and 186 miles dis- 
tant from Hamburg, is very regularly built, and one of the finest cities in 
Europe, and had, in the beginning of 1846, 8,384 houses, and shortly before 
the revolution of March, 1848, a population of 420,000 inhabitants, that 
however since has decreased by more than 100,000 inhabitants, who have 
thence emigrated. Simultaneously the chief sources of prosperity are dried 
up in this city, naturally poor — much more so than most of the other Euro- 
pean capitals. Many of its factories have, since that event, been closed for 
want of business, while others have been spoiled by the plundering mob, 
and even by operatives ; and the effect of the disturbances on the general 
prosperity of the city has been disastrous. The most remarkable public 
edifices of Berlin are : the royal castle or palace (reared in the period from 
1451 to 1716 ; it is 101£ feet high, has 460 feet in front, and contains more 
than 500 apartments), the arsenal (a quadrangle, 280 feet long and broad), 
the university building (reared in 1754-1*764 as palace of King Frederic II.' s 
brother Henry), the opera-house (265 feet long by 104 feet broad), the royal 
museums, etc. In short, it would take up too much room, even simply to 
enumerate all the magnificent edifices and other curiosities of Berlin. Char- 
lottenburg, a town in the neighborhood of Berlin, has 7,800 inhabitants, and 
is noted for its royal palace (reared in 1705-10) and park. Other neighbor- 
ing and more or less remarkable towns are : Teltow (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
Oranienburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Bernau (with 3,800 inhabitants), Lie- 
benwalde (with 2,600 inhabitants), Alt-Landsberg (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
K'dpenich (with 2,750 inhabitants), and Mittenwalde (with 2,100 inhabitants). 
-[-Potsdam, a city on the Havel, is considered as royal residence second in 
rank, has 40,000 inhabitants, and a manufactory of fire-arms, and is noted for 
its military orphan asylum, its so-called garrison church (with the sepulchres 
of Frederic William I. and Frederic II.), its city-hall, and royal palace. 
Close by are several other royal palaces, among them that of Sanssouci, 
reared in 1745-47, and once the favorite residence of Frederic II. Spandau, 
a town on the Havel, at its junction with the Spree river, is noted for its for- 
tress, and has 9,300 inhabitants. The first three or four electors of Branden- 
burg from the house of Hohenzollern, resided in Spandau. Fehrbellin, a 
town at the former high-road between Berlin and Hamburg, has 1,700 inhab- 
itants, and is noted in history for a battle in 1675. Brandenburg, ancient 
capital of the margraviate of Brandenburg, on the Havel, westward and 
23 miles distant from Potsdam, has 16,400 inhabitants, carries on a rather 

20* 



466 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province of Brandenburg. 

considerable trade, and is noted for several ancient edifices. Rathenow, or 
Rathenau, a town on the Havel, with several manufactures, and 5,800 inhab- 
itants. Werder, a town near Potsdam, has 2,250 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its fruits. Freienwalde, a town near the Oder, has 4,100 inhabitants, 
and is noted for its mineral waters. Neustadt-Eberswalde, a town at the Ber- 
lin and Stettin railroad, has 5,400 inhabitants, and is noted for its mineral 
waters and manufactures of hardware. Neustadt an der Dosse, a town- on 
the Dosse river, north-westward and 60 miles distant from Berlin, has only 
1,200 inhabitants, but is noted for its manufactures of looking-glasses. Other 
more or less remarkable towns are : Friesack (with 2,450 inhabitants), 
Treuenbrietzen (with 4,900 inhabitants), Wriezen (with 6,050 inhabitants), 
Wusterhausen an der Dosse (with 2,850 inhabitants), Rheinsberg (with 2,250 
inhabitants), and Ruppin (with cloth and woollen manufactures, and 10,000 
inhabitants). — The Uckermark contains: Prenzlau (officially Prenzlow), its 
ancient capital, 72 miles north-north-east of Berlin, with a remarkable 
Gothic church, and 12,700 inhabitants. Boitzenburg, a market-town, has 800 
inhabitants, and is noted for the magnificent mansion of the count of Arnim, 
in recent times frequently mentioned as Prussian minister, member of the 
legislative chamber, etc. Templin, a town on a lake of the same name, with 
notable town-hall, manufactures, and 3,500 inhabitants. Angermimde, a 
town on a lake, about half-way between Berlin and Stettin, with cloth man- 
ufactures, hosieries, and 4,400 inhabitants. Schwedt, a town on the Oder, 28 
miles south of Stettin, with 7,150 inhabitants, several manufactures, and an 
ancient castle, formerly the seat of a collateral line of the reigning house of 
Brandenburg. Lychen (with 2,000 inhabitants), Zehdenik (with 3,000 inhab- 
itants), Vierraden (with 1,700 inhabitants), and Joachimsthal (with 1,750 
inhabitants). — The Priegnitz (also called Vormark) contains : Perxeberg, 
its ancient capital, near the Berlin and Hamburg railroad, 90 miles north- 
west of Berlin, is noted for its flax and breweries, and has 6,000 inhabitants. 
Lenzen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Havelberg (with 3,200 inhabitants), Wilsnack 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Pnttlitz (with 1,600 inhabitants), Kyritz (with 3,600 
inhabitants), Pritzwalk (with 4,600 inhabitants), and Mayenburg (with 1,650 
inhabitants), towns. Wittstock, a town on the Dosse, with cloth and linen 
manufactures, and 6,450 inhabitants, is noted in history for a battle in 1636. 
JBeeskow, Storkow, and Buchholz, towns with respectively 4,250, 1,800, and 
950 inhabitants. Luckenwalde, a town 30 miles south of Berlin, has 6,400 
inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Zinna, a town with 



PRUSSIA. 467 

Province of Brandenburg. 



manufactures, and 1,850 inhabitants. Juterbock, a town at the Berlin and 
Cothen railroad, has 5,500 inhabitants, and is noted in history for two battles 
in 1644 and 1813. Baruth, a town with 1,650 inhabitants, and a palace of 
the count of Solms-Baruth. 

The Mittelmark (see above) contains : -{-Frankfort, surnamed an der Oder, 
a city on the Oder river, 55 miles east-south-east of Berlin, has 30,000 inhabi- 
tants, several noted ancient public edifices, considerable trade and manufac- 
tures, and was hitherto noted especially for its annual fairs, which are at 
present less important than formerly. The above-mentioned university, 
founded here in 1506, was in 1811 united with that of Breslau. Fursten- 
walde, a town on the Spree river, westward and 20 miles distant from Frank- 
fort, with remarkable church, woollen manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. 
Other more or less notable towns are: Zebus (with 1,850 inhabitants), 
Milncheberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Seelow (with 2,400 inhabitants), Mull- 
rose (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Buckow (noted for its hops, has 1,500 in- 
habitants). The village of Kunnersdorf, 5 miles east of Frankfort, is noted 
for the battle on the 22d August, 1759, in which Frederic II. was totally de- 
feated. — The Neumark (see above) contains : Kuestrin, its ancient capital, 
on the Oder, at its junction with the Warthe, northward and 18 miles dis- 
tant from Frankfort, is noted for its fortress, and has 8,500 inhabitants. K'6- 
nigsberg, surnamed in der Neumark, a town near the frontier of Pomerania, 
with remarkable ancient town-hall, 2 notable churches, some manufactures, 
and 5,200 inhabitants. The towns of Zullichau (with 5,400 inhabitants), 
Krossen (with 7,250 inhabitants), Cottbus (with 8.500 inhabitants), and Neu- 
damm (with 3,250 inhabitants), are noted for their cloth manufactures. Lands- 
berg, surnamed an der Warthe, a city on the Warthe river, north-eastward 
and 30 miles distant from Kustrin, with important corn and wool trade, and 
12,000 inhabitants. Bdrwalde, a town southward and 14 miles distant from 
Konigsberg in der Neumark, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted in history for 
a convention concluded here on the 13th June, 1631, between Sweden and 
France. Other towns are : Soldin (with 5,900 inhabitants), Berlinchen (with 
3,800 inhabitants), Lippehne (with 2,850 inhabitants), Bernstein (with 1.950 
inhabitants), Friedeberg (with 4,800 inhabitants), Briesen (with 3,900 inhabi- 
tants), Woldenberg (with 3,500 inhabitants), Arnswalde (with 5,200 inhabi- 
tants), and Konigswalde (with 1,450 inhabitants). Schwiebus, a town in. a 
fertile district, eastward and 40 miles distant from Frankfort, with consid- 
erable cloth manufactures, and 4,900 inhabitants. — Lower Lusatia (see page 



468 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Provinces of Brandenburg and Pomerania. 

385), which in 1815 was annexed to Prussia, contains: Luckau, ancient capi- 
tal of Lower Lusatia, 48 miles south-south-east of Berlin, with remarkable 
Gothic church, cloth manufactures, and 4,500 inhabitants. Sorau, a town 
near the frontier of Silesia, is noted for its wax candles, and has 1,500 inhab- 
itants. Kalau, a town on the Dober river, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted 
for the vast amount of boots and shoes made in it. Lubben, a town on the 
Spree river, with several remarkable churches, cloth and linen manufactures, 
and 4,800 inhabitants. Lubbenau, a town on the Spree river, with 3,300 in- 
habitants, and a palace of the count of Lynar. Guben, a town on the Neisse 
river, has 11,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its cloth manufactures. Other 
more or less notable towns are : Dobriluck (with 1,500 inhabitants), Sprem,' 
berg (with 4,650 inhabitants), Forste (with 3,650 inhabitants), and Lieberose 
(with 1,600 inhabitants). Senftenberg, Finsterwalde, and Sonnenvoalde, towns 
with respectively 1,450, 4,800, and 1,150 inhabitants. 



H— THE PROVINCE OF POMERANIA. 

Area: 12,233 square miles. 
Population : 1,166,000 inhabitants. 

Pomerania, extending along the Baltic Sea, which here re- 
ceives the Oder, was primitively inhabited by Germanic, and 
since the 6th century by Slavonic tribes. However, since the 
propagation of Christianity in this quarter, or since the 12th 
century, many Germans settled here, and became at last predom- 
inant. Pomerania was at first under the sway of Slavonic chiefs, 
and subsequently ruled by one common prince. The first his- 
torically known or remarkable prince of Pomerania was Svanti- 
bor Z, who died in 1 107, and was succeeded by his two sons, who 
divided the country, the elder taking the western part (since 
known by the general name of Fore Pomerania), and the younger 



PRUSSIA. 469 



Province of Pomerania. 



of the eastern part (since called Bach Pomerania). In 1182 the 
princes of Pomerania were by Emperor Frederic I. endowed with 
the privileges of actual membership of the German empire, and 
raised to the dignity of dukes. In 1325 the principality of Ru- 
gen (comprising the island of the same name) was inherited and 
annexed to Pomerania, which was united in one single duchy in 
1625 by Duke Bolislav XIII. With the latter' s son and succes- 
sor, duke Bolislav XIV., the reigning house of Pomerania became 
extinct in 1637. According to former agreements between the 
dukes of Pomerania and the electors of Brandenburg, the latter 
had indeed well-founded claims upon the inheritance. However, 
Sweden, which was to be indemnified for its losses and assistance 
to the Protestant cause in the thirty years' war, became possessed 
of the greatest part of Pomerania, while Brandenburg acquired 
only parts of Back Pomerania. In 1720 Sweden ceded other 
parts of Back Pomerania to Prussia, which in 1815 became also 
possessed of Fore Pomerania and Biigen (see page 419). The 
present province of Pomerania is subdivided into the govern- 
mental districts of Stettin, Stralsund and Coslin. 

Prussian Fore Pomerania (thus styled since 11 20) contains: -(-Stettin, 
ancient capital of all Pomerania, on the Oder, 94 miles north-north-east of 
Berlin, is strongly fortified, and to be considered as the chief commercial 
city and seaport of Prussia, is at the same time noted for its manufactures, 
and has 45,000 inhabitants. Its royal palace, until 163*7 the residence of the 
dukes of Pomerania, is very extensive, and was reared in 1577. Swinemunde, 
near the mouth of the Swine river into the Baltic Sea, is the actual seaport 
of Stettin, and resorted to for sea-bathing, and has 4,200 inhabitants. Swine- 
munde is situated on the isle of Usedom, which in the early part of the 
middle ages was renowned for its emporium, named Vineta or Wineda. The 
town of Wollin (with timber trade and 4,100 inhabitants) is situated on the 
isle of the same name, and stands on the same spot where in the middle 
ages the powerful commercial city of Julin (destroyed in 1170) stood. 
Garz (with 4,400 inhabitants), Damm (with 3,100 inhabitants), Politz (with 



470 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia.— Province of Pomerania. 

2,600 inhabitants), and Penkim (with 1,750 inhabitants), towns in the neigh- 
borhood of Stettin. Anclam, Demmin, and Jarmen, towns on the Peene 
river, with respectively 8,500, 1,000, and 1,700 inhabitants. Demmin was 
extant so early as in 540, and a celebrated city in the days of Charle- 
magne. Uckermunde, a town on the Ucker river, and near the Little Haff, 
north-westward and 42 miles distant from Stettin, with a remarkable ancient 
castle, and 3,700 inhabitants. Pasewalk, a town on the Ucker river, with 
noted breweries, and 6,850 inhabitants. Golluow, a town with some manu- 
factures, and 5,600 inhabitants, was in the middle ages an actual member of 
the Hanseatic League. — Back Pomerania contains : Stargard, its ancient 
capital, on the Ihna river, 30 miles east-south east of Stettin, with a remarkable 
ancient church, several important branches of industry, and 13,200 inhabi- 
tants. Naugard, a town on a lake, with remarkable church, a house of correc- 
tion, and 3,600 inhabitants. Greiffenberg, a town on the Rega river, north-east- 
ward and 46 miles distant from Stettin, is noted for its linen manufactures, 
and has 4,600 inhabitants. It is situated northward and 220 miles distant 
from Greiffenberg in Silesia, which accidentally is likewise renowned for its 
linens. Greiffenhagen, a town on the Reglitz river, with some cloth manu- 
factures f and 5,300 inhabitants. Pyritz, a town in a fertile district, south- 
eastward and 30 miles distant from Stettin, has 5,500 inhabitants, and was 
anciently very remarkable. In a well here, the first Pomeranians who em- 
braced the Christian creed (7,000 in number) were baptized, in 1124. Labes 
and Regenwalde, towns with respectively 3,350 and 2,500 inhabitants. Kam- 
min or Cammin, a town at the mouth of the Divenow, into the Baltic Sea, 
has 3,600 inhabitants, is noted for its churches and flax, and was until 1650 
the seat of a sovereign bishopric, instituted in 1128. 

Ancient Fore, or Swedish Pomerania (see above), contains : 4-Stralsund, 
its ancient capital, on Strait Cellen (which separates the island of Rugen 
from continental Pomerania), northward and 170 miles distant from Ber- 
lin, is fortified, and noted for its commerce, shipping business, and manu- 
factures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Stralsund ranked among the most 
noted members of the Hanseatic League, and is also renowned in military 
history. Barth, a commercial town on a little bay of the Baltic, has 4,800 
inhabitants. Other towns are : Dammgarten (with linen manufactures, and 
1,500 inhabitants), Grimmen (with 2,900 inhabitants), and Tribsees, or Trib- 
besee (with 2,800 inhabitants). A very ancient city, at present noted for its 
commerce and shipping business, is Wolgast, near the Baltic Sea, with 5,350 



PRUSSIA. 471 



Province of Pomerania. 



inhabitants., Greifswald, a city near the Baltic Sea, with which it is con- 
nected by a canal, south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Stralsund, has 
12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above and page 287), 
its commerce and its salt-works. The neighboring ancient Cistercian abbey 
of Eldena, is at present noted for its academy for political economy. — The 
island of Rugen (426 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), the largest of 
all German islands, is separated by a strait called Gellen, and only 1 mile 
wide, from continental Pomerania (see above undei the head of Stralsund), 
and is noted both for the fertility of its soil and the beauty of its natural 
sceneries. In the early times of the middle ages, it was the chief seat of 
idolatry on the part of Slavonic tribes, and many prisoners taken among 
the neighboring Christians, were immolated on its bloody altars. Finally, 
King Waldemar I. of Denmark, who in 1169 conquered the island, put an 
end to these abominations, and since then the inhabitants embraced the 
Christian creed. The native princes of the island continued to be vassals of 
the Danish crown until in 1325, when they became extinct, Rugen was 
inherited by the duke of Pomerania (see above). There are to be noticed 
here : Bergen, ancient capital of the island, situated in its centrej was 
founded in 1190, and has 3,150 inhabitants. Puttbus, a market-town, and 
residence of the dependent prince of the same name, and descendant of the 
native princes of Riigen (see above), is noted as a watering-place, and for 
its handsome princely palace and park. Other market-towns are Gingst 
(with 800 inhabitants), and Sagard (with 1,000 inhabitants). On a cape of 
the western coast, at present with a lighthouse, stood anciently the renowned 
stronghold of Arcona. The town of Garz has 1,750 inhabitants. 

Back Pomerania (see above) contains : -{-Coslin, at present the capital of 
the governmental district of the same name, near the Baltic Sea, north-east- 
ward and 85 miles distant from Stettin, has 8,350 inhabitants. Colberg or 
Kolberg, a strongly fortified city near the mouth of the Persante into the 
Baltic, westward and 22 miles distant from Coslin, has 8,700 inhabitants, 
several remarkable churches, salt-works, commerce and fishery, and is noted 
in military history. Anciently Colberg was the capital of the duchy of Cas- 
suben, at present only mentioned in history. Rugenwalde, a commercial 
town near the Baltic, is noted for various branches of industry, and has 5,000 
inhabitants. Stolpe, a maritime and commercial town, near the Baltic, north- 
eastward and 45 miles distant from Coslin, and westward and 70 miles dis- 
tant from Dantzick, has 9,600 inhabitants, and is noted for its articles made 



472 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Provinces of Pomerania and Silesia. 



of yellow amber. Other more or less remarkable towns are : C'drlin (with 
2,500 inhabitants), Bubliiz (with *3,100 inhabitants), Belgard (with 3,700 in- 
habitants), Polzin (with 3,150 inhabitants), Neustettin (with 4,300 inhabitants), 
Tempelburg (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Rummelsburg (with 3,350 inhabi- 
tants). — Schiefelbein (with 3,650 inhabitants), Dramburg (with 3,500 inhabi- 
tants), and Callies (with 3,000 inhabitants) are towns situated within the 
limits of the Neumark (see back). 



III.— THE PROVINCE OF SILESIA. 

Area: 15,799 square miles. 
Population : 3,065,800 inhabitants. 

Silesia, situated on both sides of the river Oder, was anciently 
inhabited by Quades and Lygians or Elysians, two Germanic 
tribes, who about the middle of the 6th century were dispossessed 
by Slavonic tribes. In the 10th century Silesia came under the 
sway of the dukes of Poland, but since the year 1 163 it was ruled 
by independent princes or dukes, descendants of King Wladislav 
II. of Poland. There were at first three, but subsequently two 
dukes, who reigned the one in Upper Silesia (answering to the 
present governmental district of Oppeln), and the other in 
Lower Silesia (comprising the remainder of Silesia, with one ex- 
ception). In the course of time several collateral lines sprung 
up, and since the middle of the 13th century the Silesian princes 
submitted spontaneously to the feudal sovereignty of the kings 
of Bohemia. How since the year 1740 Prussia became possessed 
of Silesia, has been already alluded to (page 463). According to 
the terms of the treaties of peace concluded in 1742, 1745 and 



PRUSSIA. 473 



The Province of Silesia. 



1763, Austria (whose sovereign was since 1440 at the same time 
the sovereign of Bohemia) ceded Upper and Lower Silesia, to- 
gether with the Silesian earldom of Glatz, to Prussia, and re- 
tained only the Silesian principalities of Teschen, Troppau and 
Jagerndorf. The present province of Silesia is subdivided into 
the governmental districts of Breslau, Liegnitz and Oppeln. 

Lower Silesia (see above) contains : -j-Breslau, ancient capital of all Sile- 
sia, and considered as the third royal residence (see under the head of Pots- 
dam), on the Oder, south-eastward and 220 miles distant from Berlin, and 
north-eastward and 156 miles distant from Prague, had at the end of the 
year 1846 a population of 112,798 inhabitants, among whom were 32,904 Ro- 
man Catholics and 7,051 Jews, the remainder consisting of Evangelicals. 
Breslau carries on a very extensive inland trade, especially in wool, has nu- 
merous manufactures, and is noted for its literary institutions, among which 
ranks first the university (see above and page 287). The Gothic cathedral, 
and besides it the city-hall, the royal palace, etc., are very notable. The 
neighboring village of Leuthen (with 600 inhabitants) is noted in history for 
a battle in 1757. Brieg, a city on the Oder, 25 miles above Breslau, with a 
remarkable ancient castle, cloth manufactures, considerable cattle marts, and 
12,250 inhabitants. Schweidnitz, a fortified city near the Bohemian frontier, 
south-westward and 33 miles distant from Breslau, with considerable trade, 
and 12,700 inhabitants. Zobten, a town at the foot of the mountain of the 
same name (see page 7), with 1,700 inhabitants. Freiburg, surnamed unterm 
Furstenstein, a town on the Polsnitz river, with 4,100 inhabitants. The sur- 
name of Freiburg is derived from Furstenstein, a magnificent and romantic- 
ally situated mountain castle of the count of Hochberg-Furstenstein. The 
village of Sahbrunn is noted for its mineral waters, and annually visited by 
many strangers. Reichenbach, a manufacturing town at the Eulengebirge 
(see page 7), with considerable trade, and 5,400 inhabitants. Other more or 
less remarkable towns are : JVamslau (with 4,100 inhabitants), Neumarkt 
(with 4,150 inhabitants), Olau (with 5,800 inhabitants), Strehlen (with 4,800 
inhabitants), Nimptsch (with 2,100 inhabitants), Striegau (with 5,100 inhabi- 
tants), Waldenburg (with 3,000 inhabitants), Wolau (with 2,500 inhabitants), 
Steinau (with 2,700 inhabitants), and Cfurau (with 3,900 inhabitants). Within 
the limits of Upper Silesia are situated the towns of Silberberg (noted 



4*74 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province of Silesia. 

for its strong fortress, has 2,000 inhabitants), Munsterberg (with 4,600 
inhabitants), Wartka (with 1,100 inhabitants), Frankenstein (with 6,200 in- 
habitants), and Reichenstein (with 2,200 inhabitants). The earldom of Glatz 
(in reality only a Silesian dominion, which in 1462 was raised to the dignity 
of an earldom) contains: Glatz, its ancient capital on the Neisse, 60 miles 
south-south-west of Breslau, has 10,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its for- 
tress. Habelschwerdt, a town on the Neisse, southward and 9 miles distant 
from Glatz, with various important manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. 
Other towns are: Reinerz (with 2,500 inhabitants), Lewin(yn\h 1,450 inhabi- 
tants), and Mittelwalde (with 1,900 inhabitants). The above (under the head 
of Brunswick) mentioned dependent principality of Oeh (68 1£ square miles, 
and 100,000 inhabitants), contains : Oels, its capital, on the Oelsa river, 18 
miles north-east of Breslau, with an extensive ducal palace, and 6,200 inhabi- 
tants. Trebnitz, a manufacturing town, with 4,200 inhabitants. Juliusburg 
and Eernstadt, towns with respectively 1,100 and 3,800 inhabitants. The fol- 
lowing towns are capitals of dependent dominions of the same names, and 
belonging to various princes : Wartenberg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Trachen- 
berg (with 2,600 inhabitants), Militsch (with 2,800 inhabitants), Freihan (with 
1,100 inhabitants), and Sulau (with 800 inhabitants). 

Lower Silesia (see above) contains moreover : -j-Liegnitz, the capital of the 
governmental district of the same name, on the Katzbach, westward and 36 
miles distant from Breslau, is noted for its college styled Ritteracademie, its 
ancient castle or palace, and greens, and has 14,200 inhabitants. On the 9th 
April, 1241, a very bloody battle was fought in its neighborhood between the 
Germans and the Moguls. Goldberg, a town on the Katzbach, is noted for 
its cloth manufactures, and has 7,500 inhabitants. Glogau, a city on the 
Oder, north-westward and 80 miles distant from Breslau, has 14,150 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its fortress, its ancient cathedral and industry. Grun- 
berg, a city at the high-road between Breslau and Berlin, with 10,500 inhabi- 
tants, cloth and other manufactures, and vine culture on a large scale, though 
tlie wine produced is by no means of an excellent quality. Janer, a town on 
the Neisse and at the foot of the Riesengebirge, has 6,650 inhabitants, and 
considerable trade in corn, and is noted for its gloves and sausages. Bunz- 
lau, a town on the Bober, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its potteries. 
The towns of Hirschberg (romantically situated at the northern foot of the 
Riesengebirge, with 7,500 inhabitants), Schmiedeberg (at the foot of the 
Schneekoppe, with 3,600 inhabitants), Lowenberg (with 4,400 inhabitants), 



PRUSSIA. 475 



The Province of Silesia. 



Greiffenberg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Friedeberg (with 2,200 inhabitants), and 
Landshut (with 4,150 inhabitants), are noted for their linens. The market- 
town of Warmbrunn (with a handsome palace of the count of Schaffgotsch, 
and 1,900 inhabitants), is noted and much resorted to as a watering-place. 
The village of Stohnsdorf (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for its beer. 
Naumburg, surnamed am Quels (with 1,750 inhabitants), Bolkenhain (with 
1,900 inhabitants), Deutsch- Wartenberg (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hohenfried- 
berg (with 850 inhabitants), Liebau (with 2,100 inhabitants), and Schomberg 
(with 2,200 inhabitants), more or less noted towns. Sagan, the capital of the 
dependent principality of the same name (since 1842 belonging to the prince 
of Hohenzollern-Hechingen, and having 426 square miles in extent, with 41,000 
inhabitants), on the Bober, westward and 35 miles distant from Glogau, with 
stately palace of the prince, considerable corn trade, and 7,200 inhabitants. 
Naumburg, surnamed am Bober (with 950 inhabitants), Priebus (with 1,200 
inhabitants), and Freiwaldau (with 800 inhabitants), towns of this principality 
Beuthen, a town on the Oder, 14 miles west-north-west of Glogau, with 3,800 
inhabitants, is the capital, and Garolath (with princely palace, and 750 inhabi- 
tants), a market-town of the dependent principality of Caroiath (96 square 
miles, and 10,000 inhabitants), belonging to the prince of Carolath-Beuthen. 
That part of Upper Lusatia (see under the head of Saxony, page 385) 
Prussia became possessed of in 1815, contains: Gorlitz, a city on the Neisse, 
westward and 60 miles distant from Liegnitz, and eastward and 66 miles dis- 
tant from Dresden, has several remarkable public edifices, and 16,000 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its literary institutions and cloth manufactures. Lau- 
ban, a city on the Queis river, with remarkable ancient church, some manu- 
factures, inland trade, and 6,150 inhabitants. Hoyerswerda, a town on the 
Black Elster, has 2,300 inhabitants, and is noted for the vast amount of boots 
and shoes made here. Niesky, a market-town, with a paedagogium or col- 
lege, and 700 inhabitants, being Moravian Brethren. Muskau, a town on the 
Neisse, has 2,100 inhabitants, and is the capital of a dependent principality 
of the same name, since 1846 belonging to the prince Frederic of the Nether- 
lands. 

Upper Silesia (see back) contains : -j-Oppeln, its ancient capital, on the 
Oder, 64 miles above Breslau, with remarkable city -hall and royal palace, con- 
siderable cattle-marts, and 7,900 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Mala- 
pane is noted for its important iron-works. Kosel, a strongly fortified town 
on the Oder, with linen and cloth manufactures, and 3,700 inhabitants. The 



476 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province of Silesia. 

village of Gnadenfeld is noted for a theological seminary of the Moravian 
Brethren. The market-town of Schlawentzitz or Slawetisik is remarkable as 
capital of a dependent dominion of the same name, belonging to the prince 
of Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen. Ober-Glogan, a town in the neighborhood of Ko- 
sel, with a remarkable ancient castle, and 3,150 inhabitants. Other more or 
less remarkable towns are : Gleiwitz (with a noted iron-foundry, and 7,400 in- 
habitants), Gross-Strehlitz (with 2,500 inhabitants), Ujest (with 2,450 inhabi- 
tants), Lublinitz (with 2,250 inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,850 inhabitants), 
and Kreuzburg (with 3,800 inhabitants). Ratibob, a city on the Oder, 50 
miles above Oppeln, and near the frontier of Austrian Silesia, carries on a con- 
siderable trade, especially in grain, has 7,900 inhabitants, and is the capital 
of a dependent principality of the same name, since 1834 belonging to the 
prince of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst. Pless, a town near the frontier of Ga- 
licia, south-eastward and 64 miles from Oppeln, has 3,550 inhabitants, and 
is the capital of the dependent principality of the same name, mentioned un- 
der the head of Anhalt, page 405. Beuthen (south-eastward and 48 miles 
distant from Oppeln, with 5,150 inhabitants) is the capital of a dependent do- 
minion of the same name (298 square miles, and 40,000 inhabitants), belong- 
ing to the count Henkel of Donnersmark, and within whose limits is also 
situated the celebrated mining town of Tarnowitz (with 3,900 inhabitants). 
Neisse, a strongly fortified city on the river of the same name, south-west- 
ward and 34 miles distant from Oppeln, has 16,400 inhabitants, and is the 
capital of a dependent principality of the same name (511 square miles, and 
105,000 inhabitants), belonging to the bishop of Breslau. Other towns of 
this princpality are : Patschkau (with linen and woollen manufactures, and 
4,000 inhabitants), Ziegenhals (with noted linen manufactures, and 3,700 
inhabitants), Grotkau (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Ottmachau (with 2,900 
inhabitants). The towns of Hultschin (with 2,600 inhabitants), Bauerwitz 
(with 2,600 inhabitants), and Leobschutz (with 6,800 inhabitants), belong to 
the prince of Liechtenstein (see page 350). The town of Katscher (with 
linen manufactures, and 2,750 inhabitants) is situated in a district known 
by the name of Prussian Moravia, and belonging to the archbishop of 
Olmutz. 



PRUSSIA. 477 

The Province of Saxony. 



IV.— THE PROVINCE OF SAXONY. 

Area: 9,818£ square miles. 
Population: 1,742,500 inhabitants. 

It is situated between the Elbe, Hartz, and Thtiringerwald, is 
subdivided into the governmental districts of Magdeburg, Merse- 
burg, and Erfurt, and comprises in substance : 1. The northern 
half of the kingdom of Saxony, ceded to Prussia in 1815 (see 
page 380). 2. The so-called Altmark (historically forming a con- 
stituent part of the ancient margraviate of Brandenburg). 
3. The ancient duchy of Magdeburg. 4. The ancient principality 
of Halberstadt. 5. Ancient dominions and territories of the for- 
mer electorate of Mentz, etc. 

The duchy of Magdeburg, primitively an independent archbishopric, institu- 
ted in 967, which in 1648 was secularized, and in 1680 annexed to the elec- 
torate of Brandenburg (i. e. to the present Prussia, by the title of a duchy), 
contains : -(-Magdeburg, the capital of the province, on the left bank of the 
Elbe, 110 miles south-west of Berlin, and 130 miles south-east of Hamburg, 
has 68,500 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and is highly renowned, not only 
for its extensive inland trade and manufactures, but also for its architectural 
monuments, among which ranks first the very handsome Gothic cathedral, 
reared in the period from 1211 to 1363. It was one of the few buildings 
that remained unhurt in the conflagration occasioned by the storming of 
Magdeburg on the 10th May, 1631. Burg, a city on the Ihle river, 14 miles 
north-north-east of Magdeburg, has 14,800 inhabitants, and is noted for 
its cloth manufactures. Neuhaldensleben (a town, with 4,800 inhabitants) and 
Althaldensleben (a village, with 2,000 inhabitants) are noted for their numer- 
ous and various manufactures. Schonebeck, a town at the railroad between 
Magdeburg and Cothen, has 8,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-works 
and chemical articles. The neighboring town of Gross-Sahe, with 2,700 
inhabitants, is likewise noted for its salt-springs, and much resorted to for 
bathing. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Kalbe (with noted man- 



478 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province of Saxony. 

ufactures, and 5,750 inhabitants), Wanzleben (with 3,200 inhabitants), AJcen 
(with 4,400 inhabitants), Stassfurth (with 2,200 inhabitants), Wollmirstddt 
(with 3,500 inhabitants), and Genthin (with 2,500 inhabitants). — The above- 
mentioned so-called Altmark contains : Stendal, its ancient capital, on the 
left bank of the Elbe, northward and 40 miles distant from Magdeburg, with 
remarkable ancient churches, woollen manufactures, and 6,700 inhabitants. 
Salzivedel, a city near the frontier of Hanover, with celebrated ancient 
churches, noted cloth manufactures, and 8,000 inhabitants. Tangermunde, 
a town on the Elbe, at its junction with the Tanger river, has 4,400 inhabi- 
tants, and noted breweries, and is distinguished in history for its having been 
the residence of the first elector of Brandenburg from the house of Hohen- 
zollern, whose son, the elector Frederic II., was born here in 1413. Other 
more or less remarkable towns are : Ameburg (with 1,700 inhabitants), Bis- 
mark (with 1,800 inhabitants), Osterburg (with 2,400 inhabitants), Werben 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), Arendsee (with 2,200 inhabitants), and Gardelegen 
(with 5,400 inhabitants). — The ancient principality of Halberstadt, primitively 
an independent bishopric, instituted in 814, and secularized in 1648, when it 
was, by the title of principality, annexed to the electorate of Brandenburg, 
contains: Halberstadt, its ancient capital, on the Holzemme river, south- 
westward and 30 miles distant from Magdeburg, is noted for its Gothic 
ancient cathedral, and other architectural monuments, is considerably engaged 
in manufactures, and has 18,500 inhabitants. The neighboring village of 
Strobeck (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for the skill of its peasantry in 
playing at chess. Aschersleben, a city on the Eine river, south-eastward and 
18 miles distant from Halberstadt, with noted woollen manufactures, and 
11,600 inhabitants. Until the year 1319, Aschersleben was the capital of 
the earldom of Ascania (see page 402). Oschersleben (with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), Wegeleben (with 2,600 inhabitants), Osterwiek (with 3,500 inhabitants), 
Derenburg (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Schwanebeck (with 2,150 inhabitants), 
more or less notable towns. — Quedlinburg, a city on the Bode river, south- 
eastward and 9 miles distant from Halberstadt, with 14,000 inhabitants, con- 
siderable corn trade, various manufactures, and a highly celebrated and 
extensive ancient castle, with the sepulchre of Emperor Henry I., who in 
920 founded Quedlinburg, which was until 1803 the seat of an indepen- 
dent or sovereign female abbey of the same name. — Wernigerode, a town 
at the foot of the Brocken (see page 8), has 5,500 inhabitants, and an exten- 
sive and remarkable mountain castle, the residence of the earl of Stolberg- 



PRUSSIA. 419 



The Province of Saxony. 



Wernigerode, who, until 1807, was an independent sovereign of the earldom 
of Wernigerode (106 square miles, and 18,000 inhabitants), which then 
became dependent, and was as such annexed to Prussia in 1815. Ihenburg, 
a market-town, with iron-works, and 2,400 inhabitants. — Barby, anciently 
the capital of an earldom, which, from 1659 to 1815, did belong to the elec- 
torate (at present kingdom) of Saxony, is situated on the Elbe, and has 
3,500 inhabitants. The neighboring market-town of Gnadau (with 600 
inhabitants) is a settlement of Moravian Brethren. 

The territories formerly belonging to the kingdom of Saxony, and in 
1815 ceded to Prussia, contains: -[-Merseburg, presently the capital of the 
governmental district of the same name, on the Saale, about half-way 
between Halle and Leipsic, is noted for its ancient cathedral and other archi- 
tectural monuments, and for its excellent beer, and has 11,500 inhabitants. 
Lutzen, a town at the high-road between Leipsic and Weimar, 13 miles 
west-south-west of Leipsic, has 2,400 inhabitants, and is noted in history for 
the battle on the 16th Nov., 1632, in which Gustavus Adolphus, the renowned 
king of Sweden, was killed. Other towns are Schkeuditz (with 2,800 inhabi- 
tants), Laiochrtadt (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Schaafstadt (with 2,000 
inhabitants). Naumburg, a city on the Saale, between Weimar and Leipsic, 
with a remarkable ancient cathedral, various manufactures, annual fairs 
(which however are at present rather unimportant), and 13,200 inhabitants. 
Zeitz, a city on the Elster, south-westward and 24 miles distant from Leip- 
sic, with woollen and other manufactures, a remarkable ancient castle, and 
11,200 inhabitants. Querfurt, a town south-westward and 18 miles distant 
from Halle, with rather considerable trade, and 3,800 inhabitants. Heldrun- 
gen, a town with 1,850 inhabitants. Mansfeld, formerly the capital of an 
earldom of the same name, 25 miles west-north-west of Halle, with 1,600 
inhabitants. Eisleben, a town near two lakes, with several architectural 
monuments, etc. (among them the house where Luther was born, on the 10th 
Nov., 1483), various branches of industry, and 9,000 inhabitants. Witten- 
berg, a strongly fortified city on the Elbe, 44 miles north-north-east of Leip- 
sic, and 58 miles south-south-west of Berlin, with 11,300 inhabitants, a remark- 
able ancient castle (once the residence of the electors of Saxony, and whose 
church it was where Luther affixed his 95 positions, on the 31st Oct., 151*7, 
and where he and Melanchthon are buried), and several higher schools. The 
once so renowned university, founded in 1602, was in 1817 united with that 
of Halle Zahna (with 2,300 inhabitants), Pretsch (with 2,000 inhabitants), 



480 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Prussia. — Province of Saxony. 



Liebenwerda (with 2,250 inhabitants), Bitter/eld (with 4,200 inhabitants), 
Grafenhainchen (with 2,900 inhabitants), and Schweinitz (with 1,500 inhabi- 
tants), towns. Eilenburg, a city on the Mulde, north-eastward and 9 miles 
distant from Leipsic, is noted for its hops, and has 9,000 inhabitants. De- 
litzsch, a town with some manufactures, breweries, and 5,000 inhabitants. 
Duben and Zorbig, towns with respectively 4,700 and 3,000 inhabitants. 
Torgau, fortified city on the Elbe, 46 miles below Dresden, with a remarka- 
ble ancient castle, and 9,200 inhabitants. Muhlberg, a town on the Elbe, 
about half-way between Torgau and Dresden, has 3,500 inhabitants, and is 
remarkable in history for a battle on the 24th April, 1547, in which the elector 
John Frederic the Generous (see page 379) was taken prisoner by the troops 
of Emperor Charles V. Schilda and Elsterwerda, towns with respectively 
1,750, and 1,400 inhabitants. "Weissenfels, a city on the Saale, below 
Naumburg and Liitzen, with various important manufactures, considerable 
timber trade, and 9,000 inhabitants. Schulpforta, or Pforta, a village in the 
neighborhood of Naumburg, is noted for its highly celebrated college. The 
village of Kbsen is noted for its salt-springs and works. Eckardtsberga, a 
town between Weimar and Naumburg, with 2,000 inhabitants. In its neigh- 
borhood is situated the village of Auerstadt, where on the very day of the 
battle of Jena, another chief body of the Prussian army was defeated by the 
French marshal Davoust. The village of Memmleben, 9 miles north-north- 
west of Eckardtsberga, was once the seat of a celebrated Benedictine monas- 
tery, where the German emperors, Henry I. and Otto I., died. Sangerhau- 
sen, a town on the little Gonna river, with various important branches of 
industry, and 6,250 inhabitants. North-westward and 7 miles distant from 
Weissenfels, is situated the village of Rossbach, noted in history for the battle 
on the 5th Nov., 1757. — The ancient duchy of Magdeburg (see above) con- 
tains, within the limits of the governmental district of Merseburg : Halle, a 
city on the Saale, and at the Magdeburg and Leipsic railroad, north-west- 
ward and 20 miles distant from Leipsic, has 32,000 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its university (see above, and page 287), its considerable salt-works, and 
its orphan asylum, in an enormous edifice, whose foundation was laid on the 
13th July, L698, by a faithful follower of Christ, Augustus Hermann Franke, 
by name. The neighboring royal estate of Giebichenstein was in the middle 
ages highly remarkable for its mountain castle, at present in ruins. Wettin, 
a town on the Saale, with important coal mines, and 3,400 inhabitants. 

The former territories of the electorate of Mentz (see page 355), within 



PRUSSIA. 481 



The Province of Saxony. 



the limits of this province, contain : -{-Erfurt, ancient capital of Thuringia, 
exactly half- way between Gotha and Weimar, has 32,000 inhabitants, carries 
on a rather considerable inland trade, is engaged in various branches of indus- 
try, and noted for its ancient Gothic cathedral, several other ancient churches, 
and its fortifications. The ancient Augustine monastery, in which Luther 
lived since 1505, is yet extant, as an orphan asylum. Erfurt was in the mid- 
dle ages an emporium, and since 741 the seat of a bishopric, whose ecclesias- 
tical authority was in a later period exercised by the electors, archbishops of 
Mentz, who subsequently became also possessed of the city. In 1806 the 
French acquired it, and in 1813 Erfurt was restored to Prussia, to which it 
had been ceded in 1803. The ancient territory of Erfurt contains, among 
others, the town of Sommerda (with manufactures of hardware and fire-arms, 
and 3,500 inhabitants), and the market-town of Gross- Vargula (with 1,000 
inhabitants). Heiligenstadt, ancient capital of the so-called Eichsfeld (see 
page 440), on the Leine river, 34 miles east-north- east of Cassel, with several 
remarkable churches, manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Worbis, a town 
with 2,200 inhabitants. — The Prussian part of the ancient earldom of Hohn- 
stein (see page 440) contains : Ellrioh, its ancient capital, at the foot of the 
Hartz, north-westward and 9 miles distant from Wordhausen, with several 
branches of industry, and 3,250 inhabitants. Sachsa, Bleieherode, and Ben- 
neckenstein, towns with respectively 1,800, 3,000, and 3,800 inhabitants. 
Muehlhausen (a city half-way between Erfurt and Gottingen, with Gothic 
churches, rather important manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants) and Nord- 
hausen (a city at the Giildene Aue, westward and 60 miles distant from 
Halle, with considerable corn trade, and 13,800 inhabitants), were until 1803 
imperial cities. — The territories formerly belonging to the kingdom of Sax- 
ony, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia, contain, within the limits of this govern- 
mental district : Langensalza, a city on the Salza, north-westward and 18 
miles distant from Erfurt, with a remarkable Gothic church, several manu- 
factures, and 8,300 inhabitants. Tennst'ddt (with 3,200 inhabitants), Weissen- 
see (with 2,800 inhabitants), Kindelbruck (with 1,900 inhabitants), Gebesee 
(with 2,200 inhabitants), and Treffurt (with 2,200 inhabitants). The town 
of Schleusingen (on the Thuringerwald, 40 miles south-south-west of 
Erfurt, with a noted gymnasium, and 3,500 inhabitants) was anciently the 
residence of the princes of Henneberg (see page 388). Suhl, an important 
manufacturing town, 9 miles north-north-west of Schleusingen, is noted for 
its fire-arms and hardware manufactures, and has 8,400 inhabitants. Zie- 

21 



482 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Prussia. — Provinces of Saxony and Westphalia. 

genrueck, a town on the Saale, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from 
Erfurt, with linen manufactures, iron-works, and 1,050 inhabitants. Rahnis, 
a town with 1,300 inhabitants. 



V.— THE PROVINCE OF WESTPHALIA. 

Area : 7,838| square miles. 
Population: 1,445,700 inhabitants. 

It is situated between the Weser and Rhine rivers, on the 
west bound by the kingdom of the Netherlands, and on the east 
bordering upon Hesse-Cassel. That Westphalia is no political, 
but a general name for a tract of land once inhabited by the 
Westphalians, one of the Saxon tribes, is already alluded to, 
pages 298 and 441. The present Prussian province of West- 
phalia bears its name, for the very reason that its political con- 
stituent parts (as the ancient independent bishoprics of Munster 
and Paderborn, duchy of Westphalia, earldoms of Mark, Ravens- 
berg, and Tecklenburg. etc.) are situated within the limits of 
Westphalia It is subdivided into the governmental districts of 
Munster, Minden, and Arnsberg. 

The ancient sovereign bishopric of Munster (instituted in 802 by Charlemagne 
and secularized in 1 803, when Prussia became possessed of it) contains : -{-Muen- 
ster, its ancient capital, at present the capital of the province, near the Ems 
river, north-eastward and 10 miles distant from Diisseldorf, and 120 miles 
east-south-east of Amsterdam, with 25,000 inhabitants, an extensive palace 
(formerly the residence of the sovereign bishop), a celebrated Gothic cathe- 
dral, and numerous other architectural monuments, a Gothic city-hall (where 
the Westphalian peace was concluded in 1648), a Catholic theological faculty 



PRUSSIA. 483 



The Province of Westphalia. 



(see above, page 460), various manufactures, and a considerable trade, espe- 
cially in excellent hams. Telgte (with 2,300 inhabitants), Warendorf (with 
4,500 inhabitants), Beckum (with 2,200 inhabitants), Ludinghausen (with 
1,850 inhabitants), and Werne (with 2,000 inhabitants), more or less remark- 
able towns. Other former territories of the bishopric are, since 1803, de- 
pendent dominions, chiefly belonging to the princes of Salm, and contain 
among others : Koesfeld or Coesfeld, a town on the Berkel river, westward 
and 18 miles distant from Munster, with 2 palaces, paper manufactures, and 
3,700 inhabitants. Horstmar, a town with 1,300 inhabitants. Billerbeck, a 
town with linen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Aahaus, a town on 
the Aa river, with princely palace, linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants. 
Bocholt, a town on the Aa, with princely palace, a handsome Gothic church, 
various manufactures, and 5,200 inhabitants. Borken (with 3,200 inhabitants), 
Stadtlohn (with 2,500 inhabitants), Wreden (with 2,750 inhabitants), towns 
noted for their linens. Duelmen, a town south-westward and 18 miles dis- 
tant from Munster, with 3,300 inhabitants, linen manufactures, and a palace 
of the duke of Croy-Dulmen. Rheina, a town 24 miles north-north-west of 
Munster, linen, woollen and other manufactures, and 2,600 inhabitants. — To 
the electorate of Cologne formerly belonged : Recklinghausen (a town south- 
westward and 9 miles distant from Munster, with linen manufactures, brew- 
eries, and 3,100 inhabitants), Dorsten (a town with linen and cloth manufac- 
tures, and 3,100 inhabitants), Anholt (a town south-westward and 60 miles 
distant from Munster, with 2,100 inhabitants, and an extensive palace of the 
prince of Salm-Salm), and Steinfurt (a town with 2,900 inhabitants). — Teck- 
lenburg, ancient capital of an earldom of the same name (which in 1V0Y was 
inherited by Prussia), between Munster and Osnabruck, with linen manufac- 
tures, and 1,400 inhabitants. Zengericli, a town near Tecklenburg, with linen 
manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Ibbenburen, a town on the Plane river, 
with linen manufactures, coal mines, and 2,200 inhabitants. 

The ancient independent bishopric of Minden (instituted in 780 by Charle- 
magne, and secularized in 1648, when the elector of Brandenburg became 
possessed of it by the title of a principality) contains : 4-Minden, its ancient 
capital, on the left bank of the "Weser, 10 miles above Bremen, and westward 
and 40 miles distant from Hanover, has 12,500 inhabitants, and is noted for 
its ancient cathedral, its manufactures, inland trade, and fortress. Minden 
is one of the most ancient cities of Germany ; Emperor Henry III. was born, 
and his son Henry IV. resided here for a while. Peter shagen (with 2,200 



484 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Prussia.— Province of Westphalia. 



inhabitants), and Lubbecke (with 3,000 inhabitants), towns. Hausberge (with 
linen manufactures, and 900 inhabitants), Schlusselburg (with linen manufac- 
tures, and 1,000 inhabitants), and Rahden (with linen manufactures, and 2,300 
inhabitants), market-towns.— The former independent or sovereign bishopric 
of Paderborn (instituted in 780 by Charlemagne, and secularized in 1803, 
when Prussia became possessed of it) contains : Paderborn, its ancient capi- 
tal, on the little Pader river, southward and 44 miles distant from Minden, 
with a highly remarkable cathedral, a Catholic theological seminary, brewe- 
ries, and 9,500 inhabitants. Warburg, a town in one of the most fertile dis- 
tricts of Westphalia, south-eastward and 23 miles distant from Paderborn, 
with linen manufactures, considerable trade, and 3,600 inhabitants. Driburg, 
a town noted for its mineral waters, has 2,250 inhabitants. Other more or 
less notable towns are : Delbruck (with 1,300 inhabitants), Buren (with a 
handsome Gothic church, and 1,800 inhabitants), Salzkotten (with 2,000 inhabi- 
tants), BraTcel (with 3,000 inhabitants), and Lugde or Liide (with 2,200 inhabi- 
tants). — Corvey, an ancient and extensive castle on the "Weser, south-east- 
ward and 44 miles distant from Minden, was until 1803 the residence of an 
independent abbot, whose abbey had been instituted by Louis the Pious in 
the 9th century. The territory of the abbey, endowed with the title of a de- 
pendent principality, belongs at present to the dependent prince of Hohen- 
lohe-Schillingsfurst, and contains (beside that castle and some villages) the 
town of Hoxter, on the "Weser, and in the neighborhood of the castle of Cor- 
vey, with important branches of industry, and 3,800 inhabitants. — The ancient 
earldom of Ravensberg, which in 1666 was inherited by the elector of Bran- 
denburg, contains : Bielefeld, its ancient capital, south-westward and 2*7 
miles distant from Minden, and south-eastward and 30 miles distant from 
Osnabriick, is highly renowned for its excellent linens, and has 10,500 inhabi- 
tants. The neighboring villages of Brackwede (with 1,200 inhabitants) and 
Jsselhorst (with 1,200 inhabitants), the market-town of Schildesche (with 2,500 
inhabitants), and the towns of Werther (with 2,100 inhabitants), Versmold 
(with 1,600 inhabitants), Borghohhausen (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Bunde 
(with 1,600 inhabitants), are likewise noted for their linen manufactures. 
Herford, a city north-eastward and 9 miles distant from Bielefeld, with va- 
rious manufactures, some literary institutions, and 8,800 inhabitants. .En- 
ger, a market-town, with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted in history as having been 
once the seat of the celebrated Saxon duke Wittekind. Rheda (with noted 
linen manufactures, and 1,900 inhabitants), and Rietberg (with important 



PRUSSIA. 485 



The Province of Westphalia. 



linen manufactures, and 2,200 inhabitants), are the capitals of dependent 
principalities of the same names. 

The ancient duchy of Westphalia was primitively" nothing but part of West- 
phalia in general, and thus belonged to the ancient duchy of Saxony. After 
Duke Henry, surnamed the Lion, having been outlawed in 1180, this part of 
his duchy was, by the title of a duchy of Westphalia, given and annexed to 
the archbishopric and electorate of Cologne. In 1803 Hesse-Darmstadt, and 
in 1816 Prussia became possessed of it. It contains: -[-Arnsberg, its for- 
mer capital on the Ruhr, south-eastward and 46 miles distant from Mtin- 
ster, with the ruins of an anciently very remarkable mountain castle, and 
4,500 inhabitants. In the middle ages Arnsberg was a member of the Han- 
seatic League. Brilon, a town at the high-road between Arnsberg and Cas- 
sel, with some manufactures of hardware, and 3,700 inhabitants. In the 
middle ages Brilon belonged to the Hanseatic League as actual member. 
Other more or less remarkable towns are : Olpe (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
JSfeheim, (with 2,200 inhabitants), Marsberg, also named Stadtberg (with 
3,600 inhabitants), Meschede (with 2,200 inhabitants), Gesecke (with 3,550 in- 
habitants,) Menden (with 3,200 inhabitants),* and Werl (anciently noted for 
its trade, at present for its salt-works, has 3,900 inhabitants). — The ancient 
earldom of Mark (whose native earls became extinct in 1609, when the elec- 
tor of Brandenburg became possessed of it by way of inheritance) contains : 
Hamm, its ancient capital, on the Lippe river, north-westward and 23 miles 
distant from Arnsberg, and south-eastward and 24 miles distant from Mtin- 
ster, with linen manufactures, linen trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Iserlohn, 
an important manufacturing town in a mountainous district, westward and 
23 miles distant from Arnsberg, is especially noted for its hardware, and has 
11,100 inhabitants. Similar articles, as in Iserlohn, are fabricated in the 
neighboring manufacturing town of Altena, with 4,900 inhabitants. Other 
towns noted for their manufactures, are : Bockum (with 4,400 inhabitants), 
Hattingen (with 4,500 inhabitants), Ludenseheid(with 4,000 inhabitants), Ha- 
gen (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Schwelm (with 4,400 inhabitants). The 
town of Unna (between Arnsberg and Hamm, with 5,500 inhabitants), is 
noted for its salt-works. The town of Horde (with 2,200 inhabitants) is 
noted for its coal mines. Soest, a city in one of the most fertile districts of 
Westphalia, is chiefly engaged in linen manufacturing and corn trade, has 
8,800 inhabitants, and was in the middle ages a renowned member of the 
Hanseatic League. — Dortmund, a city in a fertile district, north-westward 



486 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province of Westphalia and Rhenish Province. 

and 32 miles distant from Arnsberg, with considerable manufactures and 
trade, and 1,900 inhabitants, was, like Soest, a renowned member of the 
Hanseatic League, and traded to Nowgorod, in Russia, as well as to London, 
etc. — The former principality of Nassau Siegen (which in 1806 was annexed 
to the grand-duchy of Berg, and in 1815 ceded to Prussia) contains : Siegen, 
its ancient capital, on the Sieg river, 46 miles east-south-east of Cologne, and 
southward and 45 miles distant from Arnsberg, has 6,500 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its iron mines and manufactures. Hilchenbach, a town at the foot 
of the Westerwald, 7 miles north-north-east of Siegen, with various manu- 
factures, iron-works, and 1,600 inhabitants. The neighboring village of 
Grund is remarkable as the birth-place of the pious, and among faithful 
Christians, well-known Jung-Stilling. — Berleburg (south-eastward and 30 
miles distant from Arnsberg, with a handsome princely palace, iron-works, 
and 2,400 inhabitants) and Zaasphe (southward and 9 miles distant from 
Berleburg, with 2,200 inhabitants, cloth manufactures, iron-works, and a 
stately princely palace), are capitals of the dependent principalities of Witt- 
genstein. 



VI.— THE RHENISH PROVINCE. 

Area: 10,373 square miles. 
Population: 2,163,000 inhabitants. 

This province (formerly consisting of two provinces, viz., Ju- 
lich-Cleve-Berg and Lower Rhine) has been thus styled on ac- 
count of its being situated on both sides (though chiefly on the 
left bank) of the Rhine, and comprises (with the exception of the 
ancient duchies of Cleve and Greldern, and principality of Moers) 
only newly acquired (i. e. since 1815) territories, the most notable 
of which are the former electorates of Treves and Cologne, the 
duchies of Berg and Juliers, etc. In the beginning of the present 



PKUPClA. 487 

The Rhenish Province. 



century there were about 100 independent dominions of the Ger- 
man empire in the present Rhenish province, which is subdivided 
into the 5 governmental districts of Coblenz, Treves, Aix la Cha- 
pelle, Cologne and JDiisseldorf. 

The former independent or sovereign archbishopric and electorate of Treves 
is of very ancient origin ; its first bishop, Agritius by name, being appointed 
as early as in 32*7 by the Roman emperor Constantine. He took his seat in 
the city of Treves, and his successors, raised to the dignity of archbishops and 
electors, became in the course of time possessed of considerable territories. 
According to the terms of the treaty concluded at Luneville in 1801, the ter- 
ritories situated on the left bank of the Rhine were ceded to France ; while 
the remainder, on the right bank of this river, was in 1803 given to Nassau- 
What in 1814 France restored, Prussia became possessed of, together with a 
little district on the right bank of the Rhine. The territories of the electorate 
within the limits of the following governmental district contain : -4-Coblenz, 
a fortified city, and formerly the residence of the elector archbishop of 
Treves, on the left bank of the Rhine (crossed here by a bridge of boats 
1,100 feet long), at its junction with the Moselle (crossed by a beautiful 
Gothic bridge, reared in the middle of the 14th century and thoroughly 
built of freestone), about half-way between Mentz and Cologne, with vari- 
ous and important manufactures, considerable trade, and 23,000 inhabitants. 
Coblenz, at present the capital of the Rhenish province, is noted for several 
literary institutions, the former electoral palace, several remarkable ancient 
churches, and for its fortifications, among which ranks first the very strong 
fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite Co- 
blenz, and standing on a high rock, at the foot of which is situated the town 
of Thal-Ehrenbreitstein, with 4,200 inhabitants. Vallendar, a town on the 
right bank of the Rhine, with important leather manufactures, and 3,400 
inhabitants. Boppard, a town on the left bank of the Rhine, with vine cul- 
ture, noted potteries, and 4,200 inhabitants. Oberwesel, a town on the Rhine, 
with vine culture, and 2,850 inhabitants. Stolzenfels, a remarkable Gothic 
mountain castle, at present arranged as the private palace of the king of 
Prussia. Kochheim and Zell, towns on the Moselle, with vine culture, and 
respectively 2,700 and 2,300 inhabitants. — The territories of the former elec- 
torate of Cologne (see forward under the head of Cologne), within the limits 
of this governmental district, contain : Andernach, a town on the left bank of 



488 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Prussia.— Rhenish Province. 



the Rhine, 14 miles below Coblenz, with considerable trade, and 3,800 in- 
habitants. Rhense, a market-town on the Rhine, 5 miles above Coblenz, 
has 1,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its anciently celebrated king's seat 
(Konigsstufil), an open building resting on 9 pillars. The market-towns of 
Unkel (with 900 inhabitants) and Erpel (with 900 inhabitants), are noted for 
their wines. Ahrweiler, a town on the Ahr river, has 2,600 inhabitants, and 
is renowned for its wines. Linz, a town on the Rhine, 30 miles below Co- 
blenz, and north-westward and nearly 400 miles distant from Linz in Aus- 
tria, with vine culture, and 2,650 inhabitants. — To various territories formerly 
belonged : St. Goar, ancient capital of the lower earldom of Katzenellnbo- 
gen (see page 364), on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite St. Goarshausen 
(in Nassau), with important leather manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. 
Hemagen (with 1,900 inhabitants) and Sinzig (with 2,000 inhabitants), towns 
formerly belonging to the duchy of Juliers JBacharach, a town on the 
Rhine, with vine culture, and 1,150 inhabitants. Kreuznach, a town on the 
Nahe river, southward and 9 miles distant from Bingen, with important lea- 
ther manufactures and vine culture, salt-works, bathing, and 9,400 inhabitants. 
Simmern, formerly the capital of a principality of the same name, on the 
Hunsruck, with leather and other manufactures, iron-works, and 3,300 inhabi- 
tants. Sobernheim, a town with vine culture, and 2,700 inhabitants. Kirn, 
a town on the Nahe river, with coal mines, and 1,950 inhabitants. Wetzlar, 
formerly an imperial city, and from 1691 to 1806 the seat of the Supreme 
Tribunal of the German Empire (see page 293), romantically situated on the 
Lahn river, 46 miles east-north-east of Coblenz, and north-westward and 33 
miles distant from Frankfort, with remarkable ancient cathedral, and 5,700 
inhabitants. — Neuwied, the capital of the dependent principality or earl- 
dom of Wied, on the Rhine (right bank), 10 miles below Coblenz, with a 
magnificent princely palace, various higher schools, numerous manufactures, 
and 6,250 inhabitants, among whom are many Moravian Brethren. Braun- 
fels (near Wetzlar, with 1,800 inhabitants) is the capital of a dependent 
dominion belonging to the prince of Solms-Braunfels. 

The territories of the former electorate of Treves, within the limits of the 
following governmental district, contain : -[-Treves (in German Trier), for- 
merly the capital of the electorate, on the Moselle (crossed by a bridge 
built of freestone, and 690 feet long), south-westward and 60 miles distant 
from Coblenz, has 20,000 inhabitants, various manufactures and vine culture, 
and is renowned for its very ancient cathedral and numerous other architec- 



PRUSSIA. 489 



The Rhenish Province. 



tural monuments. Treves is one of the most ancient cities in Europe, and 
was frequently the temporary residence of the Roman emperors, subse- 
quently also the seat of the Roman governor of Gaul. The market-town 
of Pfalzel (with 1,300 inhabitants), and the villages of Piesport (with 600 
inhabitants), Dusemond (with 700 inhabitants), and Cuns (with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants), situated on the Moselle, are noted for their wines. More or less 
celebrated towns are: Bernkastel (with 2,400 inhabitants), Wittlich (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Merzig (with 3,700 inhabitants), and Saarburg (with 
2,200 inhabitants). The town of St. Wendel (on the Blies river, south-east- 
ward and 32 miles distant from Treves, with 2,800 inhabitants) was until 
1834 the capital of the principality of Lichtenberg, which then was ceded 
by Saxe-Gotha to Prussia (see page 393). To various other territories did 
formerly belong: Saarbrueck, until 1801 the capital of an earldom belong- 
ing to the princely house of Nassau, on the Saar, south-westward and 80 
miles distant from Treves, has 8,900 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- 
factures and coal mines. Ottweiler, a town on the Blies river, with some 
manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Pruem, a town at the foot of the 
Eifel, north-eastward, and 34 miles distant from Treves, with important 
leather manufactures, and 2,500 inhabitants. Bitburg, a town between 
Prum and Treves, with 2,200 inhabitants, and JVeuerburg, market-town, with 
1,7000 inhabitants, formerly belonged to the duchy of Luxemburg. Veldenz, 
a village with 800 inhabitants, is noted for it3 mines and iron-works. Saar- 
louis, strongly fortified town on the Saar river, southward and 30 miles 
distant from Treves, with various manufactures, and 7,200 inhabitants. Saar- 
louis, founded by Louis XIV., did until 1815 belong to France. 

The formerly imperial city of Aix-la-Chapelle, founded or at least embel- 
lished by Charlemagne, was for a long while considered as the capital of the 
German empire. In the period from 813 to 1558, the emperors were usu- 
ally crowned here. Towards the close of the last century, the city was 
occupied by the French, and in 1801 formally ceded to France. In 1815 
Prussia became possessed of it. "We thus describe : -J- Aix-la-Chapelle (in 
German Aachen), at present the capital of a governmental district of the 
same name, close by the Netherlandish frontier, eastward and 18 miles dis- 
tant from Mastricht, and westward and 40 miles distant from Cologne, has 
48,600 inhabitants, and is renowned for its numerous and important manu- 
factures of fine cloth, cassimere, pins, needles, and various other articles, for 
its mineral waters and baths, and finally for its numerous architectural mon- 



490 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Rhenish Province. 

uments, among which ranks first the very ancient Gothic cathedral (founded 
in 796 by Charlemagne, who lies buried here), with many historical curios- 
ities, and next to it the Gothic city-hall, reared in 1353, and standing upon 
the same spot where the palace of Charlemagne was. The neighboring 
town of Burtscheid (with 5,700 inhabitants) is noted for its cloth, cassimere, 
and needle manufactures, and its hot sulphur baths. — The ancient duchy of 
Juliers (whose native sovereigns became extinct in 1423, when the duchy 
was inherited by the dukes of Berg; from 1666 to the end of last century, 
the electors of the Palatinate were possessed of it, and in 1815 it was ceded 
to Prussia) contains, within the limits of this governmental district : Juliers 
(in German Julich), its ancient capital, on the Roer, north-eastward and 18 
miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, is fortified, and has 4,400 inhabitants. 
Duren, a city on the Roer, has 8,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its manu- 
factures of cloth, cassimere, etc., of hardware and various other articles. 
Stollberg, important manufacturing town, eastward and 7 miles distant from 
Aix-la-Chapelle, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its various 
and numerous articles made of brass. Montjoie, a noted manufacturing 
town, near the head of the Roer, southward and 18 miles distant from Aix-la- 
Chapelle, and is renowned for its fine cloth and cassimere. Eschweiler, a man- 
ufacturing town on the Inde river, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
silks, woollens, etc., and for its coal mines. Imgenbroich, a village with con- 
siderable manufactures of cloth and cassimere, and 900 inhabitants. — To 
various other territories formerly belonged : Eupen (in French Nmu), a noted 
manufacturing town, romantically situated on the little Wenze river, south- 
ward and 12 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, has 12,400 inhabitants, and 
is noted especially for its superfine cloth and cassimere. Herzogenrath (in 
French Rolduc, or Rode le Due), a market-town in the neighborhood of Aix- 
la-Chapelle, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted for its coal mines and quarries. 
Schleiden, a market-town on the Eifel, south-eastward and 24 miles distant 
from Aix-la-Chapelle, with manufactures of woollens, etc., iron-works, and 
750 inhabitants. Malmedy, a town on the Warge river, southward and 23 
miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, with the most important leather manu- 
factures in Prussia, mineral waters, and 4,300 inhabitants. Corneliusmunster, 
a market-town in the neighborhood of Aix-la-Chapelle, with cloth and cassi- 
mere manufactures, quarries, lead mines, and 800 inhabitants. 

The former archbishopric and electorate of Cologne. As first bishop of 
Cologne, is considered Maternus, who lived about the year 314 ; this bishop- 



PRUSSIA. 49i 



The Rhenish Province. 



ric was in 745 raised to the dignity of an archbishopric. The archbishop 
Heribert (997-1021) was invested with the electoral privileges, and in the 
course of time, considerable dominions were acquired, especially in West- 
phalia, since Duke Henry of Saxony, surnamed the Lion, had been outlawed 
(see before, under Westphalia). Since the year 1263, the archbishops, elec- 
tors, resided usually in Bonn or in Bruhl, and not more in Cologne, on 
account of altercations with this city, that relied upon its privileges as impe- 
rial city, and was not willing to be unconditionally subjected to the author- 
ity of the archbishop. It may be mentioned here by the way, that arch- 
bishop Guebhard of Waldburg, who occupied the see in the period of 
1577-83, turned Protestant, being enamored of the fair countess, Agnes of 
Mansfeld, whom he married. However his chapter chose instantly another 
archbishop in his place. Since the end of the last century, the electorate 
underwent the same vicissitudes as the electorate of Treves. Its territories, 
within the limits of the following governmental district, contained : -(-Co- 
logne (in German Coin), the largest city in the Rhenish province, on the 
Rhine (left bank), crossed here by a bridge of boats, had, at the close of the 
year 1846, 9,020 habitations, 227 public edifices (among them 25 churches 
and 8 chapels), and 95,202 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and highly famed 
for its important trade and commerce, its numerous manufactures (univer- 
sally known is the excellent Cologne-water), its literary institutions, and for 
its vast number of interesting monuments of Gothic architecture. Among 
the latter ranks first the sublime edifice of the cathedral, which was founded 
in 1248, and since the days of the Reformation left unfinished, though at 
present the completion of the work is projected. In the middle ages Cologne 
was a powerful and far-renowned commercial and manufacturing city, num- 
bered 30,000 warriors, and had a population of more than 150,000 inhabi- 
tants. Opposite Cologne, is situated on the Rhine, the town of Deutz, with 
various manufactures, and 4,900 inhabitants. Bruhl, a market-town roman- 
tically situated at the foot of the Eifel, southward and 5 miles distant from 
Cologne, with 1,600 inhabitants, and a magnificent palace and park. The 
archbishops of Cologne resided here in the summer season. Bonn, a city on 
the Rhine, formerly the usual residence of the electors of Cologne, 14 miles 
above Cologne, has 18,000 inhabitants, and is since 1818 noted for its univer- 
sity (see above and page 287), to which is ceded the former palace of the 
electors. Zulpich, a town in a fertile and romantic plain, south-westward 
and 23 miles distant from Cologne, has 1,400 inhabitants, and is historically 



492 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Rhenish Province. 

remarkable for a decisive victory obtained here by King Clovis over the Ale- 
manni, in 496. Konigswinter, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and at the 
foot of the Seven Hills (see page 8), has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for 
its quarries. The market-town of Bedburg (with 700 inhabitants) is noted 
for its college. — The towns of Munstereifel (with woollen manufactures, and 
2,100 inhabitants) and Euskirchen (with 3,250 inhabitants), belonged to the 
ancient duchy of Juliers. — The aneient duchy of Berg (see below) contains, 
within the limits of this governmental district: Siegbubg, a town on the 
right bank of the Rhine, and on the Sieg river, with a madhouse, and 3,200 
inhabitants. Muhlheim am Rhein, a town on the Rhine, opposite Cologne, 
with important manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,400 inhabitants. The 
village of Bensberg (with 800 inhabitants) is noted for its military academy. 
The village of Waldbroel (with 500 inhabitants) is noted for its iron-works. 
Wipperfurt, a town on the Wupper, below Elberfeld, with woollen manu- 
factures, and 2,000 inhabitants. 

The ancient duchy of Berg (whose native sovereigns became extinct in the 
17th century, when the Palatines became possessed of it by way of inher- 
itance ; in 1806 it was ceded to France by the king of Bavaria, from the 
Palatine house, and in 1815 to Prussia) contains: -{-Duesseldorf, its ancient 
capital, on the Rhine (right bank), between Cologne and "Wesel, north-east- 
ward and 46 miles distant from Aix-la-Chapelle, is at present the capital of 
a governmental district of the same name (2,08*7 square miles, and 892,500 
inhabitants), carries on a considerable trade, especially to Holland, has a 
vast number of various and important manufactures, and 28,000 inhabitants, 
and is famed for its literary and artistical institutions. (About the gallery 
of paintings, which was here until 1806, see page 288.) The neighboring 
village of Pempelfort (with 2,300 inhabitants) is noted for its greens. In 
the neighboring Dusselthal (formerly a Carthusian monastery) was founded in 
1819, an institution for educating disorderly children. Ratingen and Gerres- 
heim, towns with respectively 4,200 and 1,500 inhabitants. Elberfeld, one of 
the most important manufacturing and trading towns in the kingdom, on the 
Wupper, eastward and 19 miles distant from Dusseldorf, has 38,250 inhabi- 
tants, and is famed especially for its cotton and silk articles, ribbons, and 
dyeing in Turkish red. The whole valley along the Wupper, upwards to and 
beyond Barmen (with 34,950 inhabitants), is covered with factories of various 
kinds, and the density of population is 471 on a square mile, in the neigh- 
borhood of Elberfeld and Barmen. Solingen, likewise a very important 



PRUSSIA. 493 



The Rhenish Province. 



manufacturing town, on the Wupper, 10 miles below Elberfeld, is from old 
renowned for its sword-blades and cutleries, and lias 6,300 inhabitants. 
Remscheid, a manufacturing town in the neighborhood of Elberfeld, is famed 
for its steel and iron-works, especially for its farming utensils. Its township 
has 12,100 inhabitants. Bennep, a manufacturing town on a little river of 
the same name, south-eastward and 7 miles distant from Elberfeld, has 
6,900 inhabitants, and is famed for its cloth and other woollen articles. 
Other towns noted for their manufactures of cotton goods, woollens, cutlery, 
hardware, etc., are : Burscheid and Leichlingen (united and together, with 
11,000 inhabitants), Opladen and Neukirchen (united and together, with 
3,400 inhabitants), Grafrath (with 4,400 inhabitants), Wulfrath (with 1,200 
inhabitants), Hohscheid (with 11,650 inhabitants), Ronsdorf (with 7,000 
inhabitants), Huckeswagen (with 3,200 inhabitants), Wold (with 4,650 inhabi- 
tants), Rade vor dem Wald (with 1,300 inhabitants), Luttringhausen (with 
1,100 inhabitants), Neviges (with 1,500 inhabitants), Langenberg (with 2,500 
inhabitants), and Mettmann (with 2,800 inhabitants). The city of Muhllteim 
an der Ruhr, situated on the river Ruhr, between Dtisseldorf and Wesel, 
with 1 0,000 inhabitants, is likewise noted for its manufactures, but especially 
for its coal mines. — The former territories of the electorate of Cologne (see 
back) contain, within the limits of this governmental district : Kempen, a 
town on the Niers river, westward and 9 miles from Crefeld, has 4,000 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its linens and flax. The Christian author, Thomas 
Hammerken, universally known by the name of Thomas a, Kempis, was born 
here in 1380. Neuss, a city on the Erft, near its junction with the Rhine, 7 
miles above Dtisseldorf, is noted for its Gothic church (founded in 825), its 
cloth and cassimere manufactures, and considerable corn trade, and has 
9,800 inhabitants. The towns of Uerdingen (with 3,100 inhabitants), Wevel- 
inghoven (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Odenkirchen (with 1,550 inhabitants), 
are noted for their manufactures, especially of cotton goods. — To the ancient 
duchy of Juliers (see above) belonged : Gladbach, a town near the Mers 
river, westward and 17 miles distant from Dtisseldorf, is famed for its excel- 
lent linens, and has 3,300 inhabitants. Grevenbroieh, a town on the Erft, 
with manufactures of woollens and hardware, and 1,000 inhabitants. Bulken, 
a town with 2,500 inhabitants, is noted for its flax. Balden, a town with 
considerable linen trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Rheidt, a manufacturing 
town, with 3,800 inhabitants. — To various other dominions formerly belonged : 
Kaiserswerth, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and in the neighborhood of 



494 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Rhenish Province. 

Dusseldorf, with 2,100 inhabitants. Essen, a city on the Berne river, south- 
eastward and 24 miles distant from Wesel, with a remarkable ancient church, 
manufactures of hardware, etc., coal mines, and 7,300 inhabitants. Werden, 
a city on the Ruhr, with cloth and other manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. 
Kettwig, a town with 2,800 inhabitants, is noted for its cloth manufactures. 
— The ancient duchy of Cleve (whose native dukes became extinct in the 17th 
century, when Brandenburg or Prussia became possessed of it) contains : 
Cleve, its former capital, near the Rhine, 46 miles north-north-west of Dus- 
seldorf, with a renowned ancient castle, some manufactures, and 7,700 inhab- 
itants. Calcar, a market-town, with flannel manufactures, and 1,900 inhabi- 
tants. Goch, a town near the Netherlandish frontier, with cotton manufactures, 
and 3,900 inhabitants. Cranenburg, a market-town, with 1,100 inhabitants. 
Xanten, a town on the Rhine (left bank), has 3,200 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its Gothic church, and cloth, cassimere, and other manufactures. Orsoy, a 
town on the Rhine, with woollen manufactures, and 1,600 inhabitants. Rees, 
a town on the Rhine (right bank), below Wesel, with 3,700 inhabitants, who 
are largely engaged in agricultural business. Anciently this town was noted 
for its fortress. Emmerich, a town on the Rhine (right bank), and close by 
the Netherlandish frontier, with rather important manufactures, and 6,500 
inhabitants. Isselburg, or Ysselburg, a town near the Netherlandish frontier, 
with foundries, iron-works, and 1,050 inhabitants. Wesel, a strongly fortified 
city on the Rhine (right bank), at its junction with the Lippe, with numerous 
manufactures, and 16,000 inhabitants. Daisburg, a city on the Ruhr, 2 \ 
miles from its junction with the Rhine, with numerous manufactures, and 
7,700 inhabitants, was in the period from 1655 to 1802 the seat of a univer- 
sity. Ruhrort, a town on the Ruhr, at its junction with the Rhine, is noted 
for its coal trade, and has 3,400 inhabitants. Dinsla7cen, a town near the 
Rhine, with cotton manufactures, and 1,700 inhabitants. — The ancient duchy 
of Geldern (since 1543 forming part of the duchy of Burgundy, until in 
1713 one part was ceded to the republic of the Netherlands, and the other 
to Prussia) contains : Geldern, its ancient capital, 23 miles south-south-east 
of Cleve, with cloth and flannel manufactures, breweries, and 3,850 inhabi- 
tants. Viersen, a noted manufacturing town, with 5,250 inhabitants. — The 
ancient principality of Moers (whose native princes became extinct in 1488, 
when it was inherited by the princely house of Nassau, while in the begin- 
ning of last century, Prussia became possessed of it by way of inheritance) 
contains : Moers, or Meurs, its ancient capital, near the Rhine (left bank), 



PRUSSIA. ' 495 



Prussia. — Province of Prussia. 



with 3,200 inhabitants, and manufactures of silks, woollens, and cotton goods. 
Yet the most important city of the ancient principality is Krefeld, situated 
on a fertile plain, about 5 miles from the Rhine, north-westward and 12 
miles distant from Dusseldorf, has 30,000 inhabitants, and is highly renowned 
for its silks and velvet, moreover for its cloth, cassimere, and various other 
articles. 



VII— THE PROVINCE OF PRUSSIA. 

Area: 25,091 square miles. 
Population : 2,499,400 inhabitants. 

This province has derived its name from the ancient Prussians, 
a mixed Germanic and Slavonic tribe, who respectively since the 
3d and 6th centuries of the Christian era had settled in the 
country. They were fanatic pagans, and evinced their hatred 
against Christianity on numerous occasions. Especially in Po- 
land they made frequent plundering incursions, by which at last 
the sovereign of this country was induced to require the assist- 
ance of the Teutonic Order (see pages 46 and 336). That this 
order conquered the country of the Prussians (which had the 
same extent as the present province), and that in 1525 it was 
transformed into a duchy, and in 1618 inherited by the reigning 
house of Brandenburg, is already related above in the general 
history of Prussia. Formerly the present province of Prussia 
consisted of two, styled East and West Prussia, and their names 
occur still in common life; but at present they are united into 
one, which is subdivided into the 4 governmental districts of 
Kbnigsberg, Gumbinnen (formerly constituting the province of 



496 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Its Governmental Districts. 

East Prussia), Dantzic and Marienwerder (these two latter consti- 
tuted formerly the province of West Prussia.) 

+K6nigsberg, the capital of the province, and considered as the third 
royal residence, on the Pregel (see page 13), north-eastward and 360 miles 
distant from Berlin, and south-westward and 550 miles distant from St. Pe- 
tersburg, has 11,100 inhabitants, carries on a considerable commerce, and 
is noted not only for its university (see page 460), but also its remark- 
able ancient ducal, at present royal palace, 333 feet long by 213 feet wide, 
and containing many historical curiosities, and for several other architectural 
monuments. The seaport of Konigsberg is at Pillau, a fortified town at 
the entrance into the Fresh Haff, with commerce, and 4,700 inhabitants. 
Memel, a maritime town on the Baltic, and the Russian frontier, northward 
and 96 miles distant from Konigsberg, with considerable trade (especially 
in timber) and commerce, and 10,250 inhabitants. The towns of Eylau (prop- 
erly styled Preussisch Eylau, is situated southward and 23 miles distant from 
Konigsberg, and has 2,800 inhabitants) and Friedland (south-eastward and 
32 miles distant from Konigsberg, with 2,650 inhabitants) are noted for bat- 
tles fought here respectively on the 7th and 8th February, and on the 14th 
June, 1807. Braunsberg, a city on the Passarge, with various manufactures, 
rather considerable trade, noted high schools, and 9,100 inhabitants. Frau- 
enburg, a town on the Fresh Haff, is the residence of the Catholic bishop of 
Ermeland, and has 2,500 inhabitants. The celebrated astronomer Nicholas 
Copernicus died here in 1543. Other more or less remarkable towns are: 
Welau (with 4,200 inhabitants), Tapiau (with 3,400 inhabitants), Heiligenbeil 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), Schippenbeil (with 2,650 inhabitants), Bartenstein 
(with 4,200 inhabitants), Rastenburg (with 4,650 inhabitants), Gerdauen 
(with 2,500 inhabitants), Wormditt (with 3,550 inhabitants), Mehhack (with 
3,100 inhabitants), Heilsberg (with 4,600 inhabitants), Allenstein (with 3,600 
inhabitants), Preussisch-Holland (with 3,600 inhabitants), Mohrungen (with 
2,900 inhabitants), Neidenburg (with 2,800 inhabitants), Soldau (with 2,000 
inhabitants), and Ortelsburg (with 1,750 inhabitants). South-eastward and 
65 miles distant from Konigsberg is situated, in the neighborhood of Rasten- 
burg, the celebrated Catholic convent of Heilige Linde (holy linden), a place 
of great resort for pilgrims, to visit its holy shrine. 

-{-Gumbinnen, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, 
eastward and 66 miles distant from Konigsberg, and northward and 170 



PRUSSIA. 497 



The Province of Prussia. 



miles distant from Warsaw, is well built, carries on a considerable corn trade, 
and has 6,800 inhabitants. Insterburg, a city on the Inster river, westward 
and 16 miles distant from G-umbinnen, with notable stud, corn trade, and 
9,700 inhabitants. Stallupohnen, a town near the Russian frontier, eastward 
and 17 miles distant from Gumbinnen, with cattle trade, and 3,150 inhabi- 
tants. South-eastward and 7 miles from here is the highly noted royal stud 
of Trakehnen. Southward and 72 miles distant from Insterburg is situ- 
ated the town, of Johannisburg (with a historically remarkable castle, and 
2,100 inhabitants), near the extensive forest of the same name, and 30 miles 
in length. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Angerburg (with 
3,600 inhabitants), Goldapp (with 4,000 inhabitants), Lyck (with 3,550 in- 
habitants), Oletzko (with 3,100 inhabitants), Senaburg (with 2,400 inhabi- 
tants), Nikolaiken (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lbtzen (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Ragnit (with 2,900 inhabitants), Bialla (with 1,300 inhabitants), Schirwind 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), Pillkallen (with 1,900 inhabitants), and Darkehmen 
(with 2,400 inhabitants). Tilsit, a city on the Memel river, north-eastward 
and 74 miles distant from Konigsberg, with noted horse-marts, considerable 
trade, and 13,900 inhabitants. Historically remarkable is this city for the 
treaty of peace concluded here on the 9th of July, 1807. 

-j-Dantzick (in German Danzig), the capital of a governmental district 
of the same name, on a branch of the Vistula, 5 miles from the Baltic Sea, 
120 miles west-south-west of Konigsberg, is one of the first maritime and 
commercial cities of the kingdom, engaged in numerous branches of indus- 
try, and strongly fortified, has 66,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for 
several of its Gothic churches and other architectural monuments. Dant- 
zick is of very ancient origin, and was already in the 6th century a very nota- 
ble place; in 1310 it came under the sway of the Teutonic order, and in 1454 
under that of Poland, until in 1793 Prussia became possessed of it. The 
actual seaport of Dantzick is at Neufahrwasser and Weichselmunde, on the 
Baltic Sea. Oliva, a market-town in the neighborhood of Dantzick, with 
1,400 inhabitants, and an ancient Cistercian abbey, rioted hi history for a 
treaty of peace concluded here on the 3d of May, 1660, between Prussia and 
Poland. Elbing, a city in a fertile district near the Fresh Haff, 40 miles 
east-south-east of Dantzick, has 20,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its char- 
ities for the poor, its commerce and manufactures. Marienburg, a city on 
the ISTogat, south-eastward and 34 miles distant from Dantzick, has 6,600 in- 
habitants, and is famed for its having been anciently the chief seat of the 



49 8 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Its Governmental Districts. 

Teutonic Order, whose master resided here in an extensive and admirable 
Gothic castle, which in recent times is completely restored. TolJcemit, a 
town on the Fresh Haff, is noted for its fishing and fowling, and has 2,300 
inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are : Putzig (with 2,300 in- 
habitants), Berent (with 2,300 inhabitants), SchonecJc (with 2,200 inhabi 
tants), Dirschau (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Carthaus (with 600 inhabi- 
tants). 

-(-Marienwerder, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, 
in a fertile plain near the Vistula, 64 miles south-south-east of Dantzick, with 
an extensive ancient castle, a remarkable Gothic church, corn trade, and 
6,250 inhabitants. Culm, a city near the Vistula, southward and 76 miles 
distant from Dantzick, with a military academy, some woollen manufactures, 
and 6,800 inhabitants. In the middle ages Culm was an important member 
of the Hanseatic League, and famed for its cloth manufactures. Graudenz, 
a city on the Vistula (crossed here by a bridge of boats, 2,700 feet long), 18 
miles south- south-west of Marienwerder, has 8,700 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its strong fortress. Thorn, a strongly fortified city, on the Vistula, north- 
westward and 125 miles distant from Warsaw, has 12,000 inhabitants, and 
is remarkable as the birth-place of the celebrated astronomer Nicholas 
Copernicus (born in 1473), and noted for its gingerbread, corn, and timber 
trade. Christburg, a town on the Sorge river, with cloth and linen manu- 
factures, and 2,700 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Stuhmsdorf is 
remarkable in history for a convention concluded here on the 9th September, 
1635, between Sweden and Poland. Lobau, a town south-eastward and 43 
miles distant from Marienwerder, has 3,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
linen and flax. Other more or less notable towns are : Stuhm (with 1,300 
inhabitants), Rosenberg (with 2,500 inhabitants), Riesenburg (with 3,600 in- 
habitants), Gollup (with 2,300 inhabitants), Culmsee (with 1,700 inhabitants), 
Briesen (with 2,100 inhabitants), Schwetz (with 3,200 inhabitants), Conitz 
(with 4,100 inhabitants), Schlochau (with 2,100 inhabitants), Deutsch- Crone 
(with 3,900 inhabitants), Hammerstein (with 2,000 inhabitants), Jastrow (with 
3,750 inhabitants), Flatow (with 2,400 inhabitants), and Zempelburg (with 
3,500 inhabitants). 



PRUSSIA. 499 



The Province of Posen. 



VIII— THE PROVINCE OF POSEN". 

Area: 1 1,411 square miles. 
Population : 1,364,000 inhabitants. 

This province was until 1795, when Prussia took possession of 
it, a constituent part of the ancient kingdom of Poland ; it was in 
1807 annexed to the then created grand-duchy of Warsaw, and 
in 1814 restored to Prussia. (About its other historical particu- 
lars see history of Poland under the head of Russia.) The title 
of a grand-duchy conferred upon this province., is but seldom 
used. It is subdivided into the two governmental districts of 
Posen and Bromberg, and contains : 

-f-PosEN, the capital of the province, on the Warthe river, about half-way 
between Berlin and Warsaw, is at present strongly fortified, has 40,500 in- 
habitants (of whom 18,500 are Roman Catholics, 12,000 Protestants, and 
10,000 Jews), and is noted for its handsome cathedral and several other 
churches, its remarkable city-hall, its literary institutions, manufactures, and 
considerable trade. Posen was in the middle ages for a long while the 
residence of the Polish sovereigns. Fraustadt (in Polish Wschowa), a city 
near the frontier of Silesia, with noted cloth and linen manufactures, consid- 
erable corn trade, and 6,100 inhabitants. Other cities and towns noted for 
their manufactures of various articles are : Lissa (with 9,300 inhabitants), 
Rawicz (with 10,200 inhabitants), Krotoszin (with 7,600 inhabitants), Mese- 
ritz (with 4,800 inhabitants), Tirschtiegel (with 2,500 inhabitants), Zduny 
(with 3,600 inhabitants), Bratz (with 1,600 inhabitants), Rogasen (with 4,900 
inhabitants), and Pleszew (with 5,150 inhabitants). Still may be noticed the 
towns of Sander (with 2,850 inhabitants), Reisen (with 1,500 inhabitants), 
Storchnest or Osieczno (with 1,550 inhabitants), Bojanowo (with 3,000 inhab- 
itants), Schrimm (with 3,850 inhabitants), and Kurnik (with 2,850 inhab- 
itants). 

-{-Bromberg, the capital of a governmental district of the same name, on 



500 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Prussia. — Province of Posen. 

the Br ahe river, north-eastward and 72 miles distant from the city of Posen, 
with several high schools, manufactures, considerable trade, and 9,800 inhab- 
itants. Gnesen, a very ancient and once renowned city, 45 miles south- 
south-west of Bromberg, with a highly remarkable cathedral, considerable 
manufactures, noted cattle- and horse-marts, and 7,350 inhabitants. In the 
earlier period of the middle ages the Polish kings were crowned here. 
Inowraclaw (in German Jung-Breslau), a town in a fertile plain, with con- 
siderable trade, and 5,800 inhabitants. The town of Kruschwitz has at 
present only 450 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages an important city. 
Other more or less remarkable towns are : JFordon (with 2,250 inhabitants), 
Czarnikow (with 3,700 inhabitants), Schonlanke (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
Filehne (with 3,800 inhabitants), and Schneidemuhl or Pila (with 4,400 in- 
habitants). 



THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 

Area: 258,262 square miles. 
Population: 37,850,000 inhabitants. 

The Austrian Empire is situated between Germany and Tur- 
key, and between Italy and Russia, and embraces four principal 
constituent parts, which with reference to the nationality of their 
inhabitants are styled German, Polish. Hungarian and Italian 
Provinces, and whose common sovereign is the Emperor of 
Austria. 

The above-stated area and population is distributed as fol- 
lows : 

German provinces (see p. 309) 16,147 sq. m. and 12,100,000 inh. 

Polish " \ ^ allcia - ™ cl Vrwow, ) 32908 „ u and 4950000 « 

r DUG 6XC1. xillSCJQ.WllJSCilj \ 

Hungarian " j Tr^^vanfa^tc [ 129,696 " " and 14,900,000 " 

Italia " { LTls a trfa y ~ VeniCe | 19 ' 511 " " and 5 > 300 > 000 " 

In point of religion the Roman Catholic is prevailing, and the 
particulars may be learned from the official statements of the year 
1842, when the total population of the empire was 35,804.152 in- 
habitants. Of these were 24,874,139 Roman Catholics (with 12 
archbishops and 61 bishops), more than 3£ million conformed (i. e. 
to the Roman Catholic church) and nearly 3 million nonconformed 
Greek Christians ; 1,207.309 Lutherans, and 2,037,479 Calvinists; 
the remainder consisting (beside 668,906 Jews) of Unitarians, etc. 
In point of origin, there are somewhat more than 7 million 



502 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria — its Mountains, Rivers, Soil, etc. 

inhabitants belonging to the Germanic tribe, about 18 millions 
belonging to the Slavonic tribe (as Poles, Bohemians proper, 
Slowacks, Slavonians, etc.), nearly 5£ millions belonging to the 
Romanic tribe, and about 5 million Magyars (see pages 18 and 
19), besides about 700,000 Jews, etc. 

With regard to the surface, it may generally be said that in 
the western section of the empire high mountains, and in the east- 
ern section level plains prevail ; with the exception, however, of a 
level plain in Lombardy, and mountain ranges in Transylvania. 

The chief mountain ranges within the limits of the Austrian 
empire are : eastern branches of the Alps (see page 4) ; the Car- 
pathian Mountains (see page 5), the Bohmerwald, Erzgebirge, and 
part of the Sudetic Mountains (see pages 6 and 7). 

The shores of the south-western section of the empire are 
washed by the Adriatic Sea (see page 10). — The most notable 
lakes are the Maggiore and Garda lakes in Lombardy, the Ba- 
laton and Neusiedl lakes in Hungary, and the Gmunden, Ossiach, 
Clagenfurt and Cirknitz lakes in the German provinces (see page 
11). — The chief rivers and tributaries are: the Danube (with 
the Inn. Ens, March, Trasen, Waag, JSfeitra, Gran, Theiss, Leitha, 
Raab, Drave and Save (see page 16) ; the Elbe (with the Mol- 
dau and Eger (see page 16) ; the Po (with the Adda, Oglio, 
Mincio, Tagliamento, Piave and Brenta (see page 15) ; the Adige 
(see page 15), and the sources of the Vistula (see page 13). 

The soil is generally very fertile, especially most of the plains 
in Hungary and Slavonia. Yet not only the most fertile, but at 
the same time best-cultivated districts of the empire, are the 
valley of the Danube, in the Austrian arch-duchy, and the plain 
along the Po, in Lombardy and Venice. Bohemia, Moravia, and 
Galicia, are likewise favored with a fertile soil ; while the exten- 
sive heaths of Ketskemet and Debreczin in Hungary, are sterile 
wastes. 



AUSTRIA. 503 

The Natural Products of Austria. 

Of the total area above stated, 218,431 square miles are com- 
puted to be arable land, distributed as follows : 82,090 square 
miles, appropriated to agriculture, 3,855 square miles to vine cul- 
ture, 234 square miles to rice culture (in Lombardy), 25,816 
square miles, consisting of meadows and gardens, and 27,945 
square miles of common pastures ; the remainder being covered 
with forests, and partly appropriated to the cultivation of various 
fruits. 

From this it may easily be inferred, that grain is raised far 
more than what is required for home consumption. The same 
may be said with reference to the rearing of cattle. In 1842, the 
whole empire had an aggregate number of more than 14,000,000 
heads of black cattle (the most valuable breed is reared in the dis- 
tricts of the Alps, in the German provinces in general, and in 
Hungary and Galicia), about 2,800,000 horses (the finest breed in 
Hungary, Transylvania, but also in the northern German prov- 
inces), nearly 34,000 mules (reared in Lombardy and Venice and 
in Dalmatia), 32,000,000 sheep (three fifths of them of improved 
breed), and 5,345,000 hogs (especially in Hungary, but also in 
other provinces of the empire). The produce of the silkworm 
(for which Lombardy and Venice, the southern part of Tyrol, 
Istria, etc., are noted) amounted in 1841 to about 4 million 
pounds of raw silk. Game of various kinds is to be found abun- 
dantly in most of the provinces. The mining products in 1841, 
had a value of 26,058,802 florins (more than $9,827,000), and 
consisted of gold (6,213 marks: Transylvania and Hungary 
proper), silver (97,329 marks : Hungary proper, Bohemia, Tran- 
sylvania, etc.), quicksilver (2,973 quintals, chiefly from the mines 
of Tstria), tin (877 quintals, only in Bohemia), copper (49,157 
quintals, chiefly in Hungary), lead for the marts (72,028 quintals: 
Carinthia and Carniola, moreover in Hungary, etc.), lead ore 
(20,629 quintals, only in Bohemia), zinc (4,060 quintals, in Hun- 



504 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria — its Natural Products, Manufactures and Commerce. 

gar j and Tyrol), iron of every description (2.649,632 quintals, 
chiefly in Styria, but also in Illyria, Hungary, Bohemia, etc.), 
and coal (9,353,939 quintals, chiefly in Bohemia, but also in 
Moravia, Lower Austria, etc.). Austria abounds in salt of every 
description, and in 1841 the rock-salt mines in Galicia, Transyl- 
vania, Hungary proper, Upper Austria, and Styria, produced 
3,031,079 quintals, the salt-springs (in Upper Austria, Salzburg, 
Galicia, etc.) 2,011,616 quintals, and in the seaports 733,942 
quintals of salt were made. . The Austrian empire has the most 
valuable, and next to Russia, the most extensive forests in Europe, 
yielding both timber and fuel in immense quantities. 

Since the days of the celebrated empress Maria Theresa, the 
manufactures in Austria have made immense progress, and at 
present they rival those of England and France. Yet only the 
German and Italian 'provinces excel in them, while in the Hunga- 
rian and Polish provinces, the manufactures are in a backward 
state. The principal articles of manufacture are glass (for which 
Bohemia is famed), looking-glasses (Venice and Lower Austria), 
shawls (Vienna is universally noted for them), cloth (chiefly in 
Moravia), linens (Bohemia, Austrian Silesia, Lombardy, etc.), 
silks and velvet (Vienna, Milan, Venice, etc.), farming utensils 
(Styria), hardware, cutlery, and fire-arms, etc. (Lower Austria, 
Venice, Lombardy, Bohemia, etc.), cotton goods (in the German 
provinces and Lombardy), besides paper, porcelain, lace, etc. 

The inland trade ( Vienna, Prague, Pesth, Brody, Botzen, Lem- 
burg, Kronstadt, and Briinn, are chiefly noted for it) as well as 
the commerce (Trieste ranks first among the seaports on the Adri- 
atic), is very considerable. The chief exports (in 1842 at the 
value of 124,075,107 florins, or about $46,794,000) are silk and 
silks, wool and woollens, glass of every description, cutlery, hard- 
ware, farming utensils, leather articles, furniture, tobacco, wine, 
grain, olive oil, and timber. The principal imports (in 1842 at 



AUSTRIA. 505 



The Means of Education and Forms of Government. 



the value of 126,510,526 florins, or about $47,712,500) are: cot- 
ton, tropical produce, hides and furs. 

In the means of education Austria rivals any other European 
country, and it is distinguished both for eminence in literature 
and science, and for the general diffusion of knowledge, with the 
only exception of Hungary, where the Austrian government was 
hitherto prevented by the jealousy of the privileged classes in 
that country from exercising any substantial direct influence on 
school education. There are 9 universities in the Austrian 
empire, viz , at Prague (founded in 1348, and in 1842 with 2,741 
students), Vienna (founded in 1365, and in 1842 with 5,395 stu- 
dents), Olmutz (founded in 1581, and in 1842 with 559 students), 
Gratz (founded in 1486, and in 1842 with 942 students), Inns- 
bruck (founded in 1672, and in 1842 with 416 students), Padua 
(founded in 1228, and in 1842 with 1,825 students), Pavia 
(founded in 1361, and in 1842 with 1,484 students), Lemberg 
(founded in 1784, and in 1842 with 1,182 students), and at Pesth 
(founded in 1465, and in 1842 with 1,250 students). Besides 
these there are 37 academies or higher special schools, 77 theo- 
logical and 78 philosophical faculties, 31 lycea, 283 gymnasia, 
1,428 seminaries, etc. The total number of common schools was in 
1842, in the German, Italian, and Polish provinces (thus exclu- 
sive the Hungarian provinces), 31,436, that were then frequented 
by 2,427,857 children. 

With regard to the government, it was until 1848 partly a lim- 
ited, partly an unlimited monarchy. In Dalmatia and the Mili- 
tary Frontier the power of the emperor was absolute, in the Ger- 
man, Italian and Polish provinces limited by provincial diets, and 
in the kingdom of Hungary and in Transylvania the executive 
power was by the legislative power of an aristocratic body of no- 
bles, prelates and representatives of privileged towns so restricted, 
that it was almost reduced to nothiug. The sovereign of the 



22 



506 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria — its Government, Finances, Army, etc. 

Austrian empire bears since the 11th August, 1804, the title of 
hereditary Emperor of Austria ; for the imperial title borne by the 
Austrian sovereign since the days of Albert II., as elected emperors 
of Germany, had nothing in common with their patrimonial domin- 
ions. The plenary title runs thus : Emperor of Austria, King 
of Hungary and Bohemia, King of Lombardy and Venice, of 
Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria and Illyria ; 
Arch-Duke of Austria, Grand DuJce of Transylvania, etc., etc. 
As king of Hungary the sovereign has since 1758 the predicate 
of " Apostolic Majesty." 

The public revenue for several years anterior to the commotions 
in 1848 were about 152,000,000 florins (including 4,395,000 
florins raised as taxes in Hungary), and the public expenditure 
amounted to only 125,000,000 florins. The revenue and expen- 
diture thus yielded a surplus of 27 million, which was appropri- 
ated to the sinking fund and paying interest of the public debt 
that in. 1841 amounted to 822 million florins. 

The regular army on the peace footing consisted prior to the 
year 1848 of about 230,000 men, and can in time of war be in- 
creased to 750,000 men. — The navy consisted, beside 8 unrigged 
ships of the line, of 8 frigates, 4 sloops of war, 6 brigs, 7 schooners 
and other smaller vessels. 

Besides the order of the Golden Fleece (see page 83), there are 
the following other orders of honor : 1. The military order of 
Maria Theresa, instituted in 1757, and in 3 classes. 2. The order 
of Elizabeth Theresa, instituted in 1750, and renewed in 1771. 
3. The Hungarian order of St. Stephen, instituted in 1764, and in 
3 classes. 4. The order of Leopold, instituted in 1808, and in 3 
classes. 5. The order of the Iron Crown, instituted in 1805 by 
Napoleon and renewed in 1816 by Emperor Francis, in 3 classes. 

History. — The basis of the Austrian empire is the Avarian marie men- 
tioned page 31, and which was erected by Charlemagne in 788-801 as a 



AUSTRIA. 507 

The History of Austria. 



bulwark against the Avares (see page 29), who had settled in this quarter since 
the 6th century. In a later period that name had been supported by the 
name of Eastern mark or orientalis regio, from which was finally derived 
the name of Austria. Leopold, earl of Babenherg (whose ancestral castle 
was close by the city of Bamberg on the Mayne), appointed in 944, was the 
first hereditary margrave of Austria. In 1156 the district at present known 
by the general name of Upper Austria (between the Inn and the Ens rivers) 
was annexed to the margraviate of Austria, and the latter raised to the dig- 
nity of a duchy by Emperor Frederic I. Duke Leopold VI. inherited Styria 
in 1186, and his son and successor, Frederic II., Carniola in 1232. "With 
Duke Frederic II. the male line of the house of Babenberg became extinct, 
and now his brother-in-law, King Ottokar of Bohemia, took possession of 
Austria in 1260 ; he was, however, deprived of it in 1276 by emperor Rodolph 
of Hapsburg, who then invested his sons with the Austrian dominions, and 
whose descendants are still possessed of them (see History of Germany, 
page 301). To Austria, Styria and Carniola (see above) were annexed in 
1331 Carinthia, and in 1365 Tyrol, by way of inheritance. Duke Rodolph 
IV. (-f-1365) assumed the archducal title, which was since 1453 an official 
one. The general history of Austria being since the days of Rodolph of 
Hapsburg more or less closely connected with the general history of Ger 
many, the most remarkable particulars of it are to be found in the latter ; 
and we have only to add some few others. In 1740 the male line of the 
house of Hapsburg became extinct with the German emperor Charles VI., 
and as his daughter Maria Theresa, who succeeded him in the patrimonial 
dominions, was married to Duke Francis of Lorraine, the reigning house is 
frequently styled Hapsburg-Lorraine. Emperor Francis I. (as emperor of 
Germany Francis II.) died in 1835, and was succeeded by his son Ferdinand 
I., who resigned in November, 1848, and was succeeded by his nephew, the 
present reigning emperor Francis Joseph Charles, born in 1 830. 

As has already been mentioned above, the Austrian empire 
embraces four principal constituent parts, styled the German, 
Polish, Hungarian and Italian provinces. Yet by the term of 
HvMgarian Provinces, the Austrian statistics indicate all coun- 
tries under the imperial sway, which form part neither of the 
Gemiau,nor of the Polish, nor of the Italian provinces ; and thus 



508 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria — its Geographical Divisions. 



under this head are comprised the kingdom of Hungary as well 
as Transylvania, the Military Frontier, and even Dalmatia, though 
the latter has no administrative connection with all the other 
provinces just named, while the Military Frontier has thoroughly 
a military organization, and Transylvania has likewise no admin- 
istrative connection with the kingdom of Hungary. Thus they 
are to be described separately, and we shall give the topographi- 
cal description in the following order of succession : I. The Ger- 
man Provinces ; II. The Kingdom of Galicia ; III. The King- 
dom of Hungary ; IV. The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania ; V. 
The Military Frontier ; VI. The Kingdom of Dalmatia, and 
VII. The Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 



I— THE GERMAN PROVINCES OF AUSTRIA. 

Area: 16,141 square miles. 
Population: 12,700,000 inhabitants. 

They comprise, as has already been stated, page 309, the arch- 
duchy of Austria, Styria, lllyria, Tyrol, Bohemia, Moravia, and 
Austrian Silesia, and finally the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator. 

1. The Arch-duchy of Austria (15,0*70 square miles, and 2,400,000 
inhabitants), situated on both sides of the Danube, between Bavaria and 
Hungary proper, and is officially divided into 4 districts, styled circles, two 
of which embrace the eastern half, in common life named Lower Austria, 
while the western half is commonly named Upper Austria. Lower Austria 
contains : Vienna (in German Wien), the metropolis of the empire and 
imperial residence, on the right bank of the Danube, 360 miles south-south- 



AUSTRIA. 509 



The German Provinces of Austria. 



east of Berlin, north-eastward and 284 miles distant from Venice, and north- 
westward and 1,070 miles distant from Constantinople, is at present strongly- 
fortified, and had in the beginning of the year 1846, 8,716 habitations, and 
429,500 inhabitants. Vienna, already extant in the days of the ancient 
Romans, and a flourishing emporium in the earlier period of the middle ages, 
is at present the first trading and manufacturing city of the empire, and is 
besides this, highly renowned for its vast number of literary and scientific 
establishments (see page 288), of stately palaces and public edifices (the 
most remarkable among the latter is St. Stephen's cathedral, whose steeple 
is 435 i feet high), for its handsome public gardens (as Prater, Angarten, etc.), 
and for its wealth. There are dwelling-houses in Vienna with more than 
1,500 inhabitants, and yielding an annual house-rent of 100,000 florins. The 
number of magnificent and extensive palaces (besides those of the emperor) 
amounted to 123 some years ago. Vienna consists of the principal city and 
34 suburbs, as they are styled, though they are more regularly built than 
the city itself. The neighboring imperial palaces of Schbnbrunn and Lax- 
enburg, are noted for their beautiful parks and other curiosities. Baden, a 
town on the Schwechat, 14 miles south-south-west of Vienna, has 4,000 
inhabitants, and is highly famed, and much resorted to as a watering-place 
Wienerisch-Neustadt, a city on a canal, southward and 28 miles distant from 
Vienna, has 12,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its military academy and 
manufactures. Schwechat, a market-town on the river of the same name, 
and at the high-road to Hungary, with cotton manufactures, and 2,500 inhab- 
itants. Pottendorf, a market-town near the Hungarian frontier, is noted for 
its cotton manufactures, and has 3,000 inhabitants. St. Pblten, a town on 
the Trasen river, westward and 33 miles distant from Vienna, with various 
manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants. Molk, or Melk, a market-town on the 
Danube, with 1,200 inhabitants, is noted for its magnificent Benedictine 
abbey, instituted in 984. Krems, a town on the Danube, 38 miles west- 
north-west of Vienna, with various higher schools, manufactures, and 5,000 
inhabitants. The village of Maria Taferl is a place of great resort for pil- 
grims, to visit its holy shrine. Korneuburg, a town on the Danube, north- 
ward and 9 miles distant from Vienna, with 2,600 inhabitants. The neigh- 
boring villages of Aspern, Essling, and Wagram, are remarkable for battles 
fought here in 1809, between the Austrians and French. — Upper Austria 
contains: Linz, its capital, on the Danube, westward and 112 miles distant 
from Vienna, has 25,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and noted for its 



510 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria.— The German Provinces of Austria and Styria. 



manufactures and important inland trade. Steyer, a city on the Ens, south- 
eastward and 18 miles distant from Linz, has 11,000 inhabitants, and is, on 
account of its numerous and important hardware manufactures, sometimes 
called the Austrian Birmingham. St. Florian, a market-town, with 900 
inhabitants, is situated in a district noted for the fertility of its soil, and for 
the wealth of its peasantry. In this district is also situated the market-town 
of Kremsmunster (with 1,050 inhabitants), highly renowned for its Benedic- 
tine abbey, instituted in 772. Ischl, a market-town on the Traun river, 
south-westward and 48 miles distant from Linz, and eastward and 28 miles 
distant from Salzburg, has 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its salt-springs 
and baths. Ischl is the chief place of a district styled Salzkammergut (salt- 
domain), on account of the vast quantities of salt made here. Wels, a town 
on the Traun river, south-westward and 14 miles distant from Linz, with 
various manufactures, considerable trade, and 5,000 inhabitants. Ried, a 
market-town on two little rivers, westward and 28 miles distant from Wels, 
with linen and cloth manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. JBraunau, a town 
on the Inn, and at the frontier of Bavaria, westward and 60 miles distant 
from Linz, with various manufactures, numerous breweries, and 2,500 inhab- 
itants. — The former independent or sovereign archbishopric of Salzburg (it 
had before its secularization an extent of 3,706 square miles, with 250,000 
inhabitants, was instituted in 716, in 1801 secularized and given to the grand 
duke of Tuscany, Ferdinand Joseph, in 1805 ceded to Austria, in 1809 to 
Bavaria, and in 1815 restored to Austria) contains: Salzburg, its former 
capital, very romantically situated on the Salzach river, and near the Bava- 
rian frontier, 160 miles west-south-west of Vienna, has 13,400 inhabitants, is 
famed for its cathedral and numerous other architectural monuments, and 
for its manufactures and inland trade. Close by the city towers on a steep 
rock, 440 feet high, the remarkable ancient fortress of Hohensalzburg. 
Southward and 48 miles distant from Salzburg is situated the market-town 
of Gastein (with 600 inhabitants), highly famed and much resorted to as a 
watering-place. Hallein, a town on the Salzach river, southward and 9 miles 
distant from Salzburg, has 4,100 inhabitants, and is noted for its important 
salt-works. Nearly the whole territory of the ancient bishopric of Salzburg 
is distinguished for the wild and sublime character of its sceneries. 

2. The Duchy of Styria, in German Steiermark (8,690 square miles, and 
1,000,000 inhabitants), on the south side of the former province, contains : 
Graetz or Gratz, its capital, romantically situated on the Mur river, with 



AUSTRIA. 511 



The German Provinces of Styria, Carniola and Carinthia. 



numerous manufactures, noted annual fans, several Gothic and remarkable 
churches, a university (see above) and other literary and scientific institu- 
tions, and 50,000 inhabitants. Marburg, a city on the Drave, 40 miles south- 
south-east of Gratz, with noted manufactures, considerable trade, and 6,200 
inhabitants. Luitenberg, a market-town, with 850 inhabitants, is noted for its 
vine culture. Cilli, a town on the San river, southward and 56 miles distant 
from Gratz, with Roman antiquities, corn and wine trade, and 2,000 inhabi- 
tants. Judenburg, a town on the Mur river, westward and 40 miles distant 
from Gratz, with remarkable ancient castle, iron-works, and 2,000 inhabi- 
tants. Bruck, a town on the Mur, 25 miles north-north-west of Gratz, has 
1,850 inhabitants, and is noted for its hardware. Leoben, a town, south- 
westward and 90 miles distant from Vienna, with hardware manufactures, 
considerable trade in iron, and 3,200 inhabitants. Mariazell, a market- 
town on the Salza river, south-westward and 64 miles distant from Vienna, 
has 1,100 inhabitants, and has long been a place of great resort for pilgrims, 
to visit its holy shrine. 

3. The Kingdom of Illyria (9,052^ square miles, and 1,351,000 inhabi- 
tants) is situated between Styria and the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, 
on the south bordering upon the Adriatic Sea. In the period from 1809 to 
1814 it was under the sway of Napoleon, and embraces the ancient duchies 
of Carniola and Carinthia, the so-called Littorale, Austrian Friaul, Austrian 
Istria, and the former Venetian Istria, (which two latter districts have, how- 
ever, no political connection with Germany). — The ancient duchy of Carni- 
ola (in German Krain) contains : Laibach or Laybach, its ancient capital, 
and at present the capital of the kingdom of Illyria, on a river of the same 
name, south-westward and 190 miles distant from Vienna, with remarkable 
cathedral, important inland trade, and 19,000 inhabitants. Neustadtl, a town 
on the Gurk river, with 1,600 inhabitants. Adelsberg, a market-town south- 
westward and 24 miles distant from Laibach, with important horse-marts, 
1,800 inhabitants, and is noted for the remarkable caves in the neighboring 
rocks. — The ancient duchy of Carinthia (in German Kdrnthen) contains: 
Klagenfurt, its ancient capital, near the lake of the same name, 43 miles 
north-north-west of Laibach, has 13,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
white lead and other manufactures, for its ancient castle, and several remark- 
able churches. The neighboring very ancient castle of Tanzenberg is re- 
markable as the birth-place of Emperor Maximilian I. St. Veit, a town on 
the Glan river, northward and 9 miles distant from Klagenfurt, has 2,000 in- 



512 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — The German Provinces of Littorale, Friaul, etc. 

habitants, and is noted for its horse-marts and considerable trade in iron and 
hardware. Villach, a town on the Drave, westward and 24 miles distant 
from Klagenfurt, with iron works, considerable trade in mining products, 
and 3,200 inhabitants. The neighboring village of Bleiberg is famed for its 
important lead mines. The so-called Littorale contains : Trieste (in Ger- 
man Triest), next to Hamburg the chief commercial city in Germany, in some 
respects rivalling Bremen, on the Adriatic Sea, south-westward and 240 miles 
distant from Vienna, has 16,000 inhabitants, and is noted not only for its ex- 
tensive commerce, but also for its manufactures and several architectural 
monuments. The neighboring village of Prosecco is renowned for its wines. 
Aquileja, a town near the Adriatic Sea, about half-way between Trieste and 
Venice, has at present only 1,800 inhabitants, but was in the days of the 
ancient Romans a celebrated city with 100,000 inhabitants, when in 452 of 
the Christian era it was almost totally destroyed by the Huns under Attila. — 
Austrian Friaul (see page 31) contains : Gorz (in Italian Gorizia), a city on 
the Isonzo river, 24 miles north -north-west of Trieste, with remarkable 
mountain castle, and cathedral, various manufactures, and 9,600 inhabitants. 
Gradisca, a fortified town on the Isonzo, with remarkable mountain castle, 
and 1,000 inhabitants. Idbja, a mining town in a mountainous district, north- 
eastward and 28 miles distant from Trieste, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is 
universally noted for its quicksilver mines. — The Austrian and former Vene- 
tian Istria (which, as has already been noticed, do not belong politically to 
the German provinces) contain : Mitterburg (in Italian Pisino), a town to- 
wards the centre of the Istrian peninsula, south-eastward and 40 miles dis- 
tant from Trieste, with remarkable ancient mountain castle, vine culture, and 
2,700 inhabitants. Capodistria, ancient capital of Venetian Istria, on the 
Adriatic Sea, southward and 9 miles distant from Trieste, with magnificent 
cathedral, noted manufactures, considerable commerce, and 1,000 inhabitants. 
Isola, a market-town on the sea, has 3,800 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
wines. Pola, a maritime town, southward and 72 miles distant from Trieste, 
has 1,200 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 9th cen- 
tury) and Roman antiquities. Pola was anciently a station of the Roman 
navy. Rovigno, a city on the Adriatic, with considerable commerce, and 
11,000 inhabitants. Pirano, a city on the Adriatic, westward and 1 miles 
distant from Capodistria, is noted for its salt-works, and has 8,600 inhabi- 
tants. Lussin Piccolo, a maritime town on the isle of Osero, is noted for its 
commerce, and has 8,600 inhabitants. 



AUSTRIA. 513 



The German Province of Tyrol. 



4. The princely Earldom of Tyrol (11,140 square miles, and 900,000 in- 
habitants), a thorough mountainous country, between Switzerland and Up- 
per Austria (see above), and between Bavaria and Italy, is crossed by 
branches of the Alps, and by the rivers Inn, Adige and Eisack. Tyrol 
came in the 6 th century under the sway of the Bavarian dukes, and in a 
later period under that of the native dukes of Meran, and of the independent 
or sovereign bishops of Brixen and Trent. When in 1248 the male line of 
the duke of Meran became extinct, the earls of Tyrol became possessed of 
their dominions, and in 1365 the latter were inherited by the dukes of Aus- 
tria. The named independent bishoprics were secularized in 1803, and sub- 
jected to the sovereignty of Austria. In 1805 Tyrol was ceded to Bavaria, 
but in 1814 restored to Austria. It contains: Innspruck, its capital, on the 
Inn river, 60 miles south-south-west of Munich, and north-eastward and 
170 miles distant from Milan, with considerable inland trade, a university 
(see above), and 14,000 inhabitants, is famed for its numerous remarkable 
ancient public edifices, among which ranks first the imperial castle, once the 
residence of the sovereigns of Tyrol. The neighboring town of Hall (with 
5,000 inhabitants) is noted for its salt-works. Schwatz, a market-town on 
the Inn, north-eastward and 14 miles distant from Innspruck, has 4,700 in- 
habitants, and is noted for its iron and copper mines. Kuf stein, a town on 
the Inn, with 1,100 inhabitants, is noted for its fortress. Botzen (in Italian 
Bolzano), the emporium of Tyrol, on the Eisack river, with linen and silk 
manufactures, noted annual fairs, and 8,600 inhabitants. Tramin, a market- 
town, with 1,400 inhabitants, is noted for its wines. Meran, a town on the 
Adige, 48 miles south-south-west of Innspruck, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is 
much resorted to as a watering-place, and was anciently the residence of the 
dukes of Meran (see above). The neighboring castle of Tyrol was the an- 
cestral seat of the earls of this name (see above). Roveredo (in German 
Rovereith), a city near the Adige, north-westward and *72 miles distant from 
Venice, has 8,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its silk manufactures, and 
considerable trade. — Trent (in German Trient), formerly the capital of a 
sovereign bishopric of the same name (see above), on the Adige and near 
the Italian frontier, with 15,000 inhabitants, an extensive Gothic castle (for- 
merly the residence of the sovereign bishop), remarkable churches (among 
which that where the noted council in the period from 1545 to 1563 was 
held), important manufactures, and considerable trade. — Brixen (in Italian 
Bressanone), formerly the capital of a sovereign bishopric of the same name 



514 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria.— The German Provinces of Tyrol and Bohemia. 



(see back), on the Eisack river, 42 miles south-south-east of Innspruck, with 
handsome cathedral, mineral waters, and 3,500 inhabitants. — The dominions 
of Voralberg (which were acquired by Austria since the 14th century, but 
had politically nothing in common with the earldom of Tyrol) contain: Bre- 
genz, a town on the lake of Constance, opposite the city of Constance, with 
notable branches of industry, and 3,000 inhabitants. Feldkirch (in Italian 
Campo di San Pietro), a town southward and 18 miles distant from Bregenz, 
with considerable inland trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. Hohenembs, a market- 
town, with 2,200 inhabitants. 

5. The Kingdom of Bohemia (20,096£ square miles, and 4,600,000 inhabi- 
tants), forming the most northern and north-western part of the Austrian 
empire. It has derived its name from a Celtic tribe that in 589 before the 
Christian era immigrated here from Gaul. In the 6th century of the Chris- 
tian era the Celtic inhabitants of the country were subdued, and since gradu- 
ally removed by Slavonian tribes who had emigrated from the present Cro- 
atia, headed by a chief named Czech, which name was subsequently adopted 
by -the Slavonian inhabitants of Bohemia. The latter was in a later period 
ruled by native dukes, whose ancestor was Primizl, but became extinct in 
1306 with "Wenceslaus III, grandson of King Ottocar II. (see History of 
Germany, page 301). Bohemia had meanwhile become a constituent part 
of the German empire (since the 9th, or rather since the 10th century), and 
in 1061 been raised to the dignity of a kingdom. After the death of Wen- 
ceslaus III., the Bohemians elected princes from the house of Luxemburg 
their kings, and since 1440 for the most part princes from the house of Haps- 
burg or Austria, until in 154*7 Ferdinand of Austria (subsequently German 
emperor) became hereditary king of Bohemia. The kingdom contains : Prague 
(in German Prag), its capital, on the Moldau river, 80 miles south- south-east 
of Dresden, and north-Avestward and 160 miles distant from Vienna, is forti- 
fied, and has 114,000 inhabitants, and is one of the most important trading 
and manufacturing cities in the Austrian empire, and highly renowned for its 
magnificent public and private buildings, its literary and scientific institu- 
tions (about its university see above), and its wealth. The most remarkable 
among the public edifices are the royal castle, styled Hradschin, containing 
440 saloons and other splendidly furnished rooms, — the cathedral (reared in 
the middle of the 14th century, and containing among others the remains of 
the holy John of Nepomuk in a coffin of pure silver, 5,000 marks in weight), 
— the ancient Gothic city-hall, etc. Wischehrad, a town in the neighborhood 



AUSTRIA. 515 



The Province of Bohemia. 



of Prague, has 2,000 inhabitants, and was anciently renowned for its strong 
mountain castle, which in 1420 was destroyed by the Hussites. Kollin, a 
town on the Elbe, eastward and 36 miles distant from Prague, with cotton 
manufactures, iron-works, and 6,500 inhabitants, is remarkable for a battle on 
the 18th June, 1*15*1,110. which the Prussians were defeated. Jankau, or Jan- 
kowitz, a market-town south-eastward and 32 miles distant from Prague, 
with only 500 inhabitants, but remarkable in history for the victory gained 
by the Swedes on the 24th February, 1645. JBeraun, a town south-west- 
ward and 18 miles distant from Prague, with noted potteries, cotton manu- 
factures, and 2,600 inhabitants. The neighboring mountain castle of Carl- 
stein, reared in 1348, is highly remarkable. Pur glitz, or Bur glitz, is likewise 
a remarkable mountain castle, and was reared in 1110. Pilsen, a city at the 
junction of several little rivers, 60 miles west-south-west of Prague, with a 
magnificent church, noted manufactures, considerable inland trade, important 
coal and iron mines, and 10,000 inhabitants. The town of Tepl (south-west- 
ward and 66 miles distant from Teplitz, with 2,000 inhabitants) is noted for 
its ancient and wealthy Premonstrant abbey, and for the neighboring water- 
ing-place of Marienbacl. The town of Ellbogen, on the Eger river, 80 miles 
west-north-west of Prague, is noted for its porcelain, and has 2,500 inhabi- 
tants. In its neighborhood is situated the long since as a watering-place re- 
nowned town of Carlsbad, with 3,700 inhabitants, and numerous manufac- 
tures. Eger, a city on the river of the same name, and near the Bavarian 
frontier, north-westward and 54 miles distant from Pilsen, with numerous 
and important manufactures, and 10,000 inhabitants. The house where Wal- 
lenstein was murdered on the 25th February, 1634, is still extant. Near 
Eger is the noted watering-place of Franzensbrunnen. The mining town of 
Joachimsthal (14 miles north-north-east of Ellbogen, with various manufac- 
tures, and 4,750 inhabitants) was formerly noted for its silver mines. Leit- 
meritz, a town romantically situated on the Elbe, 40 miles north-north-west 
of Prague, with remarkable cathedral, important manufactures, considerable 
corn trade, vine culture, and 4,100 inhabitants. Teplitz, or Tbplitz, a town 
romantically situated in a valley, southward and 34 miles distant from Dres- 
den, and 50 miles north-north-west of Prague, is highly renowned and much 
resorted to as a watering-place, and has 3,500 inhabitants. Tetschen, a town 
near the Saxon frontier, carries on a considerable trade, and has 1,600 inhabi- 
tants. Melnik, a town on the Elbe, northward and 24 miles distant from 
Prague, is noted for its wines, and has 1,750 inhabitants. Munchengratz, a 



516 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — The German Provinces of Bohemia and Moravia. 

town on the Little Iser river, north-eastward and 40 miles distant from 
Prague, with a remarkable palace, a church with the sepulchre of Wallen- 
stein, cotton manufactures, and 3,000 inhabitants. Heichstadt, a market- 
town northward and 48 miles distant from Prague, has 2,000 inhabitants, and 
was until 1832 the capital of a dependent duchy of young Napoleon, who 
died in that year. Reichenberg, one of the most important manufacturing 
towns in Bohemia, north-eastward and 60 miles distant from Prague, is noted 
especially for its cloth, linen, hosieries, and cotton goods, and has 12,000 in- 
habitants. Friedland, a town on the Wittich river, 72 miles north-north-east 
of Prague, has 3,600 inhabitants, and was anciently the capital of a duchy 
belonging to Wallenstein. Koniggratz, a fortified city on the Elbe, 70 miles 
east-north-east of Prague, with scientific institutions, manufactures, and 8,000 
inhabitants. Chrudim, a town on the Chrudimka, 64 miles east-south-east of 
Prague, has 6,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its horse-marts. Kuttenberg, 
a mining town, 40 miles east-south-east of Prague, has 10,000 inhabitants, and 
is noted for its silver mines. Budweis, a town on the Moldau river, with cloth 
manufactures, rather considerable trade, and 8,200 inhabitants. 

6. The Margraviate of Moravia, and Austrian Silesia (total area : 10,607 
square miles; total population: 2,310,000 inhabitants), situated between Bo- 
hemia and Hungary. Moravia (8,616 square miles, and 1,833,200 inhabi- 
tants) was in the 8th century a powerful kingdom, which, beside the present 
margraviate, comprised also considerable parts of Hungaria and Austria 
proper. About the year 871 King Swatopluk or Zwentibold reigned and re- 
sided in "Welehrad (at present a Cistercian monastery, 44 miles south-south- 
east of Olmutz). During the reign of his son, Swatobog, or since the year 
908, the kingdom became mostly a prey of the Hungarians, Poles, and Ger- 
mans, and of the present margraviate the duke of Bohemia became pos- 
sessed. In 11C2 Emperor Frederic I. conferred the title of a margraviate 
upon the country, which since the year 1293 has constantly been united with 
Bohemia. It is at present noted for its important manufactures, and con- 
tains : Bruenn, its capital, on the Schwarzawa river, northward and 64 
miles distant from Vienna, and south-eastward and 120 miles distant from 
Prague, has 42,000 inhabitants, and is famed for its cloth and leather manu- 
factures, its considerable inland trade, its cathedral and Gothic St. James' 
church, and its citadel named Spielberg. Eastward and 14 miles distant 
from Brunn is situated the town of Austerlitz (with a magnificent palace of 
the prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg, and 3,300 inhabitants), historically noted for 



AUSTRIA. 51? 



The German Provinces of Moravia and Austrian Silesia. 



the battle on the 2d December, 1805. Eisgrub, a market-town, half-way be- 
tween Briinn and Vienna, has 2,200 inhabitants, and is famed for the palace 
and one of the finest parks and gardens in Europe, belonging to the prince of 
Liechtenstein. Nikolsburg, a town in a fertile district, and near the frontier 
of Austria proper, has 8,750 inhabitants, who carry on a considerable trade, 
and is noted for a stately palace of the prince of Dietrichstein. Olmuetz, 
formerly the capital of Moravia, on the March river, 42 miles north-north- 
east of Briinn, has 18,300 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, and noted for the 
magnificent palace of the archbishop of Olmiitz, for several highly remark- 
able churches, and for its cattle-marts. Znaym, a town on the Thaya, 48 
miles north-north-west of Vienna, with ancient castle, once the residence of 
the margraves of Moravia, cloth manufactures, vine culture, and 6,400 inhab- 
itants. Iglau, a city near the frontier of Bohemia, with a remarkable Gothic 
church, noted cloth manufactures, considerable trade, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
Kremsier, a town southward and 18 miles distant from Olmiitz, with a costly 
palace of the archbishop of Olmtitz, and 6,400 inhabitants. Neu-TiUchein 
(eastward and 35 miles distant from Olmtitz, with cloth and other manufac- 
tures, considerable trade, and 7,500 inhabitants), and Fulnek (with cloth and 
other woollen manufactures, and 3,900 inhabitants), towns situated in a fer- 
tile grazing district, named Kuhlandchen (literally, Little Cow-land). — Aus- 
trian Silesia (1,991 square miles, and 476,800 inhabitants), which is nothing 
else but a Silesian section retained by Austria according to the treaties of 
peace concluded with Prussia in 1742, 1745 and 1763, contains : Teschen, the 
capital of a dependent principality belonging to the Austrian archduke 
Charles, at the northern foot of the Beskides (see page 5), south-eastward 
and 120 miles distant from Breslau, and 72 miles east-north-east of Olmiitz, 
with notable manufactures, considerable trade, and 7,600 inhabitants. Trop- 
pau, the capital of a dependent principality belonging to the prince of Liech- 
tenstein (see page 350), on the Oppa river, north-westward and 38 miles 
distant from Teschen, with a Gothic church and several other architectural 
monuments, cloth and linen manufactures, and 14,000 inhabitants. Jae- 
gerndorf, the capital of a dependent principality, which likewise belongs 
to the prince of Liechtenstein, north-westward and 12 miles distant from 
Troppau, with cloth and linen manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Zuch- 
mantel, a town with various manufactures, and 3,200 inhabitants. Freiwal- 
dau, a town in a mountainous district, south-westward and 48 miles distant 
from Oppeln (in Prussian Silesia), with woollen manufactures, and 2,500 in- 



518 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — Galicia and Lodomeria. 

habitants. In its neighborhood is situated the village of Grafenberg, re- 
nowned as a watering-place. 

1. The Duchies of Auschwitz and Zator (1,491 square miles, and 365,000 
inhabitants), situated between Teschen and Cracow. Since the year 11*79 
they formed a constituent part of Silesia, but were in the latter half of the 
15th century ceded to Poland. In 1112 Austria became possessed of them, 
together with Galicia. They contain : Auschwitz, the capital of the duchy 
of the same name, on the Vistula, westward and 32 miles distant from Cra- 
cow, with 2,400 inhabitants. Biala, a town on the river of the same name, 
with cloth manufactures, and 4,400 inhabitants. Wadowice, a town with 
2,800 inhabitants. Zator, the capital of the duchy of the same name, with 
1,800 inhabitants. Andrichau, a town with cloth manufactures, and 3,000 
inhabitants. 



n.— THE KINGDOM OF GALICIA. 

Area: 32,908 square miles. 
Population : 4,950,000 inhabitants. 

It is officially styled the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria 
(as for the reason see below), and was primitively a constituent 
part of Russia, at which period it was named Red Russia. In 
the year 1019-1054 it was ruled by Jaroslav I., son of the Rus- 
sian grand duke Wladimir the Great ; his sons divided it, and 
thus one part of it was since called Halicz or Galicia, and the 
other Wladimir or Lodomeria. Since the year 1084 and the lat- 
ter half of the 13th century, the kings of Hungary became pos- 
sessed of the present kingdom of G-alicia. but in 1390 it was 
wrested from them by the Poles, who retained it until 1772, when 
the first partition of Poland took place and Galicia was ceded to 
Austria. When in 1795 Poland was divided for the third time, 



AtTSTRIA. 519 

The Province of Galicia. 



Austria became possessed, besides other Polish districts, of the 
city of Cracoiv, which, however, from the period 1815 to 1846 
was a republic (at the extent of 447 square miles, with nearly 
150,000 inhabitants) ; but in the last-named year, having contin- 
ually been a central seat of rebellion, and thus endangering the 
peace and order in the neighboring states, Austria took posses- 
sion of it again, and it now forms one of the circles, into which 
the kingdom of Galicia is divided. The latter contains : 

Lemberg, its capital, on a branch of the Bug river, eastward and 190 
miles distant from Cracow, and north-eastward and 386 miles distant from 
Vienna, has 15,000 inhabitants (among them more than 20,000 Jews), is in 
general well built, and noted for its university (see before, page 505) and its 
considerable inland trade. Cracow (see above), a city on the Vistula, west- 
ward and 190 miles distant from Lemberg, south-eastward and 156 miles 
distant from Breslau, and 166 miles south-south-west of Warsaw, has 45,000 
inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade, and is highly renowned for its 
many architectural monuments, especially for its churches and extensive 
castle, anciently the residence of the Polish king for a long while. In 1343 
a university was founded here, which in 1843 was frequented by 149 stu- 
dents. Bochnia, a town near the Raba river, 24 miles east-south-east of Cra- 
cow, with rock-salt mines (wrought since the year 1251), and 6,300 inhabi- 
tants. But far more renowned for its rock-salt mines (wrought since the 
year 1250) is the town of Wieliczka, at 5 miles distance from Cracow, with 
1,000 inhabitants. The annual produce of these mines is upon an average 
about 100,000 quintals salt. Podgorze, a town on the Vistula, opposite Cra- 
cow, with considerable trade, and 2,200 inhabitants. Tarnow, a town on the 
Biala river, with remarkable ancient church, linen manufactures, and 6,500 
inhabitants. DuJcla, a town near the Hungarian frontier, with considerable 
trade in Hungarian wines, and 2,500 inhabitants. Jaroslaw, a town on the 
San river, with noted cloth manufactures, and 9,000 inhabitants. Brody, the 
emporium of Galicia, near the Russian frontier, 58 miles east-north-east of 
Lemberg, has 25,000 inhabitants (five sixths of them are Jews), and is not 
only noted for its important inland trade to Russia, Poland and Turkey, but 
also for its variety of manufactures. Tarnopol, a city on the Sereth river, 
86 miles east-south-east of Lemberg, is noted for its important horse-marts, 



520 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria. — Galicia and Hungary. 



and has 14,000 inhabitants. — The Bukowina, administratively belonging to 
the kingdom of Galicia, was since 1482 a constituent part of Moldavia, but 
was in 1774 conquered by Russia, and then ceded to Austria. It has an ex- 
tent of 4,047 square miles, with 350,000 inhabitants, and contains : Czerno- 
witz, its ancient capital, near the Pruth river, south-eastward and 172 miles 
distant from Lemberg, with considerable trade, and 11,500 inhabitants. Se- 
reth, a town noted for its horse-marts, has 4,200 inhabitants. Suczawa, a 
town with various manufactures, rather considerable trade, and 6,500 inhabi- 
tants, was anciently the capital of Moldavia, and had in the 14th century not 
less than 16,000 dwelling-houses. 



III.— THE KINGDOM OF HUNGARY. 

Area: 88,267 square miles. 
Population : 11,017,600 inhabitants. 

Referring to our remarks above, page 508, it needs only to 
be noticed here, that what is styled kingdom of Hungary, com- 
prises Hungary proper (officially styled Provincial Hungary), 
Croatia and Slavonia. That the two latter constituent parts 
bear the title of kingdoms, makes no difference, as this title has 
only a historical meaning. More than 5 millions of the above- 
stated population belong to the Slavonic tribe (see pages 18 and 
19), about 4 millions are Magyars (see page 19), and the re- 
mainder consists chiefly of Germans (immigrated here since the 
12th century). It deserves to be noticed that the Latin lan- 
guage is very much in use among nearly all classes of society. 
About the natural features of the country see page 502. The 
immense forest of Bakonya (having 55 miles in length and from 
9 to 24 miles in width) extends between Comorn and the lake 



AUSTRIA. 521 



Provincial Hungary. 



of Balaton. Not unlike the prairies in the western part of the 
United States are the so-called Puszten, or extensive pasture- 
grounds, especially in Lower Hungary. Of the number of horses, 
sheep, etc., stated page 503, 5 million heads of black cattle, 1 mil- 
lion horses and 17 million sheep were in the kingdom of Hun- 
gary, where moreover in the named year (1842) 23,400,000 quar- 
ters of grain, and 394.418,600 gallons of wine were produced. 
Nothing is known of the early history of Hungary until the 
time of the Romans. The latter, who conquered the country, 
called part of Upper Hungary (including Transylvania) Dacia, 
and the remainder Pannonia. The native population consisted 
chiefly of Jazyges and Pannoni. At the end of the 3d century 
of the Christian era, the Vandals (see page 24) took possession 
of Pannonia (while Dacia came soon after under the sway of the 
Huns), in the next century the Groths (see pages 18 and 23), 
and after them the Avares (see page 29), who maintained them- 
selves here for several centuries, till t'hey by degrees melted 
away among the surrounding Slavonic tribes. It was chiefly the 
latter tribes who occupied Pannonia and Dacia, when suddenly 
towards the end of the 9th century (in 889) a people, until then 
entirely unknown in Europe, appeared in that quarter. This 
people were the Magyars, a Tartar tribe, who, by the Petschene- 
gri (another Tartar tribe), had been forced to leave their primi- 
tive home in Jugria, on the eastern side of the Ural river, and 
in the neighborhood of the Caspian lake. As a Nomadic nation, 
they had with them their families, horses and cattle, wandering 
along the banks of the Volga and Don rivers, and then along the 
northern coast of the Black Sea, from one pasture-ground to the 
other, till they at last directed their attention towards the fertile 
countries skirting the Danube. They were then ruled by seven 
chieftains or dukes, and numbered at that time 260.000 armed 
horsemen, who were bold warriors, though armed only with bows 



522 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria.— The History of Hungary. 



and arrows. To make it short, soon after they had entered Pan- 
nonia, they conquered it, and made since plundering incursions 
into Italy, and especially into Germany (see page 299). Here 
they were called Huns, because, by their atrocities, they called to 
remembrance the ancient Huns, who under Attila devastated so 
many countries of Europe in the 5th century. Since that time 
the names Hungarians and Hungary, applied to the Magyars 
and their country, have come into use. In the latter half of the 
10th century Christianity began to take root among the Magyars, 
and at the same time they became acquainted with agriculture, 
or at least applied themselves to it with more inclination than be- 
fore, and in this way they gradually left off their former Nomadic 
habits. When they had entered Pannonia the chief among their 
dukes was Arpad, whose descendants became in a later period the 
only rulers of the country. The most renowned of them was 
duke Stephen, who in the year 1000 assumed the royal title, and 
may be considered as the founder of the political and adminis- 
trative organization and institutions of Hungary. He conquered 
Transylvania, checked the nobles in their pretensions and en- 
croachments, and reigned with energy and justice. Unfortu- 
nately one of his successors, Andrew II, engaged himself in a 
crusade (in 1217), and during his long stay in Palestine the no- 
bility and clergy in Hungary took advantage of this opportunity 
to extend their rights and privileges, and after his return he saw 
himself contrived to acquiesce in their encroachments. Thus in 
1222 that above (page 505) mentioned aristocratic constitution 
was framed which has since limited the power of the Hungarian 
kings and reduced it to almost nothing, only tending to invest the 
nobles and prelates (who in general are likewise nobles by birth) 
with the actual power. In the year 1301 the race of the Arpa- 
dians (or descendants of the above-named Duke Arpad) became 
extinct, and Hungary was since for about two hundred years 



AUSTRIA. 523 



The History of Hungary. 



ruled (with one single exception) by kings of foreign princely 
families. By treaties concluded in the years 1463 and 1506 be- 
tween the Hungarians and Austria, the hereditary right of succes- 
sion in Hungary was insured to the House of Uapsburg, in male 
and female lines. The first Hungarian king of this house was 
Ferdinand Z, subsequently emperor of Germany ; he was suc- 
ceeded by his son Maximilian, and in this way the house of Haps- 
burg or Austria has reigned in Hungary uninterruptedly for 
more than three centuries. That in Hungary the various 
branches of husbandry and industry, as well as the general means 
of education, are in a backward state, has already been alluded to 
in the preceding statements concerning the Austrian empire. In- 
stead of that, they would long since have been in the same flour- 
ishing state as in the German and Italian provinces, had not the 
Hungarian aristocracy incessantly counteracted the benevolent 
design of the Austrian government in favor of the lower classes, 
that were, until recent times, kept in bondage and treated with 
the utmost contempt by those aristocrats. According to authen- 
tic statements of the year 1843, Hungary numbered not less 
than 275,600 nobles, thus having 3-£ nobles to a square mile ! (In 
Transylvania, where the majority of the population consists of 
Germans, this proportion is less, there being at that time only 
28,000 nobles ; yet this body is numerous enough too.) For more 
than six hundred years they have enjoyed the most substantial 
privileges, and only when the last revolution was at work, re- 
nounced them by words and letters on the paper. Now, we leave 
it entirely to our readers to judge for themselves by these facts, whe- 
ther it would appear probable that, in case the last revolution had 
proved successful, a Hungarian Republic would have both been 
established and permanently rested on the same principles as 
the republic of the United States ? We have neither any pred- 
ilection nor antipathy in political matters, but as a historian we 



624 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — Provincial Hungary. 

are under the obligation to state the facts as they actually are, 
and not as the one or other political party would like to have 
them. — We shall describe first Provincial Hungary (or Hungary 
proper), and then Croatia and Slavonia. 

1. Provincial Hungary (80,940 square miles, and 10,133,400 inhabitants), 
on the north separated from Galicia by the Carpathian Mountains, on the 
east bordering upon Transylvania, and on the west upon the German Prov- 
inces, while on the south it is separated from Turkey by Croatia, Slavonia, 
and the Military Frontier. In common life the western half of the country is 
called Loioer Hungary, and the eastern, more mountainous half, Upper Hun- 
gary. Officially, Lower Hungary is divided into two circles (styled on 
this side, and on the other side of the Danube), and Upper Hungary also into 
two circles (styled on this side, and on the other side of the Theiss) ; and these 
circles are subdivided into 46 shires, or counties (24 in Lower Hungary, and 
22 in Upper Hungary ; Croatia and Slavonia are divided into 6 : thus there are 
52 counties in the kingdom of Hungary). Beside these counties, there are 4 
privileged districts in Provincial Hungary : Great and Little Rumania, the dis- 
trict of the Hajduks, and that of the Jazyges. Until 1784 Pressburg was the 
capital of Hungary proper, but since that time Buda has ranked as such. As 
however the Diets have since continued to be held at Pressburg, and for other 
reasons, we shall begin with this city in the following description. Lower 
Hungary contains : Pressburg (in Magyar language named Posony), a city 
on the Danube, below or eastward, and 34 miles distant from Vienna, has 
45,000 inhabitants, is remarkable for that the kings of Hungary have, in the 
last centuries, usually been crowned, and the diets held here, and is noted for 
several ancient churches and for its manufactures. Tyrnau, a city on a river 
of the same name, north-eastward and 28 miles distant from Pressburg, with 
several higher schools, manufactures, and 7,000 inhabitants. Galantha, a 
market-town near the Waag, eastward and 28 miles distant from Pressburg, 
with 1,900 inhabitants, and a palace of the prince of Esterhazy. Within the 
limits of the county of Pressburg is situated the isle of Schutt (54 miles long, 
and 34 miles wide), formed by two arms of the Danube, noted for the fertility 
of its soil, and containing the fortress of Komorn (see below), and the mar- 
ket-towns of Sommerein and Wajka, with respectively 3,000 and 1,100 in- 
habitants. Another neighboring isle of the same name is called the Little 



AUSTRIA. 525 



Provincial Hungary. 



Schiitt, to distinguish it frum the former. Ncuhausel, a market-town, with 
7,000 inhabitants, was anciently noted for its strong fortress. Trencsin, a 
city on the Waag, 72 miles north-north-east of Pressburg, with a notable an- 
cient mountain castle, and 3,600 inhabitants. Gran, the ecclesiastical metrop- 
olis of Hungary, on the Danube, 80 miles east-south-east of Pressburg, is noted 
for its handsome churches and other public edifices, and has 13,000 inhabi- 
tants. Kremnitz, a noted mining town, north-eastward and 96 miles distant 
from Pressburg, is highly famed for its silver, and especially gold mines, and 
has 6,000 inhabitants. Still more famed for its gold, but especially silver mines, 
is Schemnitz, the largest mining town in Hungary, southward and 16 miles 
distant from Kremnitz, with a mining academy, and (inclusive the suburbs) 
20,000 inhabitants. Buda (in German Ofen), with 45,000 inhabitants, and 
Pest, with 90,000 inhabitants, situated on opposite sides of the Danube 
(Buda on the right, and Pest on the left side), and joined together by a bridge, 
thus forming, as it were, one single city, yet with some difference, in so far as 
Pest is the emporium of the country, and at the same time noted for its nu- 
merous and important manufactures, while Buda is chiefly noted for its exten- 
sive royal castle and considerable vine culture. However, upon the whole ? 
the one city is as remarkable as the other. About the university see above, 
page 505. It may finally be noticed, that Pest and Buda are situated south- 
eastward and 150 miles distant from Vienna. The neighboring market- town 
of Vissegrad (in German Plintenburg), with 1,100 inhabitants, was, in the 
middle ages, renowned for its splendid and majestic royal castle. Waitzen 
(in Magyarian Vacz), a city on the Danube. 18 miles above Pest, with a mag- 
nificent cathedral, and 13,000 inhabitants, is noted for its cattle-marts and 
vine culture. Kolocsa, a city near the Danube, is the seat of an archbishop 
(who resides in an extensive ancient palace), and has 8,200 inhabitants. 
Kecskemet, or Ketskemet, is the largest market-town in Hungary, having 
40,000 inhabitants (who are largely engaged in various branches of hus- 
bandry), and is situated on the extensive heath of the same name (see above, 
page 502), south-eastward and 118 miles distant from Pest. Zombor, or Som- 
bor, a city near the Danube, southward and 125 miles distant from Pest and 
Buda, with considerable trade in corn, etc., and 22,500 inhabitants. Theresien- 
stadt, a city on an extensive and fertile plain (noted for its cattle), 110 miles 
south-south-east of Pest, with leather manufactures, considerable trade, and 
44,000 inhabitants. Neusatz, a city on the Danube, 160 miles south-south- 
east of Pest, and north-westward and 46 miles distant from Belgrad (in 



526 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — Provincial Hungary. 

Turkey), is the emporium in this quarter, and has 22,000 inhabitants. JBacs, 
or Batsch, a market-town, 34 miles north-north-west of Neusatz, carries on a 
considerable trade likewise, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Zentha, a market- 
town on the Theiss, 120 miles south-south-east of Pest, has 14,000 inhabitants", 
and is noted in history for the victory obtained here by the Austrians over the 
Turks, on the 11th September, 1696. Fiinfkirchen (literally, Five Churches; 
in Magyar ian named Pecs), a city near the Slavonian frontier, 112 miles 
south-south-west of Buda, is noted for its cathedral and other churches, for its 
leather manufactures, and considerable trade, and has 15,500 inhabitants. 
Mohacz, a market-town on the Danube, southward and 112 miles distant from 
Buda, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is remarkable in history for two battles, in 
1526 (when the Turks were victorious) and 1687 (when the Turks were de- 
feated). Bzigethvar, or Zigeth, a fortified market-town on the Almasch river, 
westward and 24 miles distant from Funf kirchen, has 4,000 inhabitants, and 
is noted for its gallant defence in 1566 against the Turks. Msenburg (in 
Magyarian Vasvar), a market-town, 90 miles south-south-east of Vienna, with 
2,600 inhabitants. Guns, a city on a river of the same name, with a remark- 
able castle of the prince of Esterhazy, vine culture, and 6,500 inhabitants. 
Papa, a market-town, south-eastward and 52 miles distant from Oedenburg, 
with a costly palace of the earl of Esterhazy, and 15,000 inhabitants. Vess- 
prim, a city on the Sed river, eastward and 54 miles distant from Eisenburg, 
with a remarkable mountain castle, considerable trade in corn and wine, and 
11,800 inhabitants. Stuhlweissenburg (in Magyarian Szekes-Fejervar), a city 
south-eastward and 120 miles distant from Vienna, and south-westward and 
36 miles distant from Buda, with many remarkable architectural monuments, 
various manufactures, and 22,000 inhabitants. Komorn, or Comorn, a strongly 
fortified city on the Danube, at its junction with the Waag, south-eastward and 
62 miles distant from Pressburg, 94 miles east south-east of Vienna, and east- 
ward and 25 miles distant from Raab, is situated on the eastern extremity of 
the isle of Schutt (see above), and has 19,500 inhabitants, who carry on a 
considerable trade in corn, wine, and timber. The neighboring market-town 
of Dotis (or Tata), with 12,500 inhabitants, is noted for a palace of the earl 
of Esterhazy, with handsome park, and for its woollen blankets. Raab, a for- 
tified city on the Raab river, south-eastward and 40 miles distant from Press- 
burg, is noted for its cathedral and other churches, its horse-marts and con- 
siderable corn trade, and has 18,500 inhabitants. Battle on the 14th June 
1809, between the French and Austrians. Oedenburg (in Magyarian Soprony), 



AUSTRIA. 521 



Provincial Hungary. 



a city near the lake of Neusiedl, 36 miles south-south-east of Vienna, with a 
collegiate church whose steeple is the highest in Hungary, considerable cat- 
tle trade, and 14,800 inhabitants. The neighboring town of Russt (with 
1,200 inhabitants) is noted for its wines. Near the lake of Neusiedl is situa- 
ted Esterhaz, the highly remarkable and magnificent ancestral castle of the 
princes and earls of Esterhazy. The chief of this family has annual revenues 
to the amount of 2,000,000 florins. Eisenstadt, a city southward and 24 
miles distant from Vienna, has 5,800 inhabitants, and is famed for the stately 
palace and handsome park and gardens of the prince of Esterhazy. In the 
neighboring princely mountain castle of Forchtenstein is the family treasure 
of the princes of Esterhazy, containing a vast number of precious stones, 
pearls, plate, etc. Wieselburg (in Magyarian Mosony), a market-town with 
considerable corn trade, and 3,300 inhabitants. — Upper Hungary contains: 
Kaschau, a city on the Hernad river, north-eastward and 150 miles distant 
from Pest, and south-westward and 164 miles distant from Lemberg, is con- 
sidered as the capital of Upper Hungary, carries on a very considerable 
trade, is noted for its extensive and remarkable cathedral, and has 14,500 in- 
habitants. Leutschau (in Magyarian Loose), a city on a little river of the same 
name, 1 24 miles north-north-east of Pest, with remarkable ancient city -hall and 
Gothic church, noted breweries of mead, and 5,800 inhabitants. KesmarJc, or 
Kasmark, a city near the Carpathes, with handsome city-hall, considerable 
trade, and 6,300 inhabitants. The neighboring mountain castle of Zipserhaics 
(in Magyarian Szepes- Var) is noted in history. Erlau (in Magyarian Eger), a 
city on the river Erlau, north-eastward and 64 miles distant from Pest, with 
a magnificent cathedral, vine culture, and 20,000 inhabitants. Szolnok, a mar- 
ket-town on the Theiss, with considerable salt depot, and 12,000 inhabitants. 
Eperies, a city on the Tarcza river, 156 miles north-north-east of Pest, is noted 
for its considerable trade, and has 9,000 inhabitants. Bartfeld, a city on the 
Tepel river, with noted mineral waters and baths, considerable trade in wine, 
corn, etc., and 6,100 inhabitants. Satorallya Ujhely, a market-town at the 
foot of the Hegyallya Hills (noted for vine culture), north-eastward and 146 
miles distant from Pest, with vine culture, and 7,000 inhabitants. Tokait, a 
market-town on the Theiss, at 60 miles distance from the Transylvanian 
frontier, and eastward and 240 miles distant from Vienna, is famed for its 
excellent wines, and has 4,700 inhabitants. The neighboring market-town 
of Tarczal (with 3,200 inhabitants) is likewise noted for its wines. The same 
is to be said of Bodrog-Keresstur, Maad, and Tally a, market-towns, with re- 



528 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria. — Provincial Hungary. 



spectively 2,000, 5,700, and 5,400 inhabitants. Munkacs, a market-town on 
the Latorcza river, with a remarkable mountain castle, and 5,800 inhabitants. 
Szigeth, a market-town on the Theiss, towards the frontiers of Transylvania 
and Galicia, with considerable salt depots, and 10,500 inhabitants. Nagy- 
Karoly, a market-town near the northern frontier of Transylvania, with 
stately palace and handsome park of the earl of Karoly, vine culture, and 
12,000 inhabitants. Szathmar-JSfemet, sl city on the Szamos, with several 
seminaries and other schools, potteries, vine culture, and 18,000 inhabitants. 
Nagy-Banya, a mining town near the northern frontier of Transylvania, with 
gold, silver, and lead mines, a mint, various branches of industry, and 5,300 
inhabitants. Gross Wardein (in Magyarian Nagy Varad, which means 
Great Wardein), a city on the river Sebes Koros, 28 miles from the Transyl- 
vanian frontier, and 146 miles east-south-east of Pest, with a stately palace 
of the bishop, who resides here, a highly remarkable cathedral, various 
branches of industry, hot mineral baths, and 17,000 inhabitants. Debreczin, 
next to Pest the largest city in Hungary, 38 miles north-north-west of 
Grosswardein, and eastward and 120 miles distant from Pest, is noted for 
its academy, for its soap, Zischmen, or Hungarian slippers, and for numerous 
other branches of national industry, and has 60,000 Magyarian inhabitants, 
The neighboring village of Hagos (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its 
weekly markets held there every Sunday, and at which vast numbers of hogs 
are sold. Szegedin, a fortified city on the Theiss, south-eastward and 100 miles 
distant from Pest, with numerous branches of national industry, considerable 
trade, and 35,000 inhabitants. Csongrad, Szentes, and Vasarhely, large 
market-towns, with respectively 15,500, 22,000, and 32,500 inhabitants. Arad, 
a fortified city on the Maros river, 64 miles east-south -south of Szegedin, and 
140 miles north-north-east of Belgrad, with considerable trade, and 18,000 in- 
habitants. — The south-eastern section of Provincial Hungary, comprising 3 coun- 
ties, is commonly named Banat, and contains : Temesvar, a strongly fortified 
city on a canal, south-eastward and 170 miles distant from Pest, is considered 
as the capital of Banat, carries on a considerable trade, and has 18,500 in- 
habitants. Nagy-Szent-Miklos (literally, Great St. Nicholas), a market-town 
with 15,000 inhabitants. — The above-mentioned 4 privileged districts are 
(with one exception) situated within the limits of Upper Hungary, have an 
aggregate area of 2,215 square miles, and a total population of 263,200 in- 
habitants. Those in Upper Hungary are : Great Rumania (whose capital is 
Kardsschag-Uj-Szallas, at the high-road between Pest and Debreczin, with 



AUSTRIA. 529 



Provincial Hungary, Croatio, and Slavonia, 



13,000 inhabitants) ; Jazygia, or the District of the Jazyges (whose capital is 
Jass-Bereny, eastward and 38 miles distant from Pest, with 1*7,300 inhabitants) 
and the Hajduks' District (whose capital is Bossormeny, northward and 9 
miles distant from Debreczin, with 16,000 inhabitants). Within the limits of 
Lower Hungary is situated Little Kumania (whose capital is Felegyhaza, at 
the high-road between Pest and Szegedin, with 16,000 inhabitants). 

2. The kingdom of Croatia (3,674 square miles, and 531,500 inhabitants), 
separated from Provincial Hungary by the Drave, and on the south-west bor- 
dering upon the Adriatic Sea. In the days of the ancient Romans Croatia 
was a constituent part of Pannonia ; in a later period it was under the sway 
of the Frankish kings, and since 867 under that of the Greek emperors, until 
since the close of the 10th century it was ruled by native kings, who became 
extinct towards the end of the 11th century, when Croatia was annexed to 
the kingdom of Hungary. It may still be noticed that the inhabitants of 
Croatia (with the exception of comparatively few Germans) belong thoroughly 
to the Slavonic tribe. The country contains : Agram, the capital of Croatia, 
and residence of the royal Banus or Governor of Croatia and Slavonia, near the 
Save, eastward and 120 miles distant from Trieste, southward and 175 miles 
distant from Vienna, and south-westward and 190 miles distant from Buda, is 
noted for its higher schools, its remarkable cathedral, and considerable trade, 
and has 20,000 inhabitants. Carlstadt, a city on the Kulpa river, is noted for 
its fortress and considerable trade, and has 7,000 inhabitants. Warasdin, a 
city on the Drave, with vine culture, and 9,500 inhabitants. Szissek, a mar- 
ket-town on the Drave, at its junction with the Kulpa, with considerable 
corn trade, and 1,000 inhabitants. Fiume, a commercial city on the Adriatic 
Sea, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Trieste, with notable manufac- 
tures, and 11,000 inhabitants. Buccari and Porto Re, maritime towns, with 
respectively 1,700 and 1,200 inhabitants. 

3. The kingdom of Slavonia (3,653 square miles, and 352,700 inhabitants), 
situated on the right bank of the Drave and Danube rivers, on the west bor- 
dering upon Croatia. In remote ages Slavonia underwent the same vicissi- 
tudes as Croatia, during the 9th and 10th centuries it formed a constituent 
part of the ancient kingdom of Servia, in 1079 it was annexed to the king- 
dom of Hungary; in 1526 it was ceded to Turkey, but in 1699 restored. 
Among the inhabitants are but few Magyars, all the rest being genuine Sla- 
vonians. The country contains : Essek, strongly fortified capital of Slavonia, 
on the Drave, and at the frontier of Provincial Hungary, eastward and 12 



530 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria.— Slavonia and Transylvania. 



miles distant from Agram, is especially noted for its fortress, but also for 
its considerable trade, and has 12,500 inhabitants. Verocze (with vine cul- 
ture, and 4,500 inhabitants), Csepin (with 2,000 inhabitants), Biahovar 
(with 2,100 inhabitants), Dalya (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Valpo (with 
2,400 inhabitants), market-towns. Posega, a city on a branch of the Save, 
48 miles west-south-west of Essek, is noted for its tobacco and wines, and 
has 5,000 inhabitants. Pacracz, a market-town, with vine culture, and 1,100 
inhabitants. Vuhovar and lllok, market-towns, with respectively 6,200 and 
3,500 inhabitants. 



IV.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF TRANSYLVANIA. 

Area : 21,269 square miles. 
Population: 2,212,400 inhabitants. 

Transylvania (in Maygarian Erdely, and in German Sieben- 
burgen) is situated between Provincial Hungary and Moldavia, 
bordering on the south upon Wallachia. Transylvania, anciently 
called Dacia, and in the 9th century conquered by the Magyars, 
was in 1002 by King Stephen I. of Hungary completely subdued 
and annexed to this kingdom. It was since ruled by Hungarian 
governors, who, however, made themselves independent in the 
beginning of the 16th century. John of Zapolya, Stephen JBaiory, 
Rakoczy, and Bethlen Gabor were the most noted of the indepen- 
dent princes of Transylvania. Finally, in 1687 Emperor Leo- 
pold I. subdued the country again, which in 1765 was by Maria 
Theresa raised to the dignity of a grand-duchy. The political 
constitution of Transylvania was framed on the same principles 
as that of the kingdom of Hungary, yet the Transylvanian Diet 
had for the rest nothing in common with the Hungarian. — Tran- 



AUSTRIA. 631 

The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania. 



sylvania is inhabited by three distinct tribes, or nations, viz., 
Magyars. Szekler (a kindred Magyarian tribe) and Germans (here, 
by way of eminence, named Saxons, though they are immigrated 
since the I Oth century from various parts of Germany), and for 
this reason is it divided into the Country of the Magyars, the 
Country of the Szekler. and the Country of the Saxons, which are 
subdivided into counties. 

1. The Country of the Magyars (inhabited by about 500,000 Magyars) con- 
tains : Klausenburg (in Magyarian Kolosvar), its capital, and likewise the 
capital of Transylvania, 220 miles east-south-east of Pest, and north-westward 
and 220 miles distant from Bukarest (iu Wallachia), has 20,000 inhabitants, 
and is noted for several churches, literary institutions, and for its horse-marts. 
Szamos Ujvar (in German Armenierstadt), with vine culture, trade in cattle, 
and 4,000 inhabitants. Carhburg, a fortified city on the Maros, southward and 
54 miles distant from Klausenburg, was anciently the capital of Transylva- 
nia and called Weissenburg, receiving its present from Emperor Charles VI. 
It is noted for its remarkable cathedral, its mint and wines, and has 12,000 
inhabitants. Gorgeny Szent Imreh, a market-town, with glass and paper 
manufactures, and the ruins of the ancient castle of Gorgeny, once the resi- 
dence of the Transylvanian princes. Other more or less remarkable market- 
towns are : Dees or Des (with 5,400 inhabitants), Thorda (with noted rock-salt 
mines, and 8,000 inhabitants), Nagy Enyed, in German Egidstadt (with 5,500 
inhabitants), Abrudbanya, in German Gross- Schlatten (with important gold 
mines, and 4,200 inhabitants), Zalathna, in German Klein- Schlatten (with 
productive gold and silver mines, and 5,000 inhabitants), Balasfalva, in Ger- 
man Blasendorf (with 4,000 inhabitants), Deva (with 3,800 inhabitants), 
Korosbanya (with 1,100 inhabitants), Somlyo (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
Krasna (with 1,000 inhabitants), Nagy Falu (with 1,600 inhabitants), Zilah, 
in German Waltenberg (with 9,000 inhabitants), Sibo (with 1,200 inhabi- 
tants), Tasnad, in German Trestenburg (with 3,200 inhabitants), Fagaras 
(with 5,000 inhabitants), and Kapnik-Banya (with important gold, silver, 
and lead mines). Maros Ujvar, a village on the Maros, is noted for its rock- 
salt mines, producing 500,000 quintals of salt annually. Vajda Hunyad, a 
market-town, noted for its important iron-works, and for its very ancient and 
historicallv renowned mountain castle. 



532 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria.— The Grand-Duchy of Transylvania. 



2. The Country of the SzeJcler, whose counties are styled Stools, contains: 
Maros Vasarhely (or Szekely Vasarhely), its capital, on the Maros, 54 miles 
east-south-east of Klausenburg, is noted for its literary institutions, its to- 
bacco and wines, and has 13,000 inhabitants. Udvarhely, a market-town, 
south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Maros Vasarhely, and northward 
and 54 miles distant from Kronstadt, with noted leather manufactures, trade 
in tobacco and honey, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable 
market-towns are : Szekely Keresstur (with 4,800 inhabitants), Sepsi Szent 
Gydrgy (with mineral waters), and Felvincz (remarkable for gypsies, who 
have permanently settled here, and are engaged in various branches of hus- 
bandry). 

3. The Country of the Saxons, whose counties are likewise styled Stools, 
contains : Hermann stadt, its capital, on the Zibia, 16 miles south-south-east 
of Klausenburg, is the finest city in Transylvania, noted for several Gothic 
and in other respects remarkable churches, literary institutions, for its im- 
portant manufactures and inland trade, and has 21,000 inhabitants. The 
neighboring village of Heltau is noted for its woollens and fruits, and has 
3,000 inhabitants. Schassburg, a city on the Great Kokel, north-eastward 
and 48 miles distant from Hermannstadt, with some manufactures, and 6,500 
inhabitants. Mediasch, or Medwisch, a city with vine culture, and 6,200 in- 
habitants. Muhlenbach, a city with some manufactures, vine culture, and 
5,000 inhabitants. Reps (with mineral waters, and 2,200 inhabitants). 
Lb&chkirch (with 1,000 inhabitants), Broos, or Sachsenstadt, in Magyarian 
Szassvaros (with 3,500 inhabitants), Marienburg, in Magyarian Foldvar 
(with 5,000 inhabitants), Zeiden (noted for its fine flax, has 3,600 inhabitants), 
and Rosenau or Rosnyo (with 3,800 inhabitants). Bistritz, a city on the 
river of the same name, northward and 120 miles distant from Hermann- 
stadt, is noted for its Gothic Lutheran church with high steeple, and for its 
corn trade, and has 6,600 inhabitants. Kronstadt, the chief manufacturing 
city and emporium of Transylvania, in a fertile valley, 76 miles east-south- 
east of Hermannstadt, and 100 miles north-north west of Bukarest (in Wal- 
lachia), is, beside its manufactures and extensive inland trade, noted for its 
handsome Gothic Lutheran church, its city-hall, etc., and has 30,000 inhab- 
itants. 



AUSTRIA. 533 



The Military Frontier. 



V.— THE MILITARY FRONTIER. 

Area: 15,208 square miles. 
Population : 1,248,700 inhabitants. 

It extends along the Turkish frontier from the Adriatic Sea 
eastward up to Moldavia, and consists of nothing else but parts 
of Croatia, Slavonia, Provincial Hungary and Transylvania, 
which since the end of the 17th, but chiefly in the course of the 
last and present centuries, have been organized on a thorough 
military footing. The object of this organization has been to se- 
cure the Austrian empire against the inroads of the Turks, and 
subsequently against the intrusion of the plague. All grown 
male inhabitants are bound to military service, in lieu of taxes, 
and in case of danger the whole frontier can, by means of signal 
poles, be alarmed within four hours. — The Military Frontier is 
divided into four principal sections. 

1. The Croatian Military Frontier contains : Carlopago, a maritime town 
on the Adriatic Sea, 62 miles south-south-east of Fiume, with 900 inhabitants. 
Gospich,a. market-town, with 1,100 inhabitants. Other more or less notable 
market-towns are : Ogulin (with 2,300 inhabitants), Glina(vrith 1,600 inhabi- 
tants), Dubitza (with 3,200 inhabitants), Jassenovacz (with 2,600 inhabitants), 
and St. Georgen (with 3,600 inhabitants). The maritime town of Zengg, on the 
Adriatic, with 3,100 inhabitants, is noted for its handsome cathedral. Petrinia 
and Kosstainicza towns with respectively 4,200 and 3,200 inhabitants. 

2. The Slavonian Military Frontier contains : Peterwardein, a city noted 
as one of the strongest fortresses of the Austrian empire, on the Danube (right 
bank), 212 miles east-south-east of Agram, with remarkable arsenal, and 
6,500 inhabitants. Carlowitz, a city on the Danube, 5 miles below Peter- 
wardein, is noted for its wines, fisheries, and inland trade, and has 6,400 in- 
habitants. In 1699 a treaty of peace with Turkey was concluded here. 
Semlin, a city on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, opposite the 



534 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria.— The Military Frontier and Kingdom of Dalmatia. 

Turkish city of Belgrad, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from Peterwar- 
dein, is the chief seat of the trade of Austria with Turkey, and has 10,500 
inhabitants. Mitrovicz, a market-town on the Save, with Roman antiquities, 
and 3,500 inhabitants. Old Pazna, a village noted for its agricultural pur- 
suits, has 4,000 inhabitants. Brood, a town on the Save, is noted for its for- 
tress, and has 2,400 inhabitants. New Gradisca, a market-town, with 1,600 
inhabitants. Old Gradisca, a fortified town on the Save, with 2,200 inhabi- 
tants. Tittel, a market-town on the Theiss, near its junction with the Danube, 
with 2,300 inhabitants. 

3. The Hungarian Military Frontier contains : Pancsova, a town near the 
Danube, and in the neighborhood of Semlin, with considerable trade, and 
10,000 inhabitants. Karansebes, a market-town, with vine culture, and 3,500 
inhabitants. Mehadia, a market-town in a beautiful valley, is from old highly 
famed as a watering place, and has 1,700 inhabitants. Old Orsova, a fortified 
market-town on the Danube, with 1,000 inhabitants. Fejer Templom (in Ger- 
man Weisskirchen), a town eastward and 40 miles distant from Pancsova, 
with vine culture, considerable trade, and 5,600 inhabitants. 

4. The Transylvanian Military Frontier contains : Kezdi Vasarhely, a mar- 
ket-town noted for its numerous branches of national industry, has 4,900 in- 
habitants. Gyergyb Szent Milclos, a market-town with considerable trade, 
and 5,100 inhabitants. Hatzeg, a market-town westward and 60 miles distant 
from Hermannstadt, with vine culture. Still is to be noticed the mountain 
pass known by the name of Rother Thurm (red tower), southward and 9 miles 
distant from Hermannstadt. 



VI— THE KINGDOM OF DALMATIA. 

Area : 4,952 square miles. 
Population : 421,300 inhabitants. 

Dalmatia is a strip of country, in some places only 2 or 3 
miles wide, extending along the Adriatic, on the north bordering 



AUSTRIA. 535 



History and Geographical Description of Dalmatia. 



upon the Croatian Military Frontier, and for the rest surrounded 
by Turkish territories. The inhabitants, mostly belonging to the 
Slavonic tribe, speak a peculiar idiom known by the name of 
lllyrian or Serbian language. In the days of the ancient Romans 
Dalmatia formed a constituent part of Illyricum, subsequently of 
the Eastern, or Greek Empire. In the 7th century Slavonian 
tribes settled here, ruled by native chieftains, who, in the 10th 
century acknowledged the sovereignty of the Republic of Venice, 
though in the period from 1357 to 1420 the country was under the 
sway of Hungary. Since the last-named period Venice was 
(with the exception of two short intervals) continually possessed 
of Dalmatia until 1797, when, in conformity to the treaty of 
Campo Formio, it was ceded to Austria^ that, in 1805, ceded it to 
Napoleon, and became possessed of it again in 1814. — Dalmatia 
is divided into 4 counties, styled circles, which are subdivided into 
26 districts. 

Zara, the fortified capital of Dalmatia, on the Adriatic, opposite the city 
of Ancona (in the States of the Church), 136 miles south-south-east of Trieste, 
is noted for its cathedral (reared in the 13th century), its literary institutions, 
and its cordials (known by the name of Rosoglio), and has 7,400 inhabitants. 
Pago, a town on an isle of the same name, with salt-works, vine culture, and 
2,600 inhabitants. Sebenico, sl maritime town, with the finest cathedral in 
Dalmatia, is moreover noted for its wines and cordials, and has 5,200 inhabi- 
tants. Knin, a market-town with a mountain castle, and 700 inhabitants. 
Spalato, or Spalatro, a city on the Adriatic, south-eastward and 70 miles 
distant from Zara, is noted for its remarkable Roman antiquities, mineral 
baths, commerce, etc., and has 9,000 inhabitants. Fort Opus, a market-town 
with 800 inhabitants, who are widely engaged in the exportation of leeches. 
Brazza, Lesina, and Lissa, islands near the coast, noted for their wines, figs, 
oranges, and other similar fruits. Cattaro, a fortified town at the south-east- 
ern extremity of Dalmatia, and on the Adriatic, with remarkable cathedral, 
noted leather manufactures, and 2,300 inhabitants. Ragusa, until 1807 the 
capital of a republic of the same name, on the Adriatic, north-westward and 
28 miles distant from Cattaro, is fortified, and noted for its cathedral and 



536 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Austria.— Dalraatia and Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice. 



other churches, its literary institutions, manufactures, ship-building, etc., and 
6,000 inhabitants. The republic of Ragusa originated in the 13th century, 
was since 1357 under the protection of Hungary, subsequently under that 
of Turkey, was in 1807 subjected by the French, and kept by them until 
1814, when Austria became possessed of it. 



VII— THE KINGDOM OF LOMBARDY AND VENICE. 

Area: 11,594 square miles. 
Population : 5,068,000 inhabitants. 

It comprises nearly the whole eastern half of Upper Italy (see 
page 103), on the west separated by the Ticino river from the 
continental part of Sardinia, and on the south separated by the 
Po river from Parma, Modena, and the States of the Church. 
The name of Lombardy, derived from the Lombards (see page 
28), has at present no actual political meaning, but is a general 
name adapted to the ancient duchies of Milan and Mantua, etc. 
Referring to the history of Europe, §§ 6, 7, 9 and 14, and to the 
history of Italy, page 102, with regard to historical particulars 
of Lombardy in general, we shall simply premise here, that the 
duchies of Milan and Mantua, and the principality of Castig- 
lione have already since respectively 1706, 1707 and 1773 be- 
longed to Austria, while former territories of Grisons (in Swit- 
zerland), and those of the ancient republic of Venice, have not 
before the year 1814 been permanently annexed to the Austrian 
empire. (About the historical particulars see below.) — The 
kingdom is divided into 2 governments, styled gubernia, those of 



AUSTRIA. 537 



Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 



Milan and Venice, and subdivided into 17 provinces, styled dele- 
gations. 

(a.) The government (gubernium) of Milan or of Lombardy comprises, be- 
side the above-mentioned duchies and principality of Milan, Mantua and 
Castiglione, former territories of the present Swiss canton of Grisons, viz., the 
dominions of Veltlin, Bormio, and Chiavenna, and part of the former territo- 
ries of the republic of Venice. — 1. The ancient duchy of Milan took existence 
in the beginning of the 14th century. The city of Milan had until then been 
formally under the sway of the German emperors, but actually been inde- 
pendent. A native nobleman, Matthew Visconti, in 1313 usurped authority 
in the city and its territory, was acknowledged as its ruler by Emperor 
Henry VII., and his grandson, John Galeazzo Visconti, was in 1395 by Empe- 
ror Wenceslaus raised to the dignity of duke. His daughter was married to 
the duke Louis of Orleans, hence the subsequent claims of France upon the 
duchy. About the middle of the 15th century the male line of the ducal 
house became extinct, and now the son-in-law of the last duke, Francis 
Sforza, was elected duke of Milan. But in the beginning of the 16th cen- 
tury King Francis I. of France raised claims upon the duchy, while Emperor 
Charles V. reclaimed it as an escheated fief of the German empire. After a 
long contest the emperor prevailed against Francis I., and in 1540 he in- 
vested his son Philip (subsequently king of Spain) with the duchy of Milan, 
which since formed a constituent part of Spain until 1706, when Austria took 
possession of it, while in 1714 it was formally ceded to this power (see page 
85). In 1797 Austria renounced it, after it having been transformed into a Cis- 
alpinian republic; since 1805 it formed the principal constituent part of the 
kingdom of Italy, and in 1815 it was restored to Austria. It contains: Mi- 
lan (in German Mailand, and in Italian Milano), its ancient capital, at present 
the capital of the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, on the Olona, and in a 
fertile and beautiful plain, between the Tessino and Adda rivers, northward 
and 80 miles distant from Genoa, and westward and 160 miles distant from 
Venice, had in 1845 a population of 205,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed 
for its numerous and splendid public buildings (of which the cathedral is one 
of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture, and adorned with about 4,000 
statues) and private palaces, for its valuable public libraries and literary in- 
stitutions, for its charities for the poor and sick, for its exceedingly important 
manufactures, and its considerable inland trade. The city was founded in 



638 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 

359 B. C. by the ancient Gauls, and has since that period been more than 
forty times besieged, more than twenty times taken, and four times destroyed 
(for the ]ast time in 1162) and rebuilt. The neighboring market-town of 
Rho is noted for its mineral waters and baths. Monza, a city on the Lam- 
bro, 9 miles north-east of Milan, with very ancient remarkable church, a 
splendid palace of the viceroy of Lombardy and Venice, silk and cotton man- 
ufactures, and 17,300 inhabitants. Marignano, a town on the Lambro, south- 
ward and 9 miles distant from Milan, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is noted in 
history for the battle on the 13th and 14th September, 1515, in which the 
Swiss were defeated by the French. Pavia, a city on the Ticino, south- 
ward and 18 miles distant from Milan, once the residence of the Lombardian 
kings (the last of them, King Desiderius, was in 774 taken prisoner here by 
Charlemagne), has 24,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see 
above, page 505) and other literary institutions, for its cathedral and other 
remarkable churches, and for its considerable trade. In 218 B. C. Hannibal 
defeated here the Romans; and in 1525 King Francis I. was taken prisoner 
by the troops of Charles V. in a neighboring park. Lodi, a city on the Adda 
(crossed here by a bridge noted as a central point in the battle on the 10th 
May, 1796), south-eastward and 18 miles distant from Milan, with numerous 
potteries and delf-ware manufactures, and 18,000 inhabitants. Codogno, a 
market-town eastward and 24 miles distant from Milan, has 8,400 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its cheese. Cremona, a city on the Po, south- 
eastward and 48 miles distant from Milan, has 28,000 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its magnificent Gothic cathedral, its literary institutions, charities 
for the poor and sick, and for its excellent violins. Casal Maggiore and P'tz- 
zighettone, towns with respectively 5,000 and 4,000 inhabitants. Como, a 
city on the lake of the same name, northward and 28 miles distant from Mi- 
lan, with beautiful and remarkable cathedral, numerous and important man- 
ufactures, and 17,000 inhabitants. The neighboring Villa d' Este was in the 
year 1816-18 the residence of the princess Carolina, consort to King George 
IV. of England. Varese, a town on the Olone, eastward and 12 miles distant 
from Como, with numerous palaces and villas, silk manufactures, and 8,500 
inhabitants. Lecco, a market-town on the lake of Como, with iron-works, 
and 2,200 inhabitants. Treviglio, a market-town on the Adda, is noted for 
its silks, and has 6,200 inhabitants. — 2. The ancient duchy of Mantua was 
since the year 1328 under the sway of princes from the house of Gonzaga, 
who in 1432 were by the German emperor Sigismund raised to the dignity 



AUSTRIA. 539 



Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 



of margraves, and by Emperor Charles V. to that of dukes. In the war of 
succession (see page 85) Duke Charles IV. of Mantua took up arms against 
the emperor, upon which he was outlawed for felony, while in 1707 Austria 
became possessed of this duchy and kept it since (with the exception of the 
period from 1796 to 1814). It contains: Mantua, its ancient capital, on a 
lake, 80 miles east-south-east of Milan, with a strong fortress, a remarkable 
palace, a beautiful cathedral, several literary institutions, important manu- 
factures, considerable trade, and 28,000 inhabitants Gonzaga, a market- 
town noted for the ancestral castle of the ancient dukes of Mantua, has 
13,500 inhabitants. Viadana, a market-town noted for its linens, with 14,000 
inhabitants. — 3. The ancient principality of Castiglione, which was under 
the sway of princes of the house of Gonzaga, until in 1773 Austria became 
possessed of it, contains : Castiglione, its ancient capital, at the Milan 
and Venice railroad, with 5,500 inhabitants. Solferino, a market-town, 
with 1,300 inhabitants. — 4. The former territories of Veltlin, Bormio, and 
Chiavenna (see above) were primitively under the sway of the bishop of 
Chur (see page 161), who in 1637 ceded them to the Swiss canton of Gri- 
sons, from which they were wrested by the rulers of the transitory Cis- 
alpinian republic (see above under the head of Milan), and subsequently 
annexed to the kingdom of Italy. In this way Austria became possessed of 
them in 1814. They contain : Sondrio, the former capital of Veltlin, on the 
Adda, 64 miles north-north-east of Milan, with 4,100 inhabitants. Tirano 
and Morbegno, market-towns, with respectively 2,800 and 2,300 inhabitants. 
Bormio, a market-town near the head of the Adda, 90 miles north-north-east 
of Milan, with 1,200 inhabitants. Chiavenna (in German Cleven), a town on 
the Maira, north-westward and 34 miles distant from Sondrio, with manufac- 
tures, considerable trade, and 3,200 inhabitants. In its neighborhood was 
situated the wealthy town of Plurs, which in 1618 was totally buried under 
the fragments of the adjacent Mount Conto. — 5. The former territories of 
the ancient republic of Venice (see forward), within the limits of this govern- 
ment, contain : Brescia, a city at the Milan and Venice railroad, eastward 
and 54 miles distant from Milan, and 110 miles west-north-west of Venice, 
has 28,000 inhabitants, and is highly famed for its manufactures of fire-arms, 
cutleries, etc., and is moreover noted for its architectural monuments, pal- 
aces, and literary institutions. Salo, a market-town on the Garda lake, is 
noted for its silk, and has 4,600 inhabitants. Desenzano, on the Garda lake, 
is noted for its excellent wines, and has 3,700 inhabitants. Other more or 



540 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — Lombardy and Venice ; History of Venice. 

less notable market-towns are: Montechiaro (with 6,600 inhabitants), Ohi- 
ari (with 9,000 inhabitants), Toscolano (with 2,400 inhabitants), Gargnano 
(with 3,400 inhabitants), Verola Nuova (with 4,000 inhabitants), Orzi JSfuovi 
(with 4,700 inhabitants), Pontevico (with 5,000 inhabitants), Bagolino (with 
3,700 inhabitants), Gardone (with 1,400 inhabitants), Castenedolo (with 4,500 
inhabitants), Lonato (with 6,000 inhabitants), Iseo (with 1,800 inhabitants), 
Lovere (with 4,100 inhabitants), Martinengo (with 3,000 inhabitants), Bre or 
Breno (with 2,000 inhabitants), and Romano (with 3,000 inhabitants). Ber- 
gamo, a city between the Serio and Brembo rivers, north-eastward and 34 
miles distant from Milan, has 32,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its annual 
fairs, considerable trade and manufactures, for several remarkable churches, 
literary institutions, etc. Crema, a city on the Serio, north-eastward and 9 
miles distant from Lodi, has 9,000 inhabitants, is noted for its wines and flax, 
and carries on a considerable trade. 

(6.) The government (gubernium) of Venice comprises nothing but former 
territories of the ancient Republic of Venice. Venice has derived its name 
from the ancient Venetes (see page 102), who had their chief seat on the 
Italian continent, but in 452 when the Huns under Attila invaded Italy, fled 
to the neighboring islands, settled there, and supported themselves by fishing, 
making salt, and subsequently by commerce. They were joined by other 
Italian tribes, their commerce flourished more and more, in 697 they elected 
their first duke, styled Doge, as head of their republic, which in 1172 was 
decidedly founded on aristocratic principles, and at that period Venice had 
already become one of the most powerful states. (Some interesting particu- 
lars about its commerce and manufactures are given in the History of Eu- 
rope.) Its wealth and power had attained the highest pitch, when suddenly 
the discovery of America and of the way to India by sea (see pages 56 and 
57) changed the state of things throughout Europe, and soon proved to be a 
hard blow to the commerce of Venice. Since the republic was more or less 
in a lingering condition, and at the first shock in 1797, the whole artificial 
political structure was overturned. At that period its territories, comprising 
those on the Italian continent (including the greatest part of Istria), the 
Ionian Islands, and Dalmatia, had an extent of 13,312 square miles, with a 
population of 3,000,000 inhabitants. The public revenue was estimated at 
5h millions Venetian ducats (about $3,000,000), and the navy consisted in 
1783 of 24 ships of the line and 56 other vessels. It cannot be left unnoticed, 
that history knows of but few instances where a more despotic governmental 



AUSTRIA. 541 



Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice, 



system was established, than in the mock republic of Venice, whose actual 
rulers were exclusively chosen from a body of 1,500 nobles. According to 
the terms of the treaty of peace concluded at Campo Formio in 179*7, Austria 
became possessed of the Italian territories of the republic ; in 1805 it ceded 
them to France, and in 1814 they were restored to Austria. We now 
describe : Venice (in Italian Venezia, and in German Venedig), ancient capital 
of the former republic, built upon 136 islands joined together by 450 bridges, 
at the head of the gulf of Venice, or Adriatic Sea, had in 1842 94,117 in- 
habitants, but in 1846, a population of 120,000 inhabitants (among them 
were only 6,380 persons considered as notoriously poor). There are few 
cities in the world that have so great a number of historically remarkable 
public and private edifices and buildings as Venice. St. Mark's cathedral, 
the ancient palace of the Doge, the naval depots, the Ponte Rialto, St. 
Mark's place, the Campanile, etc., are but few intimations of the numerous 
remarkable objects of this city, which is also still noted for its various 
important manufactures and commerce. The island of Murano is noted for 
its manufactures of looking-glasses. Chioggia, or Chiozza, a city on an island 
of the same name, with salt-works, and 25,500 inhabitants. Mestre, a mar- 
ket-town on the continent, with considerable trade, and 5,300 inhabitants. 
Padua, a city on the Bachiglione, and near the Brenta river, westward and 
24 miles distant from Venice, has 52,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its uni- 
versity (see above, page 505) and other remarkable literary institutions, its 
cathedral and other churches, its manufactures and annual fairs. Monselice, 
a market-town noted for its silk, quarries, and considerable trade, has 8,000 
inhabitants. Abbano (with 2,600 inhabitants), and Battaglia (with 2,700 inhab- 
itants), market-towns noted for their mineral waters and baths. JEste, a town 
on a canal, 14 miles south-south-west of Padua, is remarkable as the ances- 
tral place of the renowned house of Este (see pages 118 and 433), and has 9,000 
inhabitants. Montagnana, a town on the Fiumicello, is noted for its hemp, 
and has 8,700 inhabitants. Rovigo, a city on the Adigetto, a branch of the 
Adige, south-westward and 38 miles distant from Venice, with remarkable 
cathedral and several other handsome edifices, and 9,000 inhabitants. Adria, 
a city in the neighborhood of Rovigo, on a branch of the Po, 14 miles from 
the Adriatic Sea (whose name is derived from that of the city, which stood an- 
ciently close by the sea and was an emporium), with a remarkable museum, 
considerable trade in corn, cattle, etc., vine culture, and 10,400 inhabitants. 
Lendinara and Badia, market-towns, with respectively 5,000 and 3,600 in- 



542 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Austria. — Geographical Description of Lombardy and Venice. 

habitants. Verona, a strongly fortified city on the Adige, half-way between 
Milan and Venice, has 52,000 inhabitants, and is renowned for the vast num- 
ber of well-conserved remains of ancient Roman edifices (among which a 
vast amphitheatre having room for 22,000 spectators, and 1,331 feet in circuit), 
for its many literary institutions, scientific societies, for its important silk 
manufactures, annual fairs, etc. Legnago, a fortified town on the Adige, is 
noted for its rice, and has 10,000 inhabitants. Vicenza, a city on the Bacchi- 
glione, 42 miles west-north-west of Venice, with numerous magnificent public 
edifices, silk manufactures, trade in greens and cattle, and 33,500 inhabitants. 
Bassano, a city on the Brenta, north-westward and 38 miles distant from Ven- 
ice, with 25 churches and chapels, charities for the poor and sick, considerable 
trade in wine, silk, etc., and 13,000 inhabitants. Schio, a market- town, with 
6,700 inhabitants, is noted for its cloth manufactures. Treviso, a city at the 
high-road between Venice and Tyrol, northward and 18 miles distant from 
Venice, with several Gothic churches, a remarkable city-hall, a public library, 
botanic garden, etc., various and important manufactures, annual fairs, and 
20,000 inhabitants. Ceneda, a town with paper and leather manufactures, 
mineral waters, and 5,100 inhabitants. Serravalle and Castelfranco, market- 
towns, with respectively 4,800 and 4,000 inhabitants. Belluno, a city on the 
Piave, northward and 54 miles distant from Venice, with remarkable cathe- 
dral, timber trade, and 12,000 inhabitants. Feltre, a city near the frontier 
of Tyrol, with considerable trade in silk, wine, and olive oil, and 5,200 in- 
habitants. Cadore, a market-town on the Piave, is remarkable as the birth- 
place of the renowned painter, Titian, and has 1,600 inhabitants. Agordo, a 
market -town in the neighborhood of Belluno, with important copper mines, 
and 2,400 inhabitants. The market-town of Auronzo (with 3,100 inhabitants) 
is noted for its lead mines. — The former Venetian Friaul (see above) con- 
tains : Udine, its ancient capital, on the Roja, north-eastward and 64 miles 
distant from Venice, with a cathedral and 12 other churches, charities for the 
poor and sick, silk manufactures, and 23,000 inhabitants. South-westward 
and 5 miles distant from here is situated the village of Campo Formio, 
with a castle, where on the 17th October, 1797, the noted treaty of peace be- 
tween France and Austria was concluded. Palmanova, a strongly fortified 
town at the frontier of Illyria, with silk manufactures, and 2,800 inhabitants. 
Cividale, a town on the Natissone, with linen manufactures, dyeing in Turkish 
red, and 3,600 inhabitants. Sadie (with 4,200 inhabitants), Pordenone (with 
5,000 inhabitants), Latisana (with 3,200 inhabitants) and Tolmezzo (with 
1,200 inhabitants), market-towns. 



DENMARK. 

Area: 49,927 square miles. 
Population: 1,800,000 inhabitants. 

This kingdom comprises the continent and islands between the 
North and Baltic Seas to the north of the Lower Elbe and its 
mouth ; and beside them, the Faroe Isles and the island of Ice- 
land in the Atlantic Ocean. 

The continental part of the kingdom is on the north separated 
from Norway by the Skagerrack, and on the east from Sweden by 
the Cattegat (see page 9) ; while the Sound separates Zealand 
from Sweden, and the Great and Little Belt (see page 9) separate 
the two largest Danish islands from each other, and from the 
Danish peninsula. 

The above-stated area and population are distributed as fol- 
lows: 

Danish Islands, between the ) 

nii ■, -r, ix- o, f 5 > 005 square miles, and 780,000 inhabitants. 

Uattegat and Baltic Sea, ) 



Jutland, 


. 9,574 


« 


(( 


M 


570,000 


Sleswick, 


. 3,482 


M 


U 


(( 


370,000 


Iceland, 


. 30,716 


M 


« 


u 


70,500 


Faroe Isles, . 


. 1,150 


M 


(( 


« 


9,500 



Total, . . 49,927 " " " 1,800,000 " 

Adding 3,738 square miles and 515,000 inhabitants, as the area 
and population of the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg (see 
page 413), the whole kingdom would have a total area of 53,665 



544 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark — its Natural Features and Products. 

square miles, and a total population of 2,315,000 inhabitants. 
(About the Danish Colonies, see below ) 

The established church in Denmark is the Lutheran, under the 
church authority of 9 Lutheran bishops, viz., of Zealand, Funen, 
Laaland-Falster, Aalborg, Wiborg, Aarhuus, Ribe, Alsen-Aeroe, 
and Iceland, beside 2 superintendents-general (in Sleswick and 
Holstein), &c, &c. The number of parishes (including Iceland 
and the Faroe Isles) is 2,156. On the 1st February, 1840, there 
were throughout the whole kingdom only 1,693 Calvinists and 
2,233 Roman Catholics, beside 7,809 Jews. The Lutheran bishops 
in Denmark have about the same authority as the bishops of the 
Church of England. 

As the natural features of Iceland and the Faroe Isles have a 
peculiar character, entirely differing from those of the main body 
of the kingdom, the following particulars have reference only to 
the latter. 

The surface of the country is generally level, with the excep- 
tion of a range of low hills in the peninsula of Jutland, with the 
Rimmelsberg, only 536 feet in height. The coast of Jutland and 
the Danish Islands is indented with numerous bays, styled Fjords, 
the widest and most remarkable of which are the Lymfjord in 
Jutland, and the Isefjord in Zealand. 

The climate is moderate, and generally wholesome, and the 
soil is, upon the whole, exceedingly fertile in grain and pasturage. 
Com is raised in such quantities that the annual exports of it 
are very considerable. The rearing of cattle and horses is at the 
same high pitch of improvement as agriculture. The Danish 
breed of horses (about 700,000 in the kingdom) is widely famed 
for its excellence, and the same may be said of the breed of black 
cattle (more than 1,500,000 heads in aggregate number), 
especially in Jutland. There are about 2,000,000 sheep, but only 
part of them is of improved breed. Vast numbers of hogs and 



DENMARK. 545 



Commerce, Means of Education, Government. 



geese are both in the continental part and the islands. Beside 
coal on the island of Bornholm, the mineral kingdom yields in 
Denmark almost nothing but peat, which is generally the only 
fuel used here. 

While the manufactures consist chiefly of lace and gloves (for 
which Denmark is noted), of linen and canvass, and are almost 
restricted to Copenhagen, and a few other cities, the commerce is the 
more considerable and important, and extends to the West Indies 
and Africa, as well as to India and China. The chief exports 
are corn, black cattle, horses, beef, butter, etc. About 10,000 
horses are annually exported. Of fattened black cattle were in 
1845 exported 45,000 heads of oxen, calves and cows (in 1840 
alone 33,500 heads of fattened oxen) ; of salted and smoked beef 
250,000 quintals, of butter 190,000 quintals, of sheep, etc. 14,000 
heads, of tuool 16,000 quintals, of hogs, 17,000 heads, of bacon 
60,000 quintals, and of wax about 80,000 pounds. 

The means of education are in the best order, and very properly 
arranged. In 1837 the number of common schools was 3,644, of 
which 697 were in Sleswick, and the remainder in Jutland and 
the Danish Islands. (About the schools in Holstein and Lauen- 
burg, see page 413.) Beside these there are 6 seminaries for 
school-teachers (the seventh is in Holstein), 27 gymnasiums (4 of 
them in Sleswick), 26 Latin schools, 7 academies and similar other 
higher schools, and one university at Copenhagen (founded in 
1479, and in 1841 frequented by 1,260 students: its valuable 
library contains more than 100,000 volumes). About the univer- 
sity at Kiel, see page 413. 

The government was since 1660, and until recent times, an un- 
limited monarchy, that, however, had not the slightest infusion of 
that despotic character, as, for instance, the French government 
had in the days of Louis XIV. Since the years 1831 and 34 
the government was somewhat limited by provincial diets with 



546 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark — its Finances, Army and Navy. 

deliberative votes. But at present the government is limited by 
a constitution like those in other states of western Europe. 

According to the budget of 1846, the 'public revenue amounted 
to 16,008,440 Biksbankdollars (or about $8,000,000, one Riks- 
bankdollar being equal to 50 cents), and the public expenditure to 
15,935,053 Biksbankdollars. The toll levied at Elsinore (on 
the Sound) from the ships which trade to the Baltic Sea, yields 
annually about 2 million of Riksbankdollars (or $1,000,000). 
The public debt, amounting to 1 14.194,806 Biksbankdollars on the 
1st January 1843, was in the following year reduced to 112,619,- 
154 by paying off; but has of course since, on account of the in- 
tervening unprovoked war (see page 415), considerably increased 
again. 

The regular army consisted hitherto of 24,823 men on the 
peace footing, and of about 100,000 men on the war footing. 
Formerly Denmark ranked high as a maritime power, and even 
so late as in 1806 her navy consisted of 20 ships of the line, 16 
frigates, 9 brigs, 1 schooner, and 52 gun-boats and other vessels. 
Most of them were first rate men-of-war, and England had long 
since had an appetite for them. Suddenly in 1807, towards fall, 
the English surprised Denmark — which was then in peace with Eng- 
land, and all other nations — with a powerful fleet and a numerous 
body of landing troops, bombarded Copenhagen in a frightful 
manner during four days (on which occasion 2,400 dwelling- 
houses were destroyed, 400 of which totally, and more than 2,000 
inoffensive inhabitants killed), and simultaneously attacked the 
Danish navy with far superior forces ; and in this way indeed 
they finally succeeded in enforcing a capitulation, signed on the 
7th September. By this convention it was stipulated, that Den- 
mark should surrender her navy to the English, who on their 
part engaged themselves, according to the terms of this very 
convention, to restore it immediately after the conclusion of a gen- 



DENMARK. 547 



History of Denmark. 



eral peace. The latter was concluded in 1814 — but England did 
never restore even so much as a single ship to Denmark ! In 
1846 the Danish navy consisted of 7 ships of the line, 8 frigates, 
5 sloops of war, 4 brigs, 4 steamers, and 6 other vessels, beside 
82 gun-boats, etc. 

There are the following Orders of honor : 1. The Elephant 
order, instituted so early as in the 12th century, and renewed in 
1458 : it is only conferred on princes or persons of the highest 
rank; 2. the Danebrog order, instituted in 1219, renewed in 1671, 
and in 4 classes. 

History. — That Denmark "was, simultaneously with the other Scandinavian 
countries, chiefly peopled by the German tribe of the Goths, about the be- 
ginning of the Christian era, has already been alluded to, page 30. Accord- 
ing to an ancient tale, a Gothic prince, named Odin, or Oden, founded in 
that period the city of Odense on the island of Funen, and then removing to 
Sweden, left behind his son Skjold, who thus became the ancestor of the first 
reigning dynasty in Denmark, known in history by the name of Skjoldunger. 
The country was, however, for centuries not under the sway of one single 
king, but under that of several princes, until in 883 Gorm, surnamed the Old, 
united the different parts into one kingdom. That prior to this period the 
war against Charlemagne had in 810 been terminated by a treaty of peace, 
which fixed the Eider river as the boundary between the Danes and Franks 
(subsequently between Denmark and the German empire), has already been 
related, page 31. During the reign of Harald VIII. (931-981), surnamed 
Blaatand (literally, blue tooth), Christianity began to be propagated in Den- 
mark ; and his grandsou Sven conquered both England (see page 32) and 
Norway. With King Hardicanute, who died in 1041, the male line of the 
Skjoldunger became extinct, and now Sven Estridson (son of Hardicanute's 
aunt) succeeded, but also his male line became extinct in 1376 with king 
Waldemar III. Waldemar's only daughter Margareth (married to a Nor- 
wegian prince) succeeded him, and was in 1397 acknowledged as reigning 
queen of all the Scandinavian kingdoms (Denmark, Norway and Sweden). 
With Christoph III, who died in 1448, the race of the Skjoldunger became 
totally extinct, and now the earl Christian of Oldenburg was elected heredi- 
tary king of Denmark, and mounted the Danish throne as Christian 1. (see 



548 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark — its History and Geographical Divisions. 

History of Holstein, page 414). He died in 1481, and had the following suc- 
cessors : John (1481-1513), Christian II. (1513-1523), Frederic I. (1523-1533), 
Christian III. (1533-1559), Frederic II. (1559-1588), Christian IV. (1588- 
1648), Frederic III. (1648-1670), Christian V. (1670-1699), Frederic IV. 
(1699-1730), Christian VI. (1730-1746), Frederic V. (1746-1766), Christian 
VII. (1766-1808), and Frederic VI. (1808-1839). That in 1807 Denmark was 
deprived of its navy by the English, has already been mentioned above, and 
that in 1813 Norway was wrested from the kingdom by Sweden, and that final- 
ly it was indemnified by the duchy of Laiienburg, has been related, page 419 ; 
while in the History of Holstein the real motives of the endeavors to wrest 
also the duchies of Sleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg from Denmark have 
been fully explained. (The historical particulars with reference to Sleswick 
see below.) King Frederic VI. died in 1839, and was succeeded by his cousin, 
Christian VIII., who died on the 20th January, 1848, and was succeeded by 
his son, the present reigning king, Frederic VII., born on the 6th October, 
1808. In case the latter should die childless, his next heir and successor 
would be his uncle, Prince Ferdinand (born in 1792, and childless), and then 
first would succeed Prince Frederic of Hesse-Cassel, whose mother Char- 
lotte is sister of Ferdinand and the late king Christian VIII. 

The Danish Islands (between the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea) 
and Jutland are divided in 19 bailiwicks, while Sleswick is di- 
vided into 15 bailiwicks and 40 privileged districts, cities, etc., 
in a similar manner as Holstein. In the following topography 
we shall, however, describe these islands separately, under one 
single head, only denoting the capitals of the bailiwicks with 
this sign, -j-. The remaining sections to be described separately 
are : Jutland, Sleswick, Faroe Isles, and Iceland. 



DENMARK. 549 



Danish Islands. 



1.— THE DANISH ISLANDS. 

Area : 5,005 square miles. 
Population: 780,000 inhabitants. 

Under this head are comprised the islands situated between 
the Cattegat and the Baltic Sea, excluding the few that are con- 
sidered as annexed to Jutland and Sleswick. 

The island of Zealand (2,705 square miles, and 480,000 inhabitants), sep- 
arated from Sweden by the Sound, contains : -[-Copenhagen (in Danish 
Kjobenhavn), the capital of the kingdom, and royal residence, is one of the 
most handsome cities in Europe, and strongly fortified, has 125,000 inhabi- 
tants, a good harbor, with considerable commerce, and is noted for many 
magnificent public edifices and private buildings, its university (see above), 
and numerous literary institutions, its vast docks, and important manufac- 
tures. The royal library here (which is not to be confounded with that of 
the university) contains 500,000 volumes. Roeskilde, a city near the south- 
ern extremity of the above-mentioned Isefjord, 18 miles west-south-west of 
Copenhagen, has at present only 3,000 inhabitants, but was in the middle 
ages a renowned city (see page 38). The neighboring village of Leire was 
until the 10th century the principal seat of the Danish kings. Kjbge, a 
maritime town on the eastern coast, with remarkable town-hall, and 2,000 
inhabitants. -j-Hillerod, a town on an inland lake, 21 miles north-north- 
west of Copenhagen, has 1,800 inhabitants, and is noted for the extensive 
and magnificent Gothic castle of Frederiksborg, in whose church the kings 
of Denmark use to be crowned. The neighboring royal palace of Fredens- 
borg is remarkable in history for the treaty of peace concluded here on the 
3d July, 1720. Frederikswerk, a market-town on a lake, with 600 inhabi- 
tants, is noted for its cannon-foundry. Helsingor, or Flsenor, a maritime 
town on the Sound, with some manufactures, commerce, sea-bathing, and 7,500 
inhabitants. The toll levied here (see above), yielded in 1840 the sum of 
2,140,360 Riksbankdollars ($1,070,180), paid by 17,332 passing vessels. 
Close by the town is situated the citadel or fortified castle of Jironborg, 
reared in the years 1577-85. The Sound is here only 4,443 yards wide. 



550 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark — Islands of Zealand, Burnholm, etc. 

The neighboring village of Hellebeck is noted for a fire-arms manufactory. 
Frederikssund, a maritime town, with corn trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
-J-Holbek, a maritime town, on the Isefjord, with corn trade, and 2,000 in- 
habitants. Nykjobing, a town on the Isefjord, with some woollen manufac- 
tures, and 950 inhabitants. Kallundborg, a rather important maritime and 
commercial town at the northern entrance into the Great Belt, with 2,500 in- 
habitants. -|-Soroe, a town on a lake of the same name, south-westward and 
44 miles distant from Copenhagen, has 900 inhabitants, and is renowned for its 
academy founded in 1586. The neighboring and very ancient town of Ring- 
sled (with 1,100 inhabitants) is noted for its church, reared in the 11th cen- 
tury, and containing the sepulchres of Waldemar I. and II. and other Skjol- 
dungers. Slagelse, Skjelskoer, and Korsoer, more or less remarkable towns 
near and on the Great Belt, with respectively 3,000, 1,000, and 1,500 inhabi- 
tants. -4-Praestoe, a maritime town in the southern extremity of Zealand, 
48 miles south-south-west of Copenhagen, with fine harbor, corn trade, and 
900 inhabitants. Nestved, a town romantically situated, is noted for its con- 
siderable corn trade, and has 2,500 inhabitants. Wordingborg, a maritime 
town, with 1,600 inhabitants. 

The island of Samsoe, between Jutland and Zealand, at the northern en- 
trance into the Great Belt, has a very fertile soil, 42 square miles in extent, 
and 6,000 inhabitants, who are noted for their wealth. 

The island of M6en (85 square miles, and 12,000 inhabitants), near the 
south-eastern extremity of Zealand, is noted for the fertility of its soil in 
grain, for its valuable forests, and the wealth of its population, and contains 
the town of Stege, with light-house, and 1,700 inhabitants. 

The island of Bornholm (213 square miles, and 25,000 inhabitants), situa- 
ted in the Baltic Sea, about 80 miles east of Zealand, is in the interior fertile 
in grazing, and noted for its quarries and coal mines. It contains : Rbnne, or 
Rottum, a town on the western coast, with rather considerable commerce, 
manufactures of clocks, numerous potteries, and 4,000 inhabitants. Aakirke, 
a town towards the centre of the island, has 800 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its fine church, built of black marble. Other towns are Nexbe (with 1,600 
inhabitants), Svanike (with 1,100 inhabitants), and Hasle (with 100 inhabi- 
tants). 

The island o/Laaland (458 square miles, and 50,000 inhabitants), situated 
between Zealand and Holstein, has an exceedingly fertile soil, and its in- 
habitants are generally very wealthy. It contains : Mariboe, a town on a 



DENMARK. 551 



Islands of Falster, Funen, Thaasinge, and Langeland. 



lake of the same name, with corn trade, and 1,400 inhabitants, Nysted (with 
1,000 inhabitants), Saxkjobing (with 800 inhabitants), Nakskop (with 2,500 
inhabitants), and Rodby (with 1,200 inhabitants), maritime towns more or 
less noted for their corn trade. 

The island of Falster (181 square miles, and 21,000 inhabitants), situated 
close by the former island, is noted for its fruits, and in common life fre- 
quently called the orchard of Denmark. Much grain is likewise raised, and 
the forests here yield valuable timber. It contains : Nykfobing, a very ancient 
chief town, on the Strait that separates the island from Laaland, with ancient 
royal palace, considerable corn trade, and 2,000 inhabitants. Stubbekjobing, 
a town with 900 inhabitants. 

The island of Funen (in Danish Fyen) is next to Zealand the largest 
among the Danish islands, having an area of 1,193 square miles, with 
154,000 inhabitants, and is by the Great Belt separated from Zealand, and 
by the Little Belt from Sleswick. The soil is thoroughly very fertile in 
grain and grazing, and not only the black cattle, but especially the horses 
are of excellent breed. There are more than 100 large and wealthy estates 
on the island, which contains : -}~Odense, its very ancient capital (see above 
in the History of Denmark), on a bay of the northern coast, with 9,000 in- 
habitants, 4 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral reared in the 
11th century), a notable public library, manufactures of gloves, and consider- 
able commerce. Middelfart, a town on the Little Belt, is noted for its fishe- 
ries, and has 1,600 inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable maritime towns 
are : Bogense (with 1,250 inhabitants), Assens (with 2,500 inhabitants), and 
Kjerteminde (with 1,700 inhabitants). -{"Svendborg, a maritime and com- 
mercial town on the southern coast, with remarkable church, various manu- 
factures, and 3,800 inhabitants. JVyborg, a fortified town and naval station, 
on the Great Belt, with remarkable town-hall, rather considerable commerce, 
and 3,200 inhabitants. Faaborg, a maritime and commercial town on the 
southern coast, with 1,800 inhabitants. 

The island of Taasinge (also named Thorsenge), only 28 square miles in 
extent, with 4,000 inhabitants, is situated near the southern coast of Funen, 
and contains : Troeyise, a market-town with harbor, some commerce, and 
800 inhabitants. 

The island of Langeland (106 square miles, and 16,000 inhabitants), near 
the former island, is noted fo the fertility of its soil, and contains Rudkjobing, 
a town with corn trade, and 1,800 inhabitants. 



552 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark — Province of Jutland. 



2.— JUTLAND. 

Area : 9,574 square miles. 
Population : 570,000 inhabitants. 

It comprises the northern and larger part of the Danish pen- 
insula, and is by the Danes themselves generally called North 
Jutland^ to distinguish it from Sleswick, for which they have re- 
tained its primitive name of South Jutland. — Jutland contains : 

-[-Aalborg, a city on the Lymfjord (see above), southward and 58 miles 
distant from the promontory of Skagen (the northern extremity of the pen- 
insula), with 8,000 inhabitants, considerable commerce, leather and other 
manufactures, a noted nautical school, and an ancient royal castle, remarkable 
in history, by the name of Aalborghuus. The town of Nile, on the Lymfjord, 
with 1,500 inhabitants, is noted for its fisheries. -j-Hjorring, a town north- 
ward and 30 miles distant from Aalborg, with 1,200 inhabitants. Skagen, a 
town at the northern extremity of the peninsula, on the Skagerrack, with 
light-house (reared in 1151, and 64 feet high), and 1,500 inhabitants. Freder- 
ikshavn, a town on the Cattegat, is commonly called Fladstrand (which is the 
name of its citadel), and has 1,300 inhabitants. Saby, a town on the Catte- 
gat, with trade in chalk of very good description, and 850 inhabitants. Lasbe, 
an isle in the Cattegat, 46 square miles in extent, with 2,300 inhabitants, sub- 
sisting on fishing and agriculture. -["Thisted, a town on the Lymfjord, west- 
ward and 46 miles distant from Aalborg, with corn trade, and 1,750 inhabi- 
tants. The island of Mors, in the Lymfjord, has 128 square miles in extent, 
and 12,000 inhabitants, with a generally fertile soil, and containing the town 
of Nykjbbing, with 1,150 inhabitants. -f~"W" IBORG > a city south-westward and 
44 miles distant from Aalborg, is one of the most ancient cities in the king- 
dom, and in some respects considered as the capital of Jutland, is noted for 
its remarkable cathedral (reared in 1169) and its annual fairs, and has 3,700 
inhabitants. Skive, a very ancient town, on the Lymfjord, with considerable 
cattle-marts, fisherv and corn trade, and 1,100 inhabitants. 4-Aarhuus, a 



DENMARK 553 



Geographical Description of Jutland. 



city on the Cattegat, south-eastward and 38 miles distant from "Wiborg, with 
3 churches (among them the remarkable cathedral reared in 1201), a tract 
society and foreign missions, important manufactures, and annual fairs, con- 
siderable commerce, and 7,000 inhabitants. -{"Renders, a city on the river 
Guden, northward and 18 miles distant from Aarhuus, with various and im- 
portant branches of industry, commerce, and 6,500 inhabitants. Manager 
(with 900 inhabitants), Hobro (with 800 inhabitants), Grenaa (with 1,500 in- 
habitants), and Ebeltoft (with 950 inhabitants), more or less remarkable 
towns. The isle of Anholt, in the Cattegat, has only 21 square miles in ex- 
tent, and 200 inhabitants, who subsist entirely on fishing. -J-Skanderborg, a 
town romantically situated on a lake of the same name, south-westward and 
16 miles distant from Aarhuus, with 1,000 inhabitants. Horsens, a maritime 
town on a bay, and in a fertile district, with considerable commerce, iron- 
works, and 5,000 inhabitants. -{-Ribe (in German Ripen), a city in a dis- 
trict surrounded by territories of Sleswick, at 5 miles distance from the North 
Sea, south-westward and 86 miles distant from Aarhuus, with a very remark- 
able cathedral, considerable trade in corn, fattened black cattle, etc., and 
3,000 inhabitants. Warde, a town with noted potteries, corn trade, and 1,500 
inhabitants. Fanbe and Antrum are isles in the North Sea, near the coast 
of Jutland, with respectively 2,500 and 450 inhabitants. -j-Ringkjobing, a 
maritime town on the North Sea, westward and 85 miles distant from 
Aarhuus, with manufactures, considerable commerce, and 1,600 inhabitants. 
Holstebro and Lemvig, towns with respectively 1,250 and 800 inhabitants. 
-J-Weile, a maritime town on a bay of the Cattegat, 44 miles south-south- 
west of Aarhuus, with remarkable ancient town-hall, considerable commerce, 
and 2,500 inhabitants. Fridericia, a fortified city at the northern entrance 
into the Little Belt, south-eastward and 12 miles distant from Weile, with 2 
Lutheran churches, 1 Reformist church, and 1 Roman Catholic chapel, cloth 
manufactures, cattle-marts, and 4,500 inhabitants. Fridericia was founded in 
1615 by King Frederic III., and named after him. Kolding, a town on a 
bay of the same name, which separates it from Sleswick, with 2 churches, 
cloth manufactures, corn and cattle trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. 

24 



554 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark. — Duchv of Sleswick. 



3.— THE DUCHY OF SLESWICK. 

Area : 3,482 square miles. 
Population : 370,000 inhabitants. 

Sleswick (in German Schleswig) comprises the southern part 
of the Danish peninsula, and has, for this reason, from old been 
called South Jutland (until the middle of the 15th century this 
name was exclusively, and since at least very frequently used). 
On the south it is separated from Holstein by the Eider river 
(see above, and page 31). It has ever formed a constituent 
part of the Danish kingdom, and would never have been named 
Sleswick or South Jutland, nor styled a duchy, but, together 
with the northern part of the peninsula, would have been com- 
prised under the general name of Jutland, if the political blunder 
had not been made by Queen Margaret, in 1386 (see History 
of Denmark), of investing the earl Gerhard VI. of Holstein with 
South Jutland. She had not the slightest political ground to 
make any difference between North and South Jutland, which 
latter could quite as well as other provinces of the kingdom have 
been ruled by a governor appointed by the Danish government, 
and did not want an extraordinary ruler in the person of a vassal 
of the Danish crown, as Gerhard VI. now became. It was this 
earl, who, assuming the title of a duke of Sleswick, arbitrarily 
altered the name of South Jutland. When the male line of the 
earls of Schaumburg in Holstein became extinct, in 1459 (see 
History of Holstein), the duchy of Sleswick, as it now was styled, 
escheated, of course, to the Danish crown as a now vacant fee, while 
this same crown became possessed of the earldom (since 1474 
duchy) of Holstein by way of inheritance. This occurred during 



DENMARK. 655 



History of Sleswick. 



the reign of Christian I., as we have seen in the History of 
Holstein ; and to this king was thus afforded the best opportunity 
not only to redress the blunder committed by Queen Margaret, 
but also to increase the actual power and authority of the reign- 
ing house of Denmark, by retaining the direct government of 
Holstein ; as for instance, King G-eorge I. of England and his 
successors did with regard to Hanover. But Christian I. and 
his successors were prepossessed with the then prevailing wrong 
principles of dividing territories among brothers of the reigning 
sovereign, instead of endowing them with appanages, as is now long 
since the custom. Thus, while Christian I. invested his second 
son, Frederic, with Sleswick and Holstein as fees of the Danish 
crown, his grandson Christian III. (see History of Denmark) in- 
vested with them partly his own son, John (who thus became the 
ancestor of the collateral line of Sonderburg), partly his brother 
Adolphus (the ancestor of the house of Holstein-Gottorp, men- 
tioned in the History of Holstein). The reigning sovereign had, 
however, retained some territories both in Sleswick and Holstein, 
and, as in the so-called northern war, between Sweden and Den- 
mark (Russia and Poland were likewise engaged in it), the dukes 
of Sleswick made common cause with the enemy of Denmark, 
and surrendered spontaneously the fortress of Tondern to the 
Swedes, thus committing an evident act of felony, and forfeiting 
their territories in the duchy (see page 36), these latter were, of 
course, withdrawn from them by the Danish crown, in 1713. In 
the treaty of peace concluded at Fredensborg on the 5th of July, 
1720, Sweden, England, and France recognized explicitly this act 
as a just one. Since that period (i. e. since 1713) Sleswick has 
ever continued to form an actual constituent part of the Danish 
kingdom, as it did primitively, and for centuries in the middle 
ages. The only mistake with regard to it has been, that Sleswick 
was by the Danish crown placed under one and the same provin- 



556 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Denmark.— Historical and Geographical Description of Sleswick. 



cial government with Holstein, this being the surest way to extend 
the plots generated in Holstein and Germany also to Sleswick. 
(About other historical particulars, see History of Holstein.) The 
soil of Sleswick is quite as rich and fertile as in Holstein, and 
like the latter country, Sleswick was, prior to the war with Den- 
mark, highly noted for its wealth and prosperity. Its adminis- 
trative division has already been noticed. It contains : 

Sleswick (in German Schleswig), its capital, on a bay of the Baltic Sea, 
(known by the name of Schlei), north-westward and 24 miles distant from 
Kiel, with 11,700 inhabitants, 3 churches (among them the remarkable St. 
Peter's church, reared in 1260), considerable fisheries, and the extensive and 
magnificent castle of Gottorp, once the residence of the dukes of Sleswick. 
The city of Sleswick was in the earlier period of the middle ages an empo- 
rium in this quarter. Flensburg, a noted commercial city, on a bay of the 
Baltic Sea, northward and 18 miles distant from the city of Sleswick, with 
important manufactures, and 15,700 inhabitants. Apenrade, a city on a 
bay of the Baltic Sea, northward and 16 miles distant from Flensburg, with 
a spacious harbor, considerable commerce (at least before the war with Den- 
mark), and 4,200 inhabitants. Hadersleben, the most northerly city of 
Sleswick, romantically situated on a bay of the Little Belt, northward and 
18 miles distant from Apenrade, with manufactures, commerce, and 6,400 
inhabitants. Tondern, a city on the Widaae, 7 miles from the North Sea, 
north-westward and 24 miles distant from Flensburg, has 3,000 inhabitants, 
and was until 1750 noted for its fortress. Husum, a maritime town on a 
bay of the North Sea, westward and 18 miles distant from Sleswick. with a 
remarkable ancient castle, and 4,200 inhabitants. Frederikstad, a maritime 
town on the Treene, at its junction with the Eider, has a spacious harbor, 
and 2,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its mustard. Tonning, a mari- 
time and commercial town on the Eider, 2 miles from the North Sea, with 
2,500 inhabitants. Garding, a town with corn and wool trade, and 1,500 
inhabitants. Eckernforde, a city on a bay of the Baltic Sea, 14 miles east- 
south-east of Sleswick, and north-westward and 15 miles distant from Kiel, 
with commerce, and 4,300 inhabitants. Frederiksort, a little fortress at the 
entrance of the bay of Kiel, northward and 7 miles distant from this city. 
Gravenstein, a market-town on the bay of Flensburg, with 500 inhabitants, 



DENMARK. 557 



Geographical Description of Sleswick. 



and a palace of the duke of Angustenburg. Aarbe, a fertile little island in 
the Little Belt, Lygumkloster, a market- town, northward and 9 miles dis- 
tant from Tondern, with noted cattle and horse-marts, and 1,400 inhabitants. 
Fohr, an island in the North Sea, near the coast of Sleswick, with 4,500 in- 
habitants, considerable fowling, and the market-town of Wyh, noted for sea- 
bathing. Numerous other isles in the neighborhood of Fohr are known by 
the general name of Halligen. Gluecksburg, a market-town near the bay 
of Flensburg, has 850 inhabitants, and is noted for its castle or palace, which 
was in the period of 1622-1178 the residence of the dukes of Holstein- 
Glucksburg. — The island of Alsen (128 square miles, and 22,000 inhabi- 
tants), situated in the Little Belt, and one of the most beautiful and fertile 
islands in the Baltic, contains: Sonderburg, its capital, on the strait that 
separates the island from continental Sleswick, with 3,500 inhabitants, a 
fine harbor, commerce, and an ancient castle, formerly the residence of the 
duke of Angustenburg. Norburg, a market-town, with 1,200 inhabitants. 
Augustenburg, a market-town, 5 miles east-north-east of Sonderburg, has 
800 inhabitants, and is noted for its stud and a magnificent palace, formerly 
the residence of the dukes of Holstein-Sonderburg-Angustenburg. — The 
island of Aeroe or Arrbe (32 square miles, and 9,500 inhabitants), situated 
at the southern entrance of the Little Belt, eastward and 9 miles distant 
from Alsen, is noted for its fowl, and contains the town of Aerbeskjbbing 
(with 1,600 inhabitants), and the market-town of Marstall (with 2,300 inhab- 
itants). — The island of Femern (64 square miles, and 9,000 inhabitants), sit- 
uated in the Baltic, opposite the coast of Holstein, with a rather sterile soil, 
containing the town of Burg (with 2,000 inhabitants), and the village of Pe- 
tersdorf (with 750 inhabitants), beside some other places. 



4.— THE FAROE ISLES. 

Area: 1,150 square miles. 
Population : 9,500 inhabitants. 



This group, consisting of 17 inhabited and 8 uninhabited isles, 
is situated in the Atlantic Ocean and in about the 60th degree 



558 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark. — Faroe Isles. 

of north latitude, west by south and 550 miles distant from 
Drontheim, in Norway. They are generally rocky, and, upon the 
whole, barren, yet the inhabited isles are here and there covered 
with mould fertile in grazing, and even in grain, that is raised 
here at a rather considerable amount. The climate of the 
isles is in general mild. Black cattle, sheep with coarse wool, 
and horses, are likewise reared ; yet the inhabitants subsist 
chiefly on fishing and catching of sea-fowl, vast numbers of which 
have their resort here. Knitted stockings and other woollen 
articles, eider-down, goose-feathers, salted mutton, tallow, etc., are 
largely exported from the isles. The inhabitants are of Norwe- 
gian origin, and King Harald Haarfager of Norway it was who, 
towards the end of the 9th century, took possession of the Faroe 
Isles, at the same time when the Hebrides and Shetland Islands 
were conquered. Since the year 1026 the Faroe Isles formed 
permanently a constituent part of the kingdom of Norway and 
consequently of the kingdom of Denmark, which retained them 
in 1814, when Norway was ceded to Sweden. 

The principal island is Stromoe (138 square miles, and 2,500 inhabitants), 
containing the highest mountain of the group, named Skiellingsfield, and 
2,400 feet high, and moreover the little town of Thorshavn, the seat of the 
Danish governor, with a Latin school, a hospital, and 1,000 inhabitants, being 
at the same time the principal mart of the isles. — The island of Oesteroe 
has 85 square miles in extent, and 1,600 inhabitants, and a good harbor at 
Kongshavn. — The island of Soderoe (42 square miles, and 1,000 inhabitants), 
is the most southern of the inhabited isles. 



DENMARK. 559 



Geographical Description of Iceland. 



5.— ICELAND. 

Area: 30,716 square miles. 
Population : 10,500 inhabitants. 

This island is situated in the Atlantic Ocean, on the borders 
of the frigid zone, between 63° 21' and 66° 34' north latitude, 
at 160 miles distance from Greenland, and at 700 miles distance 
from Norway. On account of the prevailing wild and barren 
rocky character of its surface, only about 4,200 square miles of 
the whole island are inhabited, and the main body of the popula- 
tion is settled in the south-western coasting tract. About the 
most remarkable mountains of Iceland see page 8, and beside the 
Hecla noticed there, 1 8 other volcanoes are constantly burning, 
among them the Krabla. The so-called Geisers are hot springs, 
which throw up large columns of boiling water, to the height of 
50 or 60 to 100 feet. It has already been noticed, page 56, that 
in the middle ages not only the spirit of poetry was most success- 
fully improved with the Icelanders, but that also the island itself 
was then a fertile and well-cultivated country. The subterra- 
nean fire having since burst forth in devastating lava-streams, 
and at the same time immense masses of ice from the North Pole 
accumulated at Iceland's shores, the vegetation of this island has 
substantially degenerated. Iceland is, however, yet noted for the 
exceedingly beautiful green of its pastures and meadows, which 
afford to the inhabitants ample means for rearing both cattle 
and horses. The branches of industry are in general the same 
as on the Faroe Isles. — A Norwegian pirate, named Naddok, is 
said to have discovered Iceland in 861, which, however, was 
already inhabited by tribes perhaps from Ireland ; while on the 



560 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Denmark. — Geographical Description of Iceland. 

other hand, the island of Thule, mentioned by ancient Roman 
authors, was probably identical with Iceland. Be this as it may, 
in short, the aborigines were gradually supplanted by Norwe- 
gians, who settled here since the year 874 or 875, established a 
kind of republic, but were in 1261 subjected to the sovereignty 
of Norway, and in this manner Denmark became possessed of 
the island. — The Icelanders, who consequently are of Norwegian 
origin, are noted not only for their fine shape and features, but 
also for their rigid morality and piety, and for love of learning. 
It is a fact, first that crimes are never heard of as committed by 
any Icelander, and secondly that even the peasantry frequently 
spend the longer winter eveniDgs by reading ancient Roman au- 
thors in the original. In point of religion, the Icelanders are 
Lutherans, under the church authority of a bishop residing in 
Reikiavik. The aggregate number of churches in Iceland is 
321, with 154 ministers. — The island, divided into 21 districts, 
contains : 

Reikiavik, the capital of Iceland, on a bay of the south-western coast, is 
the seat of the Danish governor, of the bishop, of a scientific, a bible, and a 
tract society, and has 100 inhabitants, a cathedral built of stone, a gymnasium, 
an observatory, a public library containing 6,000 volumes, and an apothecary's 
shop. Bessestad, in the neighborhood of Reikiavik, was once the dwelling- 
place of the renowned poet Snorre Sturleson (who lived in the latter half 
of the 13th century), and has a gymnasium, where, among others, the Hebrew, 
Greek, Latin, and mathematics are taught. In Leiria is a printing-office. 
East of Reikiavik is situated Skalholt, with the largest church on the island. 
Hraundalur, Skagastrand, and Husavik are trading places. Holum, at pres- 
ent only with rather few dwelling-houses, and a church, was in the period 
from 1106 to 1797 the seat of a bishop, and so early as in 1530 endowed 
with a printing-office and a gymnasium. 

About the duchies of Holstein and Lauenhurg, see page 412. 
The Danish Colonies are the following : 



DENMARK. 561 



The Danish Colonies. 



1. In America : settlements on the western coast of Greenland^ 
and the West Indian islands of St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. 
Johns. 

2. In Africa : settlements in Upper Guinea. 

3. In Asia : presently only the Nicobar Islands, as the colonies 
of Tranquebar and Serampore have been sold in 1845 to the 
British East India Company. 

The total area of these colonies is estimated at 4,686 square 
miles (inclusive 3,962 square miles in Greenland), with a popula- 
tion of 110,000 inhabitants. 



24* 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 

Area : 293,280 square miles. 
Population : 4,650,000 inhabitants. 

These two countries, frequently mentioned under the general 
name of Scandinavian Peninsula, and at the same time politically 
united in so far as they are under the sway of one and the same 
sovereign, extend from 55° 20' to 71° 11' north latitude, and are 
situated between the Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea, at the 
north-eastern extremity bordering upon Russia. — From Denmark 
they are separated by the Skagerrak, the Cattegat, and Sound, and 
from Russia by the Gulf of Bothnia (see page 9). — About the 
Scandinavian Mountains, see pages 5 and 6 ; about the lakes see 
page 11, and about the principal rivers see pages 13 and 14. — 
Sweden is noted for the Gbta- Canal that crosses the country in a 
westerly direction, thus connecting the Cattegat with the Baltic. 
— The climate, though severe in winter, is in general very whole- 
some. Both countries abound in sublime and romantic scenery. 

The northern provinces are either mostly barren, as in Norway, 
or covered with extensive forests, as in Sweden, and in both coun- 
tries thinly covered ; while the southern are much more fertile, 
and in Sweden both well-cultivated and thickly settled. Sufficient 
corn is raised in Sweden for home consumption, but not in Nor- 
way, where, in 1838, more than 1,500,000 bushels of grain were 
to be imported. The surplus products of both countries are iron, 
copper, timber, and fish. The Swedish iron mines yield, upon an 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 563 



Natural Products and Manufactures. 



average, more than 1,600,000 quintals of iron, in some respects 
of the best quality in the world. Those of Norway are not so 
productive, yielding about 150,000 quintals annually. The an- 
nual produce of the copper mines in Sweden is about 18,300 quin- 
tals, and in Norway, upon an average, 9,000 quintals of copper. 
On the other hand, Norway is noted for its silver mines at Kongs- 
berg, which, in 1842, produced 21,088, and in 1834 more than 
27,000 marks of silver. Beside these metals, are to be noticed 
alum, porphyry, and coal (the latter in the Swedish province of 
Skone). Sweden is noted for its mineral waters, and its water- 
ing-places of Medewi, Ramlosa, Loka, etc., are in the summer 
season crowded with strangers. Salt is totally wanting in both 
countries, and thus to be imported. — As both Sweden and Nor- 
way have extensive forests, which, in Sweden alone, cover nearly 
16,700,000 acres, the exports of timber (moreover, of tar, pitch, 
and smoke black) are very considerable. — Cattle are reared at a 
rather great extent, though their breed is but middle-sized. In 
1 830 both countries numbered about 2,000,000 heads of black cattle, 
1,500,000 sheep, 600,000 hogs, 170,000 goats, and 600,000 horses. 
The latter, in so far as they belong to the original breed of the 
countries, are but small, yet swift runners, and exceedingly en- 
during. The deer and other game abound ; and even the elk is 
still to be found. The Laplanders keep considerable herds of 
reindeer. Of wild animals, the bear, wolf, lynx, and glutton 
are to be noticed. 

The manufactures of Norway are of no great importance, but 
the more considerable in Sweden, which is distinguished for its 
hardware, cutleries, fire-arms and porphyry vessels ; and whose 
cloth, glass, and delf manufactures are likewise noted, while its 
silks and cotton goods want still some more improvement in colors 
and patterns. At Motala is a renowned manufactory of steam- 
engines ; and in ship-building and mining the Swedes are sur- 



564 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway — their Commerce, etc. 

passed by no other nation. The only reason that Norway has 
but few manufactures is the fact, that this country is, upon the 
whole, not qualified for them, on account of its peculiar local and 
social condition. For the rest, all farming utensils, tools, furni- 
ture, etc., are made by the peasantry themselves, both in Norway 
and Sweden ; and linen, for instance, is made in almost every vil- 
lage and family ; and some descriptions of this linen are not only 
distinguished for their fineness, but are also widely exported. 

The commerce is very considerable, and in general the exports 
surpass the imports in value. In 1842 the exports of Sweden 
amounted to 23,373,550 Bankrixdollars (one Swedish Bankdollar 
is equal to about 40 cents), and the imports only to 19,511,800 
Bankrixdollars in value. In Norway the annual exports may be 
estimated at 7 millions, and the imports at 6 millions in value. 
The chief exports of both countries are iron and steel, timber, 
pitch, tar, cordage, canvass, anchors, etc., dried and pickled fish, 
furs, copper, alum, potash, etc. In the Swedish and Norwegian 
docks are numerous vessels and steamers built for foreign ac- 
count. The merchant vessels belonging to Sweden amounted in 
1839 to 994, of the burthen of 109,314 tons, exclusive of 36 
steamers ; and the Norwegian merchant vessels amounted in 
1837 to 2,373, of the burthen of 158,556 tons. 

Both the Swedes and Norwegians belong to the Germanic 
tribe (see pages 18 and 19), with the exception of about 7,000 
Finlanders and 9,100 Laplanders, that belong to a peculiar or 
mixed tribe commonly comprised by the general name of Finnish 
tribe. Jews are not allowed to dwell in Norway, while in 
Sweden they are not permitted to settle elsewhere than in the 
cities of Stockholm, Gottenburg and Norrkoping. — In point of 
religion, the established church in Sweden and Norway is the 
Lutheran, arranged and founded on similar principles as the 
church of England, In Sweden are 12 bishops (including the 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 565 



Means of Education, Government, Army and Navy. 



archbishop of Upsala) and 2,400 parishes, and in Norway 5 
bishops and 342 parishes. 

There are 3 universities, viz., two in Sweden (at Upsala, 
founded in 1476, and in 1845 frequented by 1,367 students ; and 
at Lund, founded in 1668, and in 1845 with 645 students), and 
one in Norway, at Christiania (founded in 1811, and in 1841 
with 693 students). Beside these, there are 18 gymnasiums (14 
in Sweden and 4 in Norway), 23 seminaries, 148 secondary, and 
2,994 primary schools. Only few of the peasantry are unable to 
read, as education is general. 

The government is a limited monarchy, both in Sweden and 
Norway. Each kingdom has its particular constitution, its own 
laws, and a national legislature ; and yet with reference to the 
executive power both are under the control of the same sove- 
reign. The public finances are in good order. In Sweden the 
amount of the public revenue, and of the expenditure, for several 
years has been about 11 millions Bankrixdollars (or about 
$4,400,000) ;— in Norway about $3,000,000. Sweden has no 
public debt, while that of Norway on the 1st January, 1839, 
amounted only to $1,163,000. 

The regular army consists in Sweden of nearly 40,000, and in 
Norway of 12,000 men, and can in time of war be reinforced by 
80,000 men of militia and troops of reserve. 

The Swedish navy consists of 10 ships of the line, 14 frigates 
and sloops of war, 10 brigs, several steamers, and more than 300 
gun-boats. Norway had in 1835 a little navy of 1 frigate, 1 
sloop of war, 2 brigs, and 43 gun-boats. 

There are the following Swedish (for Norway has none) orders 
of honor : 1. The Seraphim order, the highest, and in one class ; 
instituted in 1333, and renewed in 1748. 2. The Sword order, 
instituted in 1523, and renewed in 1748, in 3 classes. 3. The 
North-star order, instituted in 1748, and in 2 classes. 4. The 



566 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway — their History. 

Wasa order, in 3 classes, and instituted in 1772, and 5. The 
order of Charles XIII, instituted by this king in 1811, and only 
conferred on free-masons. 

History. — Sweden, as whose aborigines may be considered the Finlanders 
and Laplanders, was at an early period occupied by the Germanic tribes of 
the Goths and Sueones, who were under the native chieftains or petty kings. 
It was the same case with Norway. Odin (see History of Denmark) having 
returned to Sweden, became here the ancestor of the dynasty of the 
Ynglincjar, who were succeeded by the Ifwarian race, that reigned until the 
middle of the 11th century. In Norway had meantime the valiant king 
Harald Horfagar (the latter surname means " handsome hair," for which he 
was distinguished) put an end to the petty kingdoms, and in 815 subjected 
them to his sway, thus transforming Norway into one single kingdom, which, 
however, did not keep its independence, but continued to be annexed to 
Denmark since the days of Queen Margareth (see History of Denmark), or 
since the year 1397. In Sweden the Ifwarian race was since 1053 succeeded 
by several other dynasties, until finally the kingdom was in 1397, together 
with Norway and Denmark, united under the sway of the just-named queen. 
The Danish sway lasted in substance until 1521, when Gustavus, belonging 
to the renowned noble family of Wasa, ascended the Swedish throne. His 
youngest son, Charles IX., reigning from 1599 to 1611, was the father of the 
celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, whose sister Catherine was married to the 
palatine John Kasimir of Zweibriicken (see page 327), whose son mounted 
the Swedish throne in 1654 by the name of Charles X. Gustavus, his cousin, 
Queen Christiana (only daughter of Gustavus Adolphus) having abdicated. 
The son and successor of Charles X. Gustavus, King Charles XL (1660-1697), 
left behind the great warrior Charles XII. and two daughters, who were 
married, the one to a prince of Hesse-Cassel, and the other to a duke of Hol- 
stein-Gottorp. Thus, when Charles XII. died in 1718 (he was insidiously 
shot from behind by his own aid-de-camp, a Frenchman named Siquier), he 
was succeeded first by his brother-in-law, Frederic I. (see History of Hesse- 
Cassel), and next to him by a prince from the house of Holstein-Gottorp, 
Adolphus Frederic (1751-1771). The latter was succeeded by his son Gus- 
tavus III, who was shot at a masquerade, in 1792, and was succeeded by his 
son Gustavus IV. Adolphus. This king committed so many political blun- 
ders, that some contemporaries have thought proper to impute them to a 



SWEDEN" AND NORWAY. 567 



History of both Countries, and Geographical Description of Sweden. 



disorder in his brains ; in short, lie behaved in such a manner that at last his 
subjects were compelled to dethrone him. This took place in 1809, when 
the king's uncle, Charles XIII., succeeded him ; but as the latter was child- 
less, first the Danish prince Christian Augustus of Holstein-Sonderburg-Au- 
gustenburg (related to the royal Swedish family), and then (as this prince 
died suddenly in 1810) the French marshal Bernadotte was declared crown- 
prince of Sweden. In 1818, when Charles XIII. died, Bernadotte succeeded 
him by the name of Charles XIV. John. He died in 1844, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, the present reigning king Oscar, born on the 4th of July, 
1799. That in 1814 Norway was annexed to Sweden, has already been 
stated in the History of Denmark, and page 419. On the other hand, Fin- 
land was in 1809 wrested from Sweden by Russia, which had unprovokedly 
been challenged by King Gustavus IV. Adolphus in an inexcusable manner. 

We shall now give a topographical description of each kingdom 
separately. 



A.— THE KINGDOM OF SWEDEN". 

Area: 170,528 square miles. 
Population : 3,300,000 inhabitants. 

It embraces the eastern and larger half of the Scandinavian 
peninsula, and is officially divided into 24 counties, styled Lane. 
Yet as the ancient historical division into as many provinces is in 
substance left unaltered, and moreover the names of these prov- 
inces occur continually in common life, history and other read- 
ing, we shall in the ensuing description follow a similar course as 
in France, Spain, and other countries. 

The following 5 provinces are comprised by the general name of Svea.- 
rike, because they were anciently the chief seat of the Sueones (see above in 
history) : 



568 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Sweden. 

1. Upland, containing : Stockholm, the capital of the kingdom and royal 
residence, built on several small islands and peninsulas, near the entrance of 
Lake Malar into the Baltic Sea, has 88,000 inhabitants, and is a handsome 
city, noted for its magnificent royal palace and architectural monuments, its 
literary institutions, manufactures, extensive commerce, and safe and commo- 
dious harbor. The great iron warehouse, is remarkable for the immense 
quantity of that article deposited in it. The most notable of the churches 
(22 in number) is that of Riddarholm, containing the sepulchres of nearly 
all the kings of the house of Wasa. Drottningholm, Haga, Rosendal, and Ul- 
riksdal, are romantically situated royal palaces and parks, in the neighbor- 
hood of Stockholm. Waxholm, a town on an isle of the same name, at the 
entrance into the harbor of Stockholm, is noted for its citadel, and has 1,200 
inhabitants. JVorrtelge, a maritime town on the Baltic, northward and 46 
miles distant from Stockholm, with 1,500 inhabitants, and manufactures of 
fire-arms and cloth Oeregrund, a maritime town on the Baltic, with good 
harbor, and 900 inhabitants. Bjork'6, an island in the lake Malar, westward 
and 18 miles distant from Stockholm, is remarkable for its having once been 
the seat of the emporium of the same name (see page 38). Sigtuna, on the 
lake Malar, at present a town with only 600 inhabitants, but in the middle 
ages the capital of the kingdom, with magnificent churches and convents. 
Bosersberg, a stately royal palace on the lake Malar, with beautiful park. 
Upsala, a city on the river Fyris, northward and 54 miles distant from 
Stockholm, has 5,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see above), 
to which belong a library containing more than 100,000 volumes, a remark- 
able botanic garden, a valuable collection of coins, an observatory, etc. ; for 
its cathedral, reared in the 13th century, and for its magnificent royal pal- 
ace, reared in the middle of the 16th century, by King Gustavus I. Skoklos- 
ter, an estate of the count of Brahe, romantically situated on the lake 
Malar, with an extensive and splendid Gothic palace, anciently a convent, 
reared in the 13th century. Dannemora, at about 28 miles distance from 
Upsala, is famed for its higly important iron mines, and the neighboring places 
of Oesterby, Lofsia, and Sdderfors, are noted for their iron-works. Enkoping, 
a town on the lake Malar, north-westward and 56 miles distant from Stock- 
holm, with 1,500 inhabitants. 

2. Sodermanlmul contains : Nykoping, its capital, on a bay of the Baltic 
Sea, south-westward and 88 miles distant from Stockholm, with 3 churches, 
important manufactures of cloth, cotton goods, etc., iron-works, and 3,200 in- 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 569 

Geographical Description of Sweden. 

habitants. Trosa, a maritime town on the Baltic, with considerable corn trade, 
fisheries, and 800 inhabitants. Tullgarn, a valuable royal private domain, 
with stately palace. Marie/red, a town on the lake Malar, westward and 44 
miles distant from Stockholm, with 800 inhabitants. In its neighborhood is 
situated, on two isles of the lake, the highly remarkable Gothic royal castle 
of Gripsholm, reared in the 13th century, and containing splendidly fur- 
nished apartments. Strengnas, a town on the lake Malar, with Gothic cathe- 
dral (reared in 1291), corn trade, and 1,500 inhabitants. Eskilstuna, the 
chief manufacturing town in Sweden, near the Hjelmar lake, westward and 
86 miles distant from Stockholm, is noted especially for its cutleries, sword- 
blades, and fire-arms, and has 2,600 inhabitants. Thorshdlla, a very ancient 
town, near Lake Malar, and in the neighborhood of Eskilstuna, has 800 inhabi- 
tants, and is noted for its Gothic church, whose steeple is 306 feet high. 
Sodertelge, a maritime town on a bay of the Baltic, with hosieries, and 1,200 
inhabitants. In its neighborhood is the little seaport of Elfsnabben, or 
Hjelmsnabben, where Gustavus Adolphus embarked in 1630 with his army 
for Germany. 

3. Nerike, between the Malar and Wener lakes, contains : Oerebro, its 
capital, near the Hjelmar lake, westward and 146 miles distant from Stock- 
holm, with an ancient, historically remarkable castle, a Gothic church, a no- 
table town-hall, various and important manufactures, and 4,600 inhabitants. 
The neighboring ancient castle of Gbkshohn, on the Hjelmar lake, is highly 
remarkable. Askersund, a mining town on the Wetter lake, with literary 
institutions, iron trade, and 1,000 inhabitants. 

4. Westmanland, between Upland and Nerike, contains : Westeroas, its 
capital, on the Malar lake, 64 miles west-north-west of Stockholm, with re- 
markable ancient castle, notable cathedral, a renowned gymnasium, and va- 
rious other schools, considerable inland trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Sala, 
a mining town, north-westward and 86 miles distant from Stockholm, has 
3,400 inhabitants, and was formerly noted for its silver mines, which, how- 
ever, are at present rather unproductive. Arboga (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
Kbping (with 1,500 inhabitants), Lindesberg (with 800 inhabitants), and Nora 
(with 900 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Loka is a watering- 
place much resorted to. 

5. Dalarne, or Dalekarlien, whose inhabitants have from old been distin- 
guished for their uprightness and loyalty, contains : Falun, its capital, and 
the chief mining town in Sweden, 176 miles east-north-east of Christiania 



510 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Sweden. 

(in Norway), and north-westward and 166 miles distant from Stockholm, has 
5,000 inhabitants, and is noted especially for its valuable copper mines (see 
above), but moreover for its distinguished mining academy, and its various 
and important manufactures. Sater, Hedemora, and Avesta, towns with re- 
spectively TOO, 1,100, and 800 inhabitants. 

The following 11 provinces are comprised by the general name of Gotha- 
rike, because they were anciently the chief seat of the immigrated Goths 
(see past, in History) : 

1. Oester- Gothland, between the Wetter lake, and the Baltic Sea, con- 
tains : Norrkoping, its capital, on a bay of the Baltic, south-westward and 
130 miles distant from Stockholm, with 3 churches, several schools and char- 
ities for the poor and sick, a noted iron foundry, important manufactures of 
cloth, linen, etc., considerable commerce, and 13,000 inhabitants. Soderkop- 
ing, a town near the Baltic Sea, with stately town-house, mineral waters, and 
1,100 inhabitants. Linkoping, a city situated in the centre of the province, 
has 4,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its cathedral (reared in 1138-51), its 
ancient castle, its gymnasium, and city-hall. Wadstena, a town romantically 
situated on the Wetter lake, south-westward and 140 miles distant from 
Stoekhobn, with an ancient, and once highly renowned nunnery (whose 
building was reared in the middle of the 13th century), linen manufactures, 
and 2,500 inhabitants. Medewi. the most frequented watering-place in Sweden, 
is very romantically situated on the Wetter lake. Finspong is noted for its 
iron-works, and Motala (on the Wetter lake) for its manufactory of steam- 
engines. Skeninge, a town, with 1,100 inhabitants. 

2. Smoaland, along the Baltic coast, contains : Calmar, its capital, on the 
Calmar Sound (that separates the island of Oeland from the Swedish conti- 
nent), 280 miles south-south-west of Stockholm, and 46 miles north-north-east 
of Carlskrona, with an ancient castle (where, in 1391, the convention was 
signed, according to which Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were united under 
the sway of Queen Margaret), a handsome cathedral, important manufac- 
tures, considerable commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. The little place of 
Bromsebro, at the frontier of Bleking, southward and 33 miles distant from 
Calmar, is noted in history for a treaty of peace concluded here in 1645, be- 
tween Sweden and Denmark. Wimmerby and Fkesjo, towns with respectively 
1,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. Wexio, a town on a lake, westward and 56 
miles distant from Calmar, is noted for its gymnasium, and has 2,000 inhabi- 
tants. Westervik, a maritime town, on a bay of the Baltic, with rather con- 



SWEDEN" AND NORWAY. 511 

Geographical Description of Sweden. 

siderable commerce, and 3,600 inhabitants. Jonkoping, a city on the Wetter 
lake, north-westward and 146 miles distant from Calmar, with 3 churches, 
fire-arms, and other manufactures, and 5,500 inhabitants. Grenna, a town 
on the Wetter lake, with a celebrated church, considerable trade in cattle, and 
1,200 inhabitants. 

3. The island of Oeland (596 square miles, and 35,000 inhabitants), situ- 
ated in the Baltic Sea, opposite the city of Calmar (see above), is noted for 
its cattle, and alum mines, and contains, among other places, the town of 
Borghohn, with 700 inhabitants. 

4. The island of Gottland (895 square miles, and 42,000 inhabitants), 
situated in the Baltic Sea, north-eastward from the former, and southward 
and about 100 miles distant from Stockholm, is upon the whole fertile, was, 
in the period from 1448 to 1645, possessed by the Danes, and contains: 
Wisby, its capital, on the western shore, with a Gothic cathedral (reared in 
the beginning of the 13th century), leather and other manufactures, consider- 
able trade, and 4,600 inhabitants. That Wisby was, in the middle ages, a 
renowned emporium, has already been stated, page 50. Rosendal, a hand- 
some estate, with beautiful park and gardens. 

5. Blehing, a province along the southern coast of the Swedish continent, 
contains : Carlskrona, fortified capital, and chief station of the Swedish 
navy, on the Baltic Sea, 46 miles west-south-west of Calmar, has 14,000 in- 
habitants, and is noted for its vast docks, its naval depots and arsenal, and its 
extensive fortifications. The neighboring market-town of Ronneby is noted for 
its wealth and industry. Carlshamn, a maritime town on the Baltic, west- 
ward and 28 miles distant from Carlskrona, with canvass and leather manu- 
factures, commerce, and 4,500 inhabitants. Christianopel and Solvitsborg, 
maritime towns, with respectively 950 and 1,600 inhabitants. 

6. Skane (to be pronounced Scoane), the most level and fertile province, 
on the Sound and Baltic Sea, contains : Malmo, its capital, on the Sound, 
opposite Copenhagen, is a well-built city, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is noted 
for several handsome public edifices and private buildings, its numerous 
manufactures, and corn trade. Lund, a very ancient city, situated in the in- 
terior of the province, at 14 miles distance from Malmo, has 4,500 inhabitants, 
and is noted both for its university (see above) and its highly remarkable 
cathedral (reared in the middle ages) and other architectural monuments. 
In the middle ages this city was densely peopled, and had not less than 22 
churches. Ystad, a maritime town on the Baltic, is the station of packets for 



572 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Sweden. 



Stralsund (in Prussia), and has 4,400 inhabitants. Landskrona, a maritime 
town on the Sound, between Malmo and Helsingborg, with a good harbor, 
various manufactures, and 4,000 inhabitants. Opposite the town, in the 
Sound, is situated the little island of Hven, with 500 inhabitants, and histori- 
cally remarkable for that the noted astronomer Tycho de Brahe (4-in 1601) 
dwelt here for several years, until 1591. He had here two observatories. 
Helsingborg, a maritime town on the Sound, right opposite Elsenor (in 
Zealand), with noted potteries, sea-bathing, and 3,000 inhabitants. In its 
neighborhood is the watering-place of Eamlosa, much resorted to. Near 
Kullen, northward and 9 miles distant from Helsingborg, are important coal 
mines. Christianstad, a fortified city on the river Helge, with manufactures 
of woollens and gloves, a handsome church, and 4,500 inhabitants. Cimbris- 
hamn, a maritime town on the Baltic, with 850 inhabitants. Engelholm, a 
maritime town on the Cattegat, with coal trade, and 900 inhabitants. 

7. Holland, along the Cattegat, contains : Halmstad, its capital, on the Cat- 
tegat, with noted salmon-fishery, woollen manufactures, sea-bathing, com- 
merce, and 2,000 inhabitants. Other maritime towns on the Cattegat are : 
Laholm (with 1,000 inhabitants), FalTcenberg (with 1,200 inhabitants), Warberg 
(with 2,000 inhabitants), and Kongsbacha (with 1,000 inhabitants). 

8. Wester- Gothland, between the "Wetter lake and the Cattegat, contains: 
Gottenburg (in Swedish Gotheborg), the first commercial city in Sweden 
next to Stockholm, on the Gotha river (left bank), about 9 miles from the 
Cattegat, has 30,000 inhabitants, is handsomely built, and abounds in magnifi- 
cent dwelling-houses, and is noted for its extensive commerce, various and 
important manufactures, its schools, splendid cathedral, and its Gothic Ger- 
man church, with high steeple. Opposite the city, on the other side of the 
named river, is the island of Hisingen, of 30 miles in circuit, and with 10 
parishes. The very strong little fortress of Nya (New) Elfsborg, near the 
mouth of the Gotha river, was reared in 1644. Wenersborg, a town at the 
southern extremity of the Wener lake, northward and 58 miles distant from 
Gottenburg, with considerable transit trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. The 
neighboring village of Trollhatta is noted for the Falls of the Gotha river. 
Allingsos, a town on the river Safve, about half-way between Wenersborg 
and Gottenburg, is noted for its manufactures of cloth and silk stockings, and 
has 1,000 inhabitants. Boros and Ulricehamn, towns with respectively 2,500 
and 1,800 inhabitants. Skara, a town in a well-cultivated plain, north-east- 
ward and 72 miles distant from Gottenburg, with remarkable Gothic cathe- 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 573 



Geographical Description of Sweden. 



dral, reared in the 11th century, a noted gymnasium, and 1,800 inhabitants. 
Skofde (with 1,000 inhabitants), Hjo (pronounced like you, has 700 inhabi- 
tants), Falkbping (with 800 inhabitants), Lidkoping (with 3,000 inhabitants), 
and Mariestad (with 2,600 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. 
Carlsborg, a strong fortress on the Wetter lake, reared in 1809. 

9. Wermland, on the north side of the Wener lake, contains : Carlstad, its 
capital, at the mouth of the Clara river into the Wener lake, with a hand- 
some cathedral, a famed gymnasium, extensive iron and copper trade, noted 
fairs, and 3,400 inhabitants. Christinehamn, an important trading town on 
the Wener lake, with considerable iron trade, noted annual fairs, and 2,000 
inhabitants. Philipstad, a mining town, with iron trade, and 1,000 inhabi- 
tants. 

10. Dalsland, between the Wener lake and Norway, contains : Amoal, its 
capital, on the Wener lake, northward and 100 miles distant from Gottenburg, 
with considerable trade in iron, timber, and tar, and 1,600 inhabitants. Bil- 
lingfors and Koller'6 are noted for their iron- works. 

11. Bohus y between Gottenburg and Norway, on the Cattegat, contains: 
Kongelf, its capital, on the Gotha river, northward and 14 miles distant 
from Gottenburg, has at present only 850 inhabitants, but was in the middle 
ages a considerable city, and the residence of several kings of Norway, to 
which Bohus then belonged. Marstrand, a very ancient town on an island 
in the Cattegat, has 1,400 inhabitants, and a fine harbor, and is noted for its 
strong fortress of Carhten. Uddewalla, a maritime town on the bay of the 
Cattegat, with some manufactures, considerable commerce, and 4,000 inhabi- 
tants. Stromstad, a maritime town near the frontier of Norway, with con- 
siderable fishery, and 1,800 inhabitants. 

The following 7 provinces are comprised by the general name of Norr- 
land, because they are situated to the north of Svearike and Gotharike : 

1. Gestrikland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, contains: Gefle, its capital, and at 
the same time the capital of Norrland, on a bay of the Gulf of Bothnia, north- 
ward and 96 miles distant from Stockholm, has 9,000 inhabitants, and is 
noted for its extensive trade in iron, timber, etc., and commerce, its impor- 
tant manufactures, considerable fisheries, and its very handsome city-hall. 
In the neighborhood is the watering-place of Hillehrunn. 

2. He! sine/land, on the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the south bounded by 
Gestrikland, is famed for its excellent linens, and noted for Jts vast number 
of mountain-cocks and grouses, of which in winter whole sled-loads are sent 



574 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway.— Geographical Description of Sweden. 

to Stockholm. It contains : Htjdikswall, its capital, on the G-ulf of Bothnia, 
with considerable linen manufactures, extensive trade in timber, flax (100,000 
pounds of which are annually exported), linen (200,000 yards exported an- 
nually), butter, fowl, etc., good harbor, and 2,000 inhabitants. Soderhamn, a. 
maritime town on the Gulf of Bothnia, is likewise noted for its linen manu- 
factures and linen trade, moreover for the finest church in Norrland, and 
1,800 inhabitants. 

3. Herjedalen, between Helsingland and Norway, contains : Ljusnedal, its 
capital, has only 350 inhabitants, but is noted for its iron and copper mines, 
and iron-works. 

4. Medelpad, on the Gulf of Bothnia, and bounded on the south by Hel- 
singland, is noted for its extensive forests, which harbor the elk, reindeer, 
lynx, beaver, and vast numbers of wild fowl, and contains : Sundswall, its 
capital, on the named gulf, with some woollen manufactures, considerable 
trade in timber, tar, hides, etc., and 2,000 inhabitants. 

5. Jemtland, at the frontier of Norway, contains : Oestersund, its capital, 
on the Stor lake, with considerable inland trade, and 700 inhabitants. 

6. Angermanland, on the Gulf of Bothnia, bounded on the south by Me- 
delpad, contains : Hernosand, its capital, on the named gulf, northward and 
230 miles distant from Stockholm, with 2,500 inhabitants, a noted gymna- 
sium, considerable linen trade and fairs, fishery, and a printing-office, where 
books are printed in the language of the Laplanders. 

7. Westerbottn, comprising the most northerly Swedish coasting tract along 
the Gulf of Bothnia, and containing : Umea, its capital, on the named gulf, 
140 miles north-north-east of Hernosand, is regularly laid out, and has 1,500 
inhabitants, engaged in trading and fishing business. Pitea and Lulea, mari- 
time towns, each with 1,200 inhabitants. 

Lapland in general belongs partly to Sweden, partly to Norway, and 
partly to Russia, is a cold, desolate region, and lying north of the Arctic 
circle, extends eastward to the White Sea, and westward to the Ocean. The 
Swedish Lapland is, however, situated in the interior of the Scandinavian 
peninsula, and separated by Norway from the ocean, and by the Tor- 
nea river from Russian Lapland. Its area is estimated at about 40,000 
square miles, and its population at 12,000 inhabitants, among them only 
4,000 Laplanders, while the remainder consists of Swedish, Finlandish, and 
even German settlers. For the rest, the Swedish Lapland is noted for the 
immense quantities of iron ores, and many districts there are distinguished 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 575 

Geographical Description of Sweden. 

for the wild and sublime character of the scenery. The Laplanders have 
been nearly all converted to Christianity, and are, generally, attached to its 
duties. Great crimes are unknown among them. In short, they are a simple, 
harmless people, greatly attached to their native country. They are of short 
stature, being generally under five feet in height. Their chief wealth is in 
the reindeer, which yields them food and clothing, and transports them in 
sledges over the snow. The Laplanders move about from place to place, 
with their herds of reindeer, and seldom reside in towns. In summer they 
live in tents, and in winter in rude huts, formed of stones and earth, and 
covered with turf. The villages are very small, seldom containing more than 
100 or 200 inhabitants. The most remarkable among them (but not exclu- 
sively inhabited by Laplanders) are : Juckasjarwi, a village on the Tornea 
river, in 67° 51' north latitude, with the most northerly church in Europe ; 
Kengis, with the most northerly iron- works existing ; JocJcmocJc, with church, 
school, and 1,400 inhabitants, and Asele, a village on the Angerman river, 
with church and school. 

The only foreign colony Sweden is possessed of, is the island of 
St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, which was ceded to Swe- 
den in 1784, by France. 



B.— THE KINGDOM OF NORWAY. 

Area: 122,752 square miles. 
Population : 1,350,000 inhabitants. 

It embraces the western, and smaller half of the Scandinavian 
peninsula, and is divided into 17 bailiwicks, that are subdivided 
in 45 smaller districts, and 66 townships, or Sorenskriverier, as 
they are styled. The ancient and historical division into 4 sec- 



676 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Norway. 

tions, styled slifter (chapters), being at the same time the dioceses 
of as many bishops, is in common life still frequently alluded to ; 
and for this reason we shall, in the following topographical de- 
scription of Norway, denote the capitals of sections (bearing the 
same names) thus : +. 

-|-Christiania, the capital of Norway, and residence of the royal governor, 
on a bay of the Cattegat, known by the name of Christianiafjord, northward 
and 172 miles distant from Gottenburg, is regularly laid out, while most of 
the dwelling-houses and all public edifices are built of free-stone, has 27,000 
inhabitants, and is noted for its university (see back ; the library contains 
112,000 volumes), and several other higher schools and literary institutions, 
its remarkable cathedral, its important manufactures, and considerable com- 
merce. After the ancient mountain castle of Aggerhuus, the section, or 
" stiff" (see above) of Christiania is sometimes named. Moss, a maritime 
town on the Christianiafjord (see above), is noted for its iron-works and saw- 
mills, and has 3,000 inhabitants. Drammen, a city on a bay, connected with 
that of Christiania, south-westward and 30 miles distant from Christiania, is 
the centre for the Norwegian timber and lumber trade, is moreover noted 
for its iron- works, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Laurvig, a maritime town at 
the entrance into Christianiafjord (see above), 72 miles south-south-west of 
Christiania, is noted for its considerable iron trade, and has 3,600 inhabitants. 
Close by stands the fortress of Frederiksvarn. The maritime town of 
Tonsberg (with timber trade, and 2,200 inhabitants) was, in the middle ages, 
a densely populated city, containing, among others, 9 churches. The neigh- 
boring ancient castle of Jarlsberg is noted in history. Skeen, a town on a 
river of the same name, with numerous saw-mills, timber trade, and 2,000 
inhabitants. Frederiksstad and Frederikshald are fortified and remarkable 
maritime towns near the Swedish frontier, with respectively 3,000 and 
5,300 inhabitants. Near the latter stands, on a steep rock, 350 feet high, the 
Btrong fortress of Frederikssteen, which, in 1718, was besieged by the Swedes, 
on which occasion Charles XII. was assassinated (see History of Sweden). 
In the valley, known by the name of Nummedalen, is situated the important 
mining town of Kongsberg, with 4,400 inhabitants, and noted not only for its 
silver mines (see above), but also for its mining academy, and various manu- 
factures. ^-Christiansand, a city on a very spacious bay of the Skagerrak, 

with a cathedra], vast docks, considerable trade in timber and corn, and 



SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 611 

Geographical Description of Norway. 

8,300 inhabitants. Mandal, a maritime town with 2,400 inhabitants, is noted 
for its pickled and smoked salmon, of which considerable quantities are ex- 
ported. Arendal, a town romantically situated on a bay of the Skagerrak, 
is noted for its iron mines, and has 2,300 inhabitants. Oesteriisoer and Stavan- 
ger, noted maritime and commercial towns, with respectively 2,000 and 4,300 

inhabitants. [-Bergen, a commercial city on a bay of the North Sea, 166 

miles west-north-west of Christiania, with a spacious and commodious har- 
bor, 1 churches (among which one is for Germans), vast docks, the most con- 
siderable commerce in Norway, various manufactures, and 23,000 inhabitants. 
Bergen, founded in 1069, was, in the middle ages, a city with more than 30 
churches and convents, and for a long period the centre of the commerce car- 
ried on by the Hanseatic League in the northern couutries of Europe. — 
-J-Drontheim (in Norwegian Trondhiem), a city on a bay of the Atlantic 
Ocean, northward and 250 miles distant from Christiania, with a scientific 
society, a remarkable cathedral (where the kings of Norway are crowned), 
a gymnasium, seminary for Laplanders, various manufactures, considerable 
commerce, and 14,000 inhabitants, who are distinguished for their hospitality 
and polite manners. Drontheim was, in the middle ages, a famous city, with 
10 churches, 5 convents, etc. In its neighborhood are many iron-works, 
among them those of Leerfoss deserve to be noticed. Roeraas, a mining 
town in a very desolate mountainous district, 60 miles south-south-east of 
Drontheim, is famed for its considerable copper mines (see back), and has 
3,200 inhabitants. Christiansund and Molle, maritime towns on the Atlantic 
Ocean, with respectively 2,500 and 1,800 inhabitants. — The section, or chap- 
ter (stift ; see back) of Nordland, embracing the most northern part of 
Norway, comprises Nordland proper, and the Norwegian Lapland. To the 
former belongs the group of the Lofoden isles, near the western coast, among 
which are to be noticed the isle of Host (the most southern, in about 66° 15' 
north latitude), and the isle of Mosken, noted for the Moskenas-Strommen, 
as the Norwegians name the Ifahlstrom, of which formerly, in other European 
countries, the ojnnion was entertained, as if it was a terrific whirlpool, draw- 
ing in sometimes ships, as well as whales, and other animals, and dash- 
ing them on the rocks beneath. That is, however, not at all the case ; on 
the contrary, the Mahlstrom is annually in the months of February and March 
the meeting-place of 3,000 or 4,000 fishing-boats, and at that period some- 
times 16 million cod-fishes, haddocks, etc., are caught here. Bodbe, a town on 
a bay, named Sattenfjord, in 66° 15' north latitude, is noted for its seaport 

25 



578 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Sweden and Norway. — Geographical Description of Norway. 

of Hundholm, where a considerable barter is kept up with the neighboring 
fishermen. AlUtahaug is the seat of the bishop of Nordland. — The Norwe- 
gian Lapland, styled FinmarTcen (about the Laplanders, see under the head 
of Sweden), contains Hatnmerfest, a town on an island in the Arctic Ocean, 
in 70° 38' north latitude, has 400 inhabitants, and is much resorted to for 
trade and barter, especially by Russians. In the neighborhood are rich cop- 
per mines, at which 1,100 workmen are employed. About the North Cape, 
see page 3. Tromsoe, a town on an island of the same name (north latitude 
68° 36'), with a church, and 800 inhabitants. 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 

Area: 2,099,903 square miles. 
Population: 62,000,000 inhabitants. 

It is almost universally known, that Russia is by no means re- 
stricted to Europe, but that it comprises also a considerable part 
of Asia, and even part of North America. Considered in this 
view it is styled the Russian empire, whose total area is estimated 
at not less than 8,552,700 square miles, with a total population 
of 67,000,000 inhabitants. 

As this hook treats only of Europe, we must in substance re- 
strict ourselves to the description of European Russia, though it 
is almost impossible to avoid frequent digressions into Asiatic 
Russia, which contains several of the chief sources of the public 
revenues of the Russian empire. 

European Russia, on the north bounded by the Arctic Ocean 
(with the White Sea, see page 9), and on the south by the Black 
Sea, etc. (see page 10), is on the east by the Ural Mountains (and 
Ural river), and on the south by the Caucasus Mountains (see 
page 8) separated from Asiatic Russia, and borders on the south- 
west and west upon European Turkey, the Austrian empire, and 
the kingdom of Prussia. — Its principal lakes and rivers are noticed 
on pages 10, 11,12, and 13 ; and about the Tauric Mountains and 
Wolchonsky Forest, see page 8. 

The great majority of the population, or more than sixty mil- 
lion inhabitants belong to the Caucasian race ; while the Lap- 



580 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia— its Population in point of Origin, Religion, etc. 

landers, the aboriginal Finns (not to be confounded with the pre- 
dominant inhabitants of Finland, who are of Swedish origin), the 
Samojedes, Kalmucks, and partly the Baschkirs belong to the Mon- 
golian race. 

As to their origin, the Russians proper and the Poles belong 
to the great tribe of Slavonians (see pages 18 and 19), whose 
total number in the Russian empire amounted in 1837 to 
48,000,000, including 4 millions Lettonians, Bulgarians, etc. 
The number of Germans in Russia (whose chief seat is in the 
Baltic provinces), is estimated at 800,000 ; that of Jews at 
1,600,000 (chiefly in the Polish provinces). More than 6 mil- 
lions are of Tartarian origin (not to be confounded with the Mon- 
golian race, as all genuine Tartarian tribes, for instance, the 
Turks, Magyars, etc., belong decidedly to the Caucasian race) ; 
and the remainder consists of Greek, Persian, and other oriental 
tribes, Gypsies, and the above-mentioned people : Laplanders, 
Samojedes, Kalmucks, etc.* 

In regard to religion, the established church is the Greek, and 
generally all Russians are Greek Christians ; while nearly all 
Poles are Roman Catholics, and most of the Germans Lutherans. 
The Tartarian and other kindred tribes in the southern and 
south-eastern provinces of European Russia are for the most 
part Mohammedans. About the Jews, see above. 

The Russian nation is divided into three classes, the nobility, 
citizens, .and peasantry. (About the same distinction is estab- 
lished in Poland, while in the Baltic provinces the social condi- 
tion of the population bears a strong resemblance to that of Ger- 
many.) There is an essential distinction between hereditary and 

* The Cossacks are not peradventure a separate tribe, but genuine Rus- 
sians, with the only difference, that since the l'lth century they are endowed 
with various privileges, and (on the other hand) in lieu of paying taxes, are 
required to act as soldiers in time of war. 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 581 

The Russian Nobility, Peasantry, etc. 

personal nobility. The number of nobles by birth (or of those 
who belong to the hereditary nobility) in the whole Russian em- 
pire (thus including the Polish, Bulgarian, Tartarian and other 
nobles), was some years ago about 551,000 ; while the personal 
nobility (i. e. for lifetime only) is conferred upon the higher 
classes of the clergy and citizens, and upon the civil and military 
public officers (provided that they are not already nobles by 
birth). The nobles, as well as the commoners, are exempted 
from the poll-tax (land-taxes, excises, and other similar taxes they 
have to pay), and cannot be compelled to enter the army, though 
a great many of them enter it voluntarily. By the term of cit- 
izens is to be understood all free inhabitants of cities and towns, 
who are engaged in commerce, trade, manufacturing, and other 
branches of industry. They are divided into 6 classes, styled 
guilds (compare pages 52 and 53), and about 4,500,000 in num- 
ber. The peasantry comprises freeholders (about 700,000), 
peasants of the crown (more than 17,500,000), who at present are to 
be considered as personally free men, and thirdly, bondsmen (com- 
pare page 36), about 21,000,000 in number, and for the most part 
on the estates of the nobility. Thus two thirds of the population 
are free men, and moreover the emperor, Nicholas, has in recent 
times provided by the law for the gradual emancipation of the 
remaining third also. To emancipate them at once, would have 
been a hard blow to the bondsmen themselves, for it is a fact, that 
they generally are in a better and more comfortable condition 
than many free men, at least among the lower classes, who not 
seldom endure great distress, while the bondsmen, so to say, are 
never suffered to starve, their masters being compelled by the 
law to provide for their wants, in cases of necessity (sickness, 
weakness from age, etc.). It has frequently occurred, that 
bondsmen, emancipated by their masters, have spontaneously re- 
turned into their former condition of servitude. They not only 



582 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia — its Soil and Natural Products. 

till the ground (two days in the week for their own account), but 
are employed in various other manners : as mechanics, operatives, 
servants, coachmen, etc., and have ample opportunity to earn suf- 
ficient money for their redemption from bondage. Hundreds of 
them are annually levied as recruits, and they are at once free, 
for themselves and their descendants, as soon as they enter the 
army. 

The surface of European Russia is generally level ; its chief 
features being vast plains and large rivers, with numerous lakes 
in the north-western quarter. In the northern provinces, it is 
intensely cold in winter, while in the southern, the climate is 
mild and pleasant. 

The soil is, in general, highly productive, though in the most 
northern provinces the cold climate and the short summer pre- 
vent the full development of the natural fertility of the soil. In 
the southern and some other parts of the country more or less ex- 
tensive steppes are to be found, the most remarkable of which are 
those of the Kirgises, in Bessarabia, near the Don and Dnieper, the 
Nogaian, of Azow, etc. Nearly 300 millions of a^res are appro- 
priated to agriculture, yielding annually about 152,750,000 quarters 
of wheat, rye, and other descriptions of grain, of which more than 
9,500,000 are exported. In 1841 corn was exported to the 
value of 10,382,509 rubles in silver ; in 1842 to the value of 
12,191,529 rubles; and in 1843 to the value of 12,899,911 ru- 
bles in silver. Of flax were, in 1843, exported 965,953 quintals, 
and of hemp 739,324 quintals. In Bessarabia, Tauria, Crimea, 
and on the banks of the Don even the vine is cultivated, and the 
annual produce of very good wines is estimated at about 2,200,- 
000 gallons. Vast forests abound in various parts of Russia, and 
they furnish the seaports with large supplies of timber, pitch, tar, 
etc., for exportation. Black cattle are reared in immense num- 
bers ; the finest breed is to be found in Podolia, Volhynia, and 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 583 

Natural Products and Manufactures. 

Ukraine, from which provinces thousands of heads are annually 
exported. Horses are likewise reared in vast numbers, and of 
various breed ; they are in general distinguished for their swift- 
ness and endurance. The total number of sheep in the Russian 
empire is estimated at 60,000,000 ; they are of different breed. 
European Russia numbered 4,000,000 of improved breed in 1843, 
when 169,491 quintals of their wool was exported. The above- 
mentioned extensive forests (i. e. those in the northern provinces, 
and especially in Siberia) abound in wild animals that are eagerly 
hunted for their valuable furs, as the sable, ermine, black fox, etc. 
Yet the bear, wolf, and other beasts of prey are likewise very 
common. The sturgeon, etc. fisheries of the river Volga, and of 
the Caspian Sea, are extensive and very productive. Upwards 
of 10,000 fishing-boats are employed on the Volga alone, Rus- 
sia is noted for its precious metals, of which gold and platina are 
found in the Ural Mountains, also in the Siberian province of 
Jeniseisk, and silver in Siberia, while copper, iron, and lead are 
met with in various quarters. In the five years' period of 1842- 
1846, the Russian gold mines in the Ural Mountains yielded a 
total produce of gold, which was, in England, estimated at £12,- 
784,808. In the one year of 1843, they produced 724,640 ounces 
of gold. Of platina were, in the same year, 71,680 ounces pro- 
duced. The annual produce in silver is, upon an average, esti- 
mated at 84,000 marks ; of copper, at 86,000 quintals ; of lead, at 
14,350 quintals, and of iron, at 3,500,000 quintals. The Ural 
Mountains contain also diamonds, emeralds, and other precious 
stones. — Salt is extensively made, especially in the southern 
provinces. 

The manufactures, which, during the greater part of the last 
century almost restricted to those of the noted Russia leather, 
have, since the reign of the empress Katharine II., and especially 
since that of the emperors Alexander and Nicholas, made aston- 



584 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia — its Manufactures and Commerce. 

isliing progress. In 1812 the Russian empire numbered 2,332 
manufactories, with 119,093 operatives ; in 1835. 6,045 manufac- 
tories, with 279,673 operatives ; in 1839 the former had increased 
to 6,855, and the latter to 412,931 ; and since the manufactures 
have increased to such an extent that they furnish the country 
with almost sufficient supplies, of which only about one sixth is 
imported from foreign countries. The various articles manufac- 
tured in 1843 had a value of nearly 103 millions of rubles in sil- 
ver, while those which were imported in the same year, had only 
the value of 18 millions. The chief manufacturing district is in 
and around Moscow, where in the just-named year cotton goods 
were manufactured to the value of 20,163,174, and silks to the 
value of 1,367,331 rubles in silver. Of other articles are to be 
noticed cloth, canvass, cutleries and hardware, leather, glass- 
ivare, etc. 

The commerce is very extensive, and increasing almost every 
year. In 1843 the exports were to the value of 82,565,600, and 
the imports to the value of 75,028,399 rubles in silver ; thus, the 
former surpassing the latter by 7,537,201 rubles in value. The 
exports consist chiefly of tallow, corn, hemp, flax, linseed, hemp-seed, 
timber, wool, canvass, iron, copper, Russian leather, furs (in 1843 
exported to the amount of 2,205,000 silver rubles in value), wax, 
hog's bristles, candles, soap, etc. Great fairs are held in different 
places, which attract vast crowds of merchants and traders from 
all parts. The inland commerce is much facilitated by the nu- 
merous rivers, canals, and lakes ; and by the snow, in the winter 
season, over which sleighs travel with great rapidity. The chief 
internal trade is with China, Independent Tartary, Persia, and 
Germany. With regard to the canals in European Russia, it is 
doubtful whether they, in general, do not afford more practical ad- 
vantages than those in Great Britain. At least, it is a fact, that 
by these canals the White, Black, Caspian, and Baltic Seas have 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 585 



The Russian Commerce, Schools and Government. 



been brought into connection with each other, and thus navigable 
internal lines, of enormous length, been established. The canals 
of Wisnei-Wolotsschok, Tichwin, Ladoga, and Nowgorod unite 
the Caspian Sea with the Baltic ; the canals of KubensU and 
Katharine unite the Caspian with the White Sea ; and the canals 
of Beresina, Oginski, and Machawez unite the Black Sea with the 
Baltic, while on the other hand, a direct connection between these 
canals themselves is established likewise. 

With regard to general diffusion of knowledge, and to common- 
school education, Russia has hitherto been greatly behind other 
European countries, yet is at present advancing in this particular, 
as well as in others. Considerable exertions are made by the 
government to introduce schools and instruct the lower classes of 
the people. In the period from 1837 to 1845 not less than 4,924 
common schools have been founded among the peasantry of the 
crown. They were in the last-named year frequented by 271,262 
children. In the higher branches of knowledge Russia rivals the 
rest of Europe. Beside several scientific societies, and public and 
private libraries, each of which contains from 100,000 to 450,000 
volumes, there are 7 universities (those of Warsaw and Wilna have 
been abolished in 1832), viz., at Dorpat (founded in 1632, and in 
1844 frequented by 484 students), at Moscow (founded in 1705. and 
in 1844 with 836 students), at Kasan (founded in 1803, and in 1844 
with 359 students), at Charkow (founded in 1803, and in 1844 
with 410 students), at St. Petersburg (founded in 1819, and in 
1844 with 557 students), at Helsingfors (founded in 1640 by 
Queen Christiana of Sweden, in Abo, in 1827 transferred to Hel- 
singfors, and in 1843 with 463 students), and at Kiew (founded 
in 1833, and in 1844 with 320 students). Every governmental or 
provincial capital contains a gymnasium ; in those of Irkutsk 
and Kiachta the Japan and Chinese languages are taught. 

The government is an absolute monarchy. All power emanates 



586 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia — its Finances and Army. 

from the Emperor, who is the head of the state and (Greek) 
church, and styled the Autocrat of all the Russias. 

The amount of the revenue, and of the expenditure, for several 
years has been about $81,000,000. One of the chief sources of 
the revenues are the customs, or duties, on goods imported from 
foreign countries. The public debt amounted in 1843 to 290,- 
434.155 rubles in silver, thus being far less than that not only 
of Great Britain, but also of France or Spain. 

The Russian army numbers at present not less than 1,000,000 
men in the war department, and is arranged into six main bodies, 
the general reserve, and the several corps of Cossacks. The six 
main bodies of the army are the following : 1. The great movable 
European army of operation, consisting of 465,720 men, with 1,200 
pieces of ordnance. 2. The European army of reserve, numbering 
202,480 men, with 472 pieces of artillery. 3. The Caucasian 
army, consisting of 150,167 men, with 302 pieces. 4. The main 
body of the army in Finland, numbering 16,000 men, with 16 
cannons. 5. That of Orenburg, consisting of 64,000 men, with 
16 pieces ; and 6. The main body of the army in Siberia, con- 
sisting of 16,000 men, with 16 pieces of artillery. The several 
regular corps of Cossacks (see note back) amount to 50.000 
men. Other Cossacks, generally forming irregular troops, have 
to guard the frontiers of the empire from inroads, etc. Thus 
the disposable forces Russia is entitled to send in the field in 
time of war, amount to about 800,000 men. Of course they con- 
sist only of the European armies of operation and reserve, and 
of the regiments of Cossacks ; because the main bodies of army 
in Caucasian Russia, in the province of Orenburg, etc., must keep 
their stations for the maintaining of internal peace and order 
there, and for the safety of the frontiers. As for the garrisons 
in other parts of the interior, and especially in the Polish prov- 
inces, they are easily provided for by the general reserve, whose 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 53*7 



The Russian Army and Navy. 



amount depends on the urgency of the circumstances, and for the 
most part comprise the troops trained up in the military colonies. 
The latter were established in 1820 with the view partly to save a 
large amount of the expenses for the army, and partly to allevi- 
ate the burden of the recruiting. They number about 400,000 
soldiers. In 1831 they underwent some reforms, and are now 
styled districts of farmer-soldiers. Since that period the system 
of recruiting the army by the conscription or a general levy pre- 
vails again. Liable to conscription are particularly the sons of 
tradesmen and peasantry, and usually two out of one hun- 
dred are levied. The merchants, professors, artists, physicians, 
civil officers, lawyers, etc., are not liable to the duty of military 
service ; and that bondsmen become free men as soon as they 
enter the army, is already noticed above. 

The navy consisted in 1840 of .56 ships of the line, carrying 
from 74 to 120 guns, 48 frigates, carrying from 44 to 60 guns, 
and an adequate number of sloops of war, brigs, and steamers. 
Of the ships of the line 31, and of the frigates 30, were stationed 
in the Baltic Sea (where Kronstadt and Reval are the chief sta- 
tions), and the remainder in the Black Sea, where the chief sta- 
tions of the navy are Sevastopol, Cherson, and Nicolajew. Ships of 
war of smaller size are stationed in the Caspian and White Seas. 

There are the following Orders of honor: 1. The order of St. 
Andreio, in one class, and instituted in 1698. 2. The Alexan- 
der Newsky order, in one class, and instituted in 1722. 3. The 
White Eagle order, primitively a Polish order, instituted in 1335, 
and renewed in 1705, in one class. 4. The St. Ann order, primi- 
tively a Holsteinian order, instituted in 1735, and in 4 classes. 
5. The St. Stanislaus order, primitively a Polish order, instituted 
in 1 765, and in 3 classes. 6. The order of St. George, a military 
order of merit, instituted in 1769, and in 4 classes. 7. The 
order of St. Wladimir, in 4 classes, and instituted in 1782; and 



588 EUROPE, PAST AM) PRESENT. 

Russia — its History. 

8. The St. Katharine order, only for ladies, in 2 classes, and in- 
stituted in 1714. 

History. — The ancient inhabitants of European Russia were but very little 
known to the Greeks and Romans, and comprised either by the general name 
Scythians, or by that of Sarmatians. They belonged to the Slavonic tribe 
as well as those who settled in the country at a later period (see page 29). 
They founded two subsequently renowned states of Novgorod (compare 
page 52) and Kiew ; yet for the rest, they were almost constantly engaged 
in civil wars. To put an end to them, the people of Novgorod and other pow- 
erful tribes sent in 862 of the Christian era, an embassy to the Scandinavian 
peninsula, which then already was noted for valiant and prudent men, and 
asked for one of them to become their sovereign. Three brothers, named 
Rurik, Snio and Truvor, and belonging to the family of Russ (hence subse- 
quently the name of Russia), followed the invitation, and Rurik, the eldest 
of them, became thus the ancestor of the still reigning dynasty of Russia. 
He founded the grand-duchy of Great Russia, whose capital was first Nov- 
gorod, but then Kiew. One of Rurik's descendants and successors, Wladimir, 
surnamed the Great, married a daughter of the Greek emperor in 988, and 
as she was a Christian, he not only himself, but also his people, were con- 
verted to Christianity. In the course of time not less than 400 churches 
were built in Kiew, which at the same time became a city of such extent 
and splendor, that it used to be called a second Constantinople. At a later 
period a second grand-duchy took existence, viz., that of Wladimir ; and be- 
side it there were 50 principalities, which indeed nominally, yet for the most 
part not actually, were subjected to the sovereignty of the grand dukes. 
This being the state of things, Russia was an easy prey to the Mongolians, 
who in 1238 invaded the country and conquered it, with the exception of the 
city and republic of Novgorod. They suffered, however, the Russian grand 
dukes to continue reigning, though they were considered as their vassals and 
had to pay tribute to them ; and restricted their immediate authority and 
government to the kingdoms of Kasan and Astrachan, at that time com- 
prised by the name of Kaptshak. In 1328 the grand-duchy of Wladimir 
was united with that of Moscow, in 1480 the yoke of the Mongolians thrown 
off, and in the years 1552 and 54 their last possessions in Russia, Kaptshak, 
re-conquered. Meanwhile, the grand duke Ivan, surnamed the Great, and 
reigning from 1462 to 1505, had subjected all dependent principalities to his 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 589 



History of Russia. 



authority, and thus established one single and united empire, upon which he 
assumed the title of Czar (which means nothing else but king). In 1598 the 
male line of the house of Rurik became extinct, and now a period of fifteen 
years ensued, during which both the Poles and Swedes wrested several prov- 
inces from the empire, which at that time was the scene of civil wars. 
At last the Russians regained strength, and driving away the enemies from 
abroad, elected Michael Romanow (whose mother belonged to the house of 
Rurik) their king, in 1613. King Michael died in 1645, and was succeeded 
by his son Alexei (1645-1676), who was succeeded by his grandson, Feodor 
III. (1676-1682). All three were distinguished for their governmental skill 
and virtues. "When Feodor III. died in 1682, he was succeeded by his two 
sons, Ivan and Peter, at once. Yet the latter (born on the 20th June, 1672), 
leaving to his brother only the title of Czar, ascended in 1689 the throne as 
autocrat, by the name of Peter I, and was subsequently surnamed the Great. 
In the so-called Northern war (1700-1721), he wrested the provinces of 
Ingria, Esthnia, and Livonia from Sweden, and in the wars with the Turks 
he extended the Russian boundaries to the Sea of Azof. In 1722 he assumed 
the title of Emperor of all the Russias. He died in 1725, and was succeeded 
first by his consort, the empress Katharine I., then by his grandson, Peter 
II., with whom the male line of the house of Romanow became extinct, in 
1730. Yet Peter I. had left behind two daughters, Ann (married to the 
duke Charles Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp), and Elizabeth ; and his brother 
Ivan (-[-hi 1696) had likewise left behind two daughters, Katharine (duchess 
of Mecklenburg), and Ann (duchess of Kurland). The latter ascended first 
the throne as reigning empress, and was in 1740 succeeded by her niece 
(daughter of her sister Katharine), who, however, was removed in 1741, 
and succeeded by the reigning empress Elizabeth (daughter of Peter I.), who 
died in 1762, and was succeeded by her nephew, Peter III. (son of her sister 
Ann, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp; see History of Holstein), whose reign, 
however, did not last longer than six months, when he was succeeded by his 
consort, the empress Katharine II. (1762-1796). The latter was succeeded 
by her son, Paul I. (1796-1801), who was succeeded by his son, Alexander I. 
The present reigning emperor, since 1825, is Alexander's brother, Nicholas 
I., born on the 7th July, 1796 

The Russian empire is divided into about 60 counties, styled 
governments, which are subdivided into districts, styled circles. 



590 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Great Russia. 

Into 50 of these governments is European Russia divided ; but 
as it embraces, beside Russia proper, various constituent parts, 
whose names continually occur in history and other reading, and 
which therefore require to be described separately, we shall 
give the topographical description of European Russia in the fol- 
lowing order of succession : I. Great Russia ; II. Little Russia ; 
III. The Baltic Provinces ; IV. The Grand-duchy of Finland ; 
V. West or Polish Russia ; VI. The Kingdom of Poland ; VII. 
The Kingdom of Kasan ; VIII. The Kingdom of Astrachan, 
and IX. South Russia. — The governmental capitals will be found 
denoted thus, -(— 



I— GREAT RUSSIA. 

Area : 852,000 square miles. 
Population : 24,000,000 inhabitants. 



It comprises the centre of European Russia, extending north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean, has from old retained the above-stated 
name, and contains : 



-{-Moscow, the old capital, by eminence, of the Russian empire, and until 
1720 the imperial residence (the emperors are, for the rest, yet crowned 
here), in a beautiful and fertile plain, on the Moskwa (a branch of the Oka, 
which is a tributary of the Volga), south-eastward and 500 miles distant from 
St. Petersburg, and about 1,000 miles east-north-east of Berlin ; had, in 1840, 
15,275 dwelling-houses, and in 1843 a population of 375,200 inhabitants. In 
the great conflagration in 1812, which lasted from the 14th to the 21st Sep- 
tember, 6,500 buildings were destroyed. The long since rebuilt city contains 
a vast number of highly remarkable, and partly very magnificent public and 



RUSSIA IN" EUROPE. 591 



Geographical Description of Great Russia. 



private edifices and palaces ; for it is in the "winter season the chief residence 
of the Russian nobles. Among the public edifices ranks first the Kremlin, a 
very extensive castle, being 5 or 7 miles in circuit, and surrounded by a wall 
60 feet in height, and with numerous Gothic towers. The Kremlin comprises, 
beside the Gothic ancient palace of the Russian Czars, several convents, and 
not less than 32 churches, among which are to be noticed St. Mary's Ascen- 
sion's church (where the emperors are crowned), St. Michael's cathedral, with 
the sepulchres of Ivan the Great, and the church steeple, named Ivan Veliki, 
containing 22 bells, the largest of which weighs 1,400 quintals (not to be con- 
founded with another bell, founded in 1734, which is 67 feet round, 19 feet 
high, weighs 2,250 quintals, and is to be considered as the largest bell in 
the world). The aggregate number of churches in Moscow is 400, beside 
637 chapels. The church of St. Basil is remarkable for the peculiar style of 
its architecture. Moscow is not only the centre of the inland trade of Rus- 
sia, but at the same time noted for its exceedingly great wealth. Its mer- 
chants and tradesmen display much luxury, and rival, in this point, the rich 
nobles ; except they are on business tours, they are seldom seen in the streets 
but in coach-and-four or six horses. About the important manufactures of 
Moscow see above, and about its history, see page 38. Troizkoi Sergiev, a 
market-town noted for its wealthy convent and remarkable cathedral, is situ- 
ated south-eastward and 44 miles distant from Moscow. Mosaisk, a town 
on the Moskwa, westward and 60 miles distant from Moscow, has 4,500 in- 
habitants, and is remarkable for the battle on the 7th September, 1812. 
-(-Smolensk, a city on the Dnieper, 240 miles west-south-west of Moscow, 
with silk, linen, and leather manufactures, noted horse-marts, considerable 
trade, and 14,700 inhabitants. -{-Kaluga, a city on the Oka, south-westward 
and 106 miles distant from Moscow, with numerous and important manufac- 
tures, considerable trade, and 35,500 inhabitants. Borowsk, a town on the 
Protwa, is noted for its greens, and has 8,200 inhabitants. -{"Tula, an impor- 
tant manufacturing city, on the Upa (a branch of the Volga), southward and 
120 miles distant from Moscow, has 52,400 inhabitants, and is especially noted 
for its great manufactory of fire-arms and hardware, its numerous cloth and 
other manufactures, and its extensive trade. Bjelew, a town on the Oka, is 
likewise noted for hardware, etc., manufactures, and has 8,900 inhabitants. 
-(-Orfx, a city on the Oka, 220 miles south-south-west of Moscow, has 32,800 
inhabitants, and is noted for its hemp, considerable trade and manufactures 
of silk, linens, and leather. Brjansk, a town on the Desna, with a great can- 



592 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of Great Russia. 



non-foundry, extensive trade in timber, and 8,550 inhabitants. -{-Kursk, a city 
on the Kura and Tuskara, southward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, 
has 24,300 inhabitants, and is noted for its distinguished theological seminary, 
its leather manufactures, and annual fairs in its immediate neighborhood. 
Belgorod and Michaelovka, towns with respectively 11,100 and 6,000 inhabi- 
tants. -j-Woronesh, a city near the Don, 312 miles south-south-east of Mos- 
cow, with considerable cloth manufactures, extensive trade and commerce, 
and 45,000 inhabitants. Pawlovsk, a fortified town on the Don, is noted for 
its garden fruits, and has 3,500 inhabitants. -{-Tambow, a city near the Oka, 
south-eastward and 300 miles distant from Moscow, is noted for its cloth and 
canvass manufactures, and has 21,000 inhabitants. Jelatma, a town on the 
Oka, with trade in corn and hemp, and 6,500 inhabitants. In its neighbor- 
hood are considerable iron-works, especially at Ujenslc. -j-Rjaesan, a city 
on the Trubesh, south-eastward and 113 miles distant from Moscow, with 
cloth, canvass, linen, and other manufactures, and 20,000 inhabitants. Kasi- 
mov, a city on the Oka, is noted for its considerable fur trade, and has 10,000 
inhabitants, among whom are many Mohammedan Tartars. -{-Nishnei-Nov- 
gorod, a city on the Volga, at its junction with the Oka, and at the high- 
road between Moscow and Siberia, is highly famed for its annual fair (at all 
events, the most important throughout Europe), and has 28,000 inhabitants. 
It lies 580 miles east-south-east of Novgorod, noticed above in History, with 
which it is not to be confounded. Liscowo, a market-town on the Volga, is 
famed for its linens and horse-marts, and has 4,000 inhabitants. -{-Wladimir, 
a city on the Kljasma, eastward and 116 miles distant from Moscow, with 
a noted theological seminary and gymnasium, considerable culture of garden 
and other fruits, with silk manufactures, and 12,000 inhabitants. Wladimir 
was, in the period from 115*7 to 1328, the capital of a Russian grand-duchy 
(see above, in History). Ivanovo, an extensive village, noted for its consider- 
able manufactures, especially of cotton goods, with 6,000 inhabitants. -{-Kos- 
troma, a city on the Volga, north-eastward and 180 miles distant from 
Moscow, with considerable leather and other manufactures, and 14,000 inhabi- 
tants. -{-Jaroslav, a city on the Volga, 1*70 miles north-north-east of Moscow, 
is noted for its academy, and considerable manufactures, and has 33,200 in- 
habitants. Rostow, a very ancient city, on a lake of the same name, with a 
remarkable ancient cathedral, considerable inland trade, noted fairs, and 
7,800 inhabitants. Rybinsk, a town on the Volga, 46 miles above Jaroslav, 
is an emporium of the Russian inland trade, and the centre for the inland 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 593 



Geographical Description of Great Russia. 



navigation, is moreover noted for its linen manufactures, and has 7,500 in- 
habitants. -{-Twer, a city on the Volga, north-westward and 94 miles dis- 
tant from Moscow, with considerable trade, and 24,000 inhabitants. -j-Ples- 
kow, or Pskow, a city near the Peipus lake, south-westward and 156 miles 
distant from St. Petersburg, was, in the middle ages, an emporium (see page 
50), is at present noted for its Russian leather manufactures and annual fair, 
and has 12,000 inhabitants. -{-Novgorod, a city on the Ilmen lake, south- 
ward and about 100 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has at present only 
1 5,000 inhabitants, but was, in the middle ages, a renowned commercial city 
and republic (see above, in History, and page 50). -[-Petrosawodsk, a city 
on the lake Onega, north-eastward and 190 miles distant from St. Peters- 
burg, is noted for its cannon-foundry, copper and iron- works, and has 7,000 
inhabitants. Olonetz, a town on the Ladoga lake, with iron and copper 
mines, and 3,000 inhabitants. -{-Wologda, a city on a river of the same 
name, eastward and 360 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with numerous 
manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 16,400 inhabitants. ZTstjtig-Weliki, 
a city at the high-road between Archangel and Siberia, with numerous and 
noted manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 14,000 inhabitants, -f- Arch- 
angel, an important commercial city, on the Dwina, 38 miles from the White 
Sea, north-eastward and nearly 300 miles distant from St. Petersburg, with 
numerous manufactures, docks, etc., and 22,000 inhabitants. Archangel was 
founded in 1584. Kola, the most northern town in European Russia, near 
the Arctic Ocean, 380 miles north-north-west of Archangel, with considerable 
fisheries, and 1,500 inhabitants. The island of Nova Zembla, the largest in 
the Arctic Ocean, having nearly 95,000 square miles in extent, is situated 
near the northern extremity of European Russia, yet northward of the Arctic 
circle, in about 72° north latitude. Being dreary and mostly covered with 
masses of snow and ice, it has no permanent inhabitants, yet is in the sum- 
mer season resorted to by a great many Russian hunters and fishermen, for 
the island abounds with white bears, white foxes, reindeer, seals, etc. The 
group of the Spitzbergen islands belongs likewise to Russia, lies in the 
Arctic Ocean, between 76° 30' and 80° 40' north latitude, and between 70° 
and 24° longitude east from Greenwich, is resorted to by whalers and Rus- 
sian hunters, and has in recent times become the seat of a hunting and fish- 
ing settlement, consisting of about 25 Norwegians and Laplanders. 



594 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of Little Russia. 



II— LITTLE RUSSIA. 

Area: 76,680 square miles. 
Population : 6,500,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated on the south-west side of Great Russia, and both 
in history and common life usually named Ukraine ; is, in some 
respect, to be considered as the basis of the Russian empire (as 
may be derived from the History above), and was until 1674 the 
chief seat of those warlike Russians, who since have, by way of 
eminence, been called Cossacks (see the note back). It con- 
tains : 

-4-Kiew, or Kiev, its former capital, and in the period of 880-1157 the resi- 
dence of the Russian grand dukes (see History, above), on the Dnieper, south- 
ward and 336 miles distant from Smolensk, and south-eastward and 450 miles 
distant from Warsaw, with 1 Roman Catholic, 1 Lutheran, and 25 Greek 
churches (among the latter are the cathedral and St. Andrew's church highly 
remarkable), 9 convents (among which that of Petscheri is noted for its ex- 
tensive vaults and sepulchres), a university (see above), important annual 
fairs, and 48,000 inhabitants. Uman, a city on the Umanka, with consider- 
able trade in cattle, and 10,000 inhabitants. The neighboring estate of Sqfi- 
ovha is famed for its extensive and handsome gardens and park. Lisianka, 
a town noted as a watering-place, has 3,000 inhabitants. -[-Czernigow, a city 
on the Desna, with various branches of industry, and 11,100 inhabitants. 
Krolewetz, a town noted for its important annual fairs, has 6,200 inhabitants. 
-{-Pultawa, or Poltawa, a city on the Pultawka, south-eastward and 200 
miles distant from Kiew, has 15,600 inhabitants, is noted for its extensive in- 
land trade, and remarkable in history for the battle in 1709, in which 
Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by the Russians. The neighboring 
former village of Retshitilova is at present a city, with 11,000 inhabitants. 
-(-Charkow, a city on the Donetz, 86 miles east-north-east of Pultawa, is 
noted for its university (see back), its important annual fairs, and consider- 
able inland trade, and has 34,000 inhabitants. Achtyrka, a city on a river 
of the same name, is noted for its fruits, and has 16,000 inhabitants. 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 595 



Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. 



III.— THE BALTIC PROVINCES. 

Area : 55,380 square miles. 
Population : 3,000,000 inhabitants. 

They comprise the four provinces of Tngria, Esthnia, Livonia, 
and Curland, the three first-named of which were conquered and 
wrested from Sweden in the so-called Northern war (1700-1721), 
while Curland was not before the year 1795 annexed to the Rus- 
sian empire. The majority of the population are Germans, or of 
German origin, beside aboriginal tribes, while but rather few 
Russians proper are to be met with here. 

1. Ingria (18,531 square miles, and 1,350,000 inhabitants), situated at the 
head of the Gulf of Finland, and on the Ladoga lake, already in the 13th 
century belonged to Russia, but was in 1617 ceded to Sweden, and occupied 
again in L703, contains : -{-St. Petersburg, imperial residence, and officially 
second capital of the Russian empire, at the mouth of the Newa (which river 
is 1.200 feet wide here), north-westward and 500 miles distant from Moscow, 
with (in 1843) 8,958, and (in 1846) 473,000 inhabitants. St. Petersburg is 
the most regularly-built and splendid city in the world, and is highly famed 
for its vast number of magnificent palaces and public edifices. It is at the 
same time the principal place of commerce for the empire, and the seat of 
its learning and science. (Concerning its university, see back.) The imperial 
public library contains 450,000, and that of the university 100,000 volumes. 
The imperial winter palace has 721 feet in front, and contains in its first floor 
alone about 100 saloons and apartments. St. Isaac's cathedral is one of the 
finest churches in the world, and with its handsome cupola, 317 feet in height. 
The annual traffic of the principal mercantile houses of St. Petersburg (Stieg- 
litz & Co., I. Thomas & Co., G-. Loder & Co., etc.), may be estimated at 30, 
25, and 20 millions rubles. Zarskoje-Selo, a city connected by a railroad with 
St. Petersburg, has 10,400 inhabitants, and is famed for its magnificent impe- 
rial palace (1,200 feet in front) and very extensive and remarkable park. 



596 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. 

Gatschina, a town southward and 28 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has 
5,500 inhabitants, and is noted for its handsome imperial palace, where Em- 
peror Paul resided before his accession to the throne. Kronstadt, a strongly 
fortified city on an island of the Gulf of Finland, westward and 28 miles dis- 
tant from St. Petersburg, is the chief station of the Russian navy in the Bal- 
tic, and has three distinct harbors, vast docks, considerable naval depots, 
arsenal, etc., and 55,000 inhabitants. Narva, the ancient capital of Ingria, 
near the Gulf of Finland, has 5,000 inhabitants, is fortified, and noted in his- 
tory for the victory Charles XII. of Sweden obtained here over the Russians 
on the 30th November, 11 00. 

2. Esthnia, (7,242 square miles, and 350,000 inhabitants), on the south side 
of the Gulf of Finland, and on the west bounded by the Baltic Sea, was in 
1217 conquered by the Knights of the order of the Sword (instituted in the 
latter half of the 1 2th century, having the same aim in view as the Teutonic 
order, and joining the latter in 1231), in the 16th century annexed to the 
kingdom of Sweden, and in the beginning of the 18th century conquered by 
the Russians. It contains : -J-Reval, its ancient capital, on a bay of the Gulf 
of Finland, westward and 220 miles distant from St. Petersburg, has 30,000 
inhabitants (for the most part Germans), a spacious and commodious harbor, 
where part of the Russian navy is stationed, 21 churches of several denomi- 
nations, a noted gymnasium, and other higher schools and literary institu- 
tions, and considerable commerce. Reval, founded in the 13th century, was 
subsequently a very active member of the Hanseatic League. Habsal, Weis- 
senstein, and Wesenberg, towns with respectively 1,600, 3,100, and 1,300 
inhabitants. Near the coast of Esthnia is situated the island of Dago (309 
square miles, and 10,000 inhabitants, is noted for its sheep of improved breed, 
and for cloth manufactures), and the isles of Worms and Nuck'6. 

3. Livonia (18,144 square miles, and 800,000 inhabitants), between Esthnia 
and Curland, on the Gulf of Riga (see page 9). It was conquered about the close 
of the 12th century by the above-mentioned knights of the order of the Sword, 
who since retained it, until in the 16th century their grand-master, Gotthard 
Kettler, ceded it to the king of Poland, who, in compensation for it, invested 
him with Curland as a duchy. In 1660 Poland was compelled by the Swedes, 
to cede Livonia to them, which in the Northern war (1700-21) was con- 
quered by Russia and annexed to it. It contains : 4-Riga, its ancient capi- 
tal, on the Duna, 7 miles from the sea, south-west and 340 miles distant from 
St. Petersburg, is next to this latter city the most important commercial 



RUSSIA m EUROPE. 597 



Geographical Description of the Baltic Provinces. 



place and seaport of the Russian empire (in 1843 its exports were 16,1*78,633 
silver rubles in value) ; has 72,000 inhabitants, is strongly fortified, bears in 
the architectural style of its buildings, and in the customs and manners of its 
inhabitants, the stamp of a German city, and is noted not only for its exten- 
sive commerce, but also for its important manufactures, literary institutions, 
its magnificent city-hall, churches (the steeple of St. Peter's is 440 feet in 
height), etc. Riga was founded in the year 1200, chiefly by merchants from 
Bremen, who already in 1186 had established a trading settlement in the 
neighboring village of Uexkull. Dorp at, a city on the Embach, north-east- 
ward and 145 miles distant from Riga, is noted for its university (see above) 
and its considerable inland trade, and has 14,000 inhabitants, who for the 
most part consist of Germans. Wenden (with 2,700 inhabitants), Wohnar 
(with 1,800 inhabitants), Lemsal (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Fellin (with 
1,800 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Pernau, a commercial and 
maritime town on the Gulf of Riga, with extensive commerce, and 6,000 in- 
habitants. Near the coast of Livonia is situated the highly fertile island of 
Oesel (1,917 square miles, and 35,000 inhabitants), containing, among other 
places, the town of Arensburg, with 1,600 inhabitants. 

4. Curland (10,863 square miles, and 500,000 inhabitants), on the south 
side of Livonia, and on the west bounded by the Baltic Ocean. It was a 
constituent part of Poland until in 1561 the former grand-master of the 
knights of the order of the Sword, Gotthard Kettler, was invested with it as 
a hereditary duchy (see above). One of his descendants and successors was 
in 1710 married with the Russian grand duchess Ann (see History of Rus- 
sia), but died childless in the following year. His widow having mounted 
the Russian throne in 1730, caused the state of Curland to elect her lord 
high chamberlain, Count Ernest John of JBiron, their duke, with which they 
complied. Thus he became duke of Curland, and was in 1770, when he 
died, succeeded by his son Peter, who reigned until 1795, when the Russian 
empress, Katharine II., caused the states of Curland to subject the duchy to 
the sovereignty of the Russian empire. Since that period it has formed a 
constituent part of the latter. It contains : -J-Mietau, its ancient capital, on 
the river Aa, 28 miles south-south west of Riga, and 190 miles north-north- 
east of Konjgsberg (in Prussia), with a former ducal palace, 10 churches for 
several denominations, a noted gymnasium, important annual fairs, and 29,000 
inhabitants, a great part of whom being Germans. Bauske (with 2,300 in- 
habitants), Seelburg (with 900 inhabitants), Friedrichstadt (with 2,500 inhabi- 



598 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of Curland and Finland. 



tants), Jakobstadt (with 4,000 inhabitants), Goldingen (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
Grubin (with 900 inhabitants), and Tukum (with 1,800 inhabitants), more or 
less remarkable towns. Libatj, a very important commercial city on the 
Baltic Sea, with 12,000 inhabitants. Windau, a maritime town on the Bal- 
tic, with rather considerable commerce, and 2,000 inhabitants. 



IV.— THE GRAND-DUCHY OF FINLAND. 

Area: 136,320 square miles. 
Population: 1,500,000 inhabitants. 

It extends from the neighborhood of St. Petersburg north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean, is on the west bounded by Norway, 
Sweden, and the Gulf of Bothnia, and on the south by the Gulf 
of Finland. In the period from 1157 to 1293 Finland was con- 
quered by the Swedes, who in 1339 ceded the first part, in 1722 
a second, in 1743 a third part, and in 1809 (by the treaty of peace 
concluded at Frederikshamn on the 17th September of that year) 
the whole remainder of Finland to Russia. It contains 

-{-Abo, its ancient capital, at the entrance into the Gulf of Bothnia, with 
some literary institutions, noted manufactures, docks, commerce, and 15,000 
inhabitants. Nystad, a commercial and maritime town on the Gulf of Both- 
nia, with various branches of industry, and 2,500 inhabitants. Bjorneborg, a 
maritime town on the Gulf of Bothnia, with noted docks, rather considerable 
trade and commerce, and 5,000 inhabitants. Ramea, a very ancient mari- 
time town on the named gulf, with 2,000 inhabitants. Near Abo is situated, 
in the Gulf of Bothnia, the group of the Aland Isles, 80 of which are inhab- 
ited, having an aggregate population of 15,000 inhabitants, who subsist on hus- 
bandry, fishing, fowling, hunting (several of the islands are covered with for- 
ests abounding with wild animals), etc. The principal island is named 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 599 

Geographical Description of Finland. 

Aland. -}-Helsingfors, a maritime commercial city on the Gulf of Finland, 
with a university (see above), a strongly fortified and commodious harbor, 
docks, linen and canvass manufactures, considerable commerce, and 16,000 
inhabitants. In its neighborhood is situated, on seven islands, the fortress of 
Sveaborg, frequently called the " Northern Gibraltar," on account of its ex- 
traordinary strength, with vast docks, and 3,500 inhabitants. Ekenas, a 
maritime town on the Gulf of Finland, with 1,600 inhabitants. -{-Tavaste- 
hus, a town on a lake, northward and 56 miles distant from Helsingfors, 
with noted fairs, and 2,000 inhabitants. -j-Wiborg, a fortified town at the 
north-eastern part of the Gulf of Finland, north-westward and 84 miles dis- 
tant from St. Petersburg, with rather considerable commerce, and 7,000 in- 
habitants. It was formerly the capital of Carelia, as the eastern section 
of Finland was named. -\-Lovisa (with 3,000 inhabitants), Frederikshamn 
(with 4,000 inhabitants), and Borgo (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less 
important commercial towns on the Gulf of Finland. -\-Kuopio, a town on 
a lake in the interior of the country, with 800 inhabitants. -j-Wasa, a 
commercial town on the Gulf of Bothnia, northward and 190 miles distant 
from Abo, with harbors, docks, and 4,000 inhabitants. Other more or less 
important commercial towns on the Gulf of Bothnia are : C'hristinestad 
(with 1,800 inhabitants), Ny and Gamla Carleby (New and Old Carleby ; 
with respectively 900 and 2,500 inhabitants), Jacobstad (i. e. Jamestown ; has 
1,500 inhabitants), and JBrahestad (with 1,500 inhabitants). 4-Uleaborg, a 
commercial city on the Gulf of Bothnia, 350 miles north-north-east of Abo, 
is regularly laid out, carries on a considerable trade in tar, pitch, timber, but- 
ter, etc., and has 5,000 inhabitants. Tornea, a town on a river of the same 
name (see page 13), and at the head of the Gulf of Bothnia, with 2 churches, 
a harbor, and 750 inhabitants. — The most remarkable villages, or rather 
parishes, in Russian Lapland (see Lapland, under the head of Sweden) are 
Kusamo (with 3,000 inhabitants), Kemitrask (with 1,800 inhabitants), and 
Enontekis (with 600 inhabitants, who are trading especially to Tornea). 



600 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of West Russia. 



V.— WEST, OR POLISH RUSS 

Area: 159,750 square miles. 
Population : 8,500,000 inhabita 

Lying between Great Russia and the kingdom of Poland, it 
comprises former Polish provinces acquired and annexed to Rus- 
sia in the period from 1772 to 1809. Thus, the inhabitants are 
for the most part Poles, beside numerous Jews. The soil is very 
fertile in corn and grazing. The principal section of Polish Rus- 
sia consists of Lithuania, and three other sections are generally 
known by the names of Podlachia, Volhynia, and Podolia, though 
they officially are styled governments, and bear the names of their 
respective chief towns, or capitals. 

Lithuania (112,890 square miles, and 5,000,000 inhabitants), once a power- 
ful grand-duchy, taking existence in the beginning of the 13th century, and 
being united with the kingdom of Poland in 1886, in this way that Grand- 
duke Jagello of Lithuania married Queen Hedwig of Poland, contains: 
-f- Wilna, the ancient capital of Lithuania, on the Wilia, at its junction with 
the Wilenka, north-eastward and 250 miles distant from Warsaw, has 54,000 
inhabitants, and is noted for several highly remarkable churches, for its lite- 
rary institutions, its medical academy (the university founded here in 1570, 
was in 1882 abolished), and its considerable trade. Braslaw (with 2,000 in- 
habitants), Smorgoni (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Troki (with 4,000 inhabi- 
tants), more or less remarkable towns. -}-Kowno, a city on the Wilia, 60 
miles west-north-west of Wilna, is noted for its mead, carries on a consider- 
able trade, and has 9,000 inhabitants. -(-Grodno, a city on the Niemen, 
south-westward and 86 miles distant from Wilna, has 15,600 inhabitants 
(three fourths of them are Jews), carries on a considerable trade, and is noted 
for its annual fairs. Formerly every third Polish Diet was held here. The 
little town of Mereczowszczisa is remarkable as the birth-place of Kosciuszko 



RUSSIA m EUROPE. 601 



Geographical Description of West Russia. 



(born on the 12th February, 1146). — Within the limits of the former princi- 
pality of Samogitia, wrested from the Teutonic Order in 1408, and then an- 
nexed to Lithuania, are situated the towns of Rosienie (once its capital, has 
6,300 inhabitants), Miedniki (with 1,800 inhabitants) Jurburg (with 4,00; 
inhabitants), Polangen (with 1,800 inhabitants), Tauroggen (with 2,000 inhabi 
tant), and Kieydani (with 5,000 inhabitants). — The following cities and towns, 
until the next dash, are situated within the limits of a Lithuanian section 
which, both in history and other writing, frequently occurs by the name of 
White Russia, viz., -j-Mohilew, a city on the Dnieper, with noted leather 
manufactures, considerable culture of fruits and greens, a very extensive trade 
and commerce, and 23,200 inhabitants. Homel, a town on the Sosha, with 
noted horse-marts, considerable trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. -j-Witebsk, 
city on the Duna, eastward and 200 miles distant from Wilna, and 90 mile 
west-north-west of Smolensk, carries on a considerable trade, is noted for it: 
mead, and has 18,000 inhabitants. Polozk, a town on the Duna, north-west- 
ward and 60 miles distant from Witebsk, with considerable trade in grai. 
and other natural products, and 10,300 inhabitants. Dunaburg, a strong! 
fortified town on the Duna, with 7,200 inhabitants. -{-Minsk, a city on th 
Swislocz, south-eastward and 110 miles distant from "Wilna, with a handsome 
Catholic cathedral, renowned annual fairs, styled contracts, and 22,500 inhabi- 
tants. Bobruisk, a city on the Beresina, has 21,000 inhabitants, and is note: 
for its remarkably strong fortress. — Nowogrodek, a town 72 miles west- 
south-west of Minsk, with 3,800 inhabitants, was formerly the capital of the 
section of Lithuania, known by the name of Black Russia. The village of 
Bialowieza is situated in the centre of the forest of the same name that is 
115 miles in circuit, and harbors not only the elk, bear, wolf, lynx, etc., bu 
also about 900 or 1,000 heads of wild oxen (anciently to be found in vas" 
numbers throughout Central Europe, and known there by the name of owres 
or ure oxen). Slonini and Sluzk, towns with respectively 7,600 and 8,400 
inhabitants. — Brjzesc, surnamed Litewski, a strongly fortified city on the Bug 
and at the frontier of Poland, eastward and 120 miles distant from Warsaw 
has 11,400 inhabitants, carries on a considerable trade, is noted for a military 
school and a Jewish academy, and was formerly the capital of that section 
of Lithuania, known by the name of Polesia, and to which did belong, more 
over, the towns of Pruschani (with 4,000 inhabitants), Kobryn (with 5,80 C 
inhabitants), Davidow (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Pinsk (with noted man- 
ufactures of Russian leather, and 7,400 inhabitants), 

26 



602 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of West Russia. 

The sections of Podlachia, Volhynia, and Podolia were formerly constitu- 
ent parts of what was styled Little Poland (which, together with Great 
Poland and Lithuania, constituted the ancient kingdom of Poland), a. In 
Podlachia are to be noticed : Drohyczyn, its former capital, on the Bug, 
and within the limits of the present government of Grodno, eastward and 
76 miles distant from Warsaw, with 2,000 inhabitants Bjalystock, a city 
on the Biala, north-eastward and 120 miles distant from "Warsaw, is 
handsomely and partly magnificently built, so that it has been styled " Pod- 
lachian Versailles," carries on an important trade, and has 10,700 inhabitants. 
Bielsk, a town on the Biala, 100 miles east-north-east of Warsaw, with 2,500 
inhabitants. Knyszyn and Siemiatyce, towns with respectively 1,600 and 
4,000 inhabitants, b. In Volhynia are to be noticed : Luzk, its former cap- 
ital, on the Styr, 75 miles north-north-east of Lemberg (in Galicia), with 
7,000 inhabitants. -j-Schitomir, or Zytomierz, a city on the Teterow, with 
leather and other manufactures, extensive trade in corn, wine, etc., and 27,000 
inhabitants. Krzemleniec, a city on the Ikva, with a noted gymnasium, and 
10,300 inhabitants. Ostrog, a city on the Wilia, with an extensive Greek 
monastery, important trade, and 9,700 inhabitants. Berdyczew, a city on 
the Guilopiat, eastward and 18 miles distant from Brody (in Galicia), is the 
centre of the Russian trade with Germany by Brody, especially in furs, is 
moreover noted for its horse-marts, and has 34,100 inhabitants. Radzivilov, 
a town at the frontier of Galicia, with considerable trade, and 5,000 inhabi- 
tants, c. In Podolia are to be noticed : -j-Kaminiec, surnarned PodolsH, its 
capital, on the Dniester, south-eastward and 140 miles distant from Lemberg 
(in Galicia), with a Greek and a Catholic cathedral, some manufactures, trade, 
and 16,000 inhabitants. Bar, a town noted in history for a confederacy concluded 
here in 1768, against the then reigning king of Poland, and has 7,000 inhabi- 
tants. Mohilow (with 9,300 inhabitants), Miedzyborz (with 4,000 inhabitants) 
Janepol (with 2,000 inhabitants), Braclaw (with 3,600 inhabitants), Targowicz. 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), Tulczin (with 8,000 inhabitants), and Niemirow (with 
8,000 inhabitants), more or less important manufacturing and trading towns. 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 603 



Geographical and Historical Description of Poland. 



VI— THE KINGDOM OF POLAND. 

Area: 48,990 square miles. 
Population: 5,000,000 inhabitants. 

It is the most westerly constituent part of the Russian empire, 
on the east connected with West, or Polish Russia, and for the 
rest surrounded by Prussian and Austrian territories. The ma- 
jority of the population consists both of Poles and Roman Cath- 
olics ; there are, however, beside them, many Polish Dissenters, 
about 250,000 Protestants, and nearly 500,000 Jews, though in 
recent times a great part of the latter have contrived to settle in 
other Russian provinces. In the cities and towns are to be found 
many Germans. — At present the manufactures in Poland have 
attained a high pitch of improvement, and its inland trade is now 
greatly facilitated by common high-roads and railroads. — With 
regard to its history, it has already been remarked, page 29, that 
the main body of the Slavonians remained in Russia and Poland. 
The latter name came at first into vogue in the 9th century. In 
840 the Poles elected a simple peasant, named Plasty their duke, 
and his dynasty continued reigning for more than five centuries 
(viz., until 1370). Duke Mieceslav embraced the Christian re- 
ligion in 955, and his son, Boleslav I., surnamed Chrobri, was 
crowned King of Poland in 1024. With King Casimir the 
Great, who died in 1370, the male line of the Piasts became ex- 
tinct, and his only sister being married to the king of Hungary, 
the Polish magnates, vayvodes, and bishops agreed upon the suc- 
cession of Casimir's nephew, Louis of Hungary, who died in 1385, 
and was succeeded by his only daughter Hedwig, who was mar- 
ried to the grand duke Jagello of Lithuania (see above, under the 



604 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — History of Poland. 



head of Lithuania). Jagello now mounted the throne of the 
united kingdom of Poland, by the name of Vladislav II. During 
the reign of his dynasty, Poland became gradually the most 
powerful kingdom of Europe, which extended from the Baltic to 
the Black Sea, and from beyond the Dnieper to the Oder river. 
In the 15th and 1 6th centuries it had an area of more than 
383,400 square miles, thus being as large as all France and 
Spain put together. Yet its internal strength had been weak- 
ened by the continued encroaching upon the prerogatives of the 
crown on the part of the Polish nobles, who at the same time 
wrested gradually nearly all political rights from the middle 
classes (the peasantry were from of old, the bondsmen of the 
nobility) ; so that at last the majority of the Polish people were 
to be considered as entirely subject to the sway of the nobles, 
who were indeed the actual rulers of the kingdom, especially 
since the dynasty of the Jagellos had become extinct in 1572, and 
the kings hereafter been elected. It was a matter of course, that 
as soon as the nobles had attained their aim, the most violent 
quarrels and dissensions arose among themselves ; and it would 
have been a fact unprecedented in history, if under such cir- 
cumstances Poland had continued forever to be an independ- 
ent state. For want of room, we cannot enter into any further 
particulars with regard to the three divisions of Poland between 
the neighboring powers. The first division took place in 1772, 
when Russia became possessed of White Russia (see above, un- 
der the head of Lithuania), Austria of Galicia, and Prussia of 
the subsequent provinces of West Prussia. The second division 
took place in 1793, when the greatest part of Great Poland 
fell to the share of Prussia, and the remainder of Lithuania to 
that of Russia, while Austria did at this time acquire nothing. 
The third division took place in 1795, when Prussia became pos- 
sessed of the remainder of Great Poland, together with Podlachia, 



RUSSIA m EUROPE. 605 



The History and Geographical Description of Poland. 



while the remainder of the kingdom was divived between Rus- 
sia and Austria. In 1807 Napoleon restored Great Poland to 
political independency, and appointed the king of Saxony its 
sovereign, with grand-ducal title. This grand-duchy was divided 
into 6 departments (of Warsaw, Poseu, Kalisch, Bromberg, 
Plock, and Lomza), and had, at the close of the year 1808, a 
population of 2,371,826 inhabitants, and an extent of about 
38,000 square miles. In 1815 its western part was restored to 
Prussia, and to the remainder, which Russia retained, the title of 
a kingdom, and a constitution was conferred, which latter it for- 
feited in consequence of a revolution in 1830-31. It may still 
be noticed, with regard to the ancient kingdom of Poland (i. e., as 
it was previous to 1772), that its north-western part used to be 
styled Great Poland, its southern or south-eastern part Little 
Poland, and the remainder Lithuania. — The kingdom of Poland 
is at present divided into the 5 governments of Warsaw, Plock 
(both within the limits of Great Poland), Augustovo (situated 
within the limits of Lithuania), Radom, and Lublin (within the 
limits of Little Poland), and contains : 

-[-"Warsaw, ancient capital of Poland, on the Vistule (left bank, while on 
the opposite side of the river Warsaw's suburb Praga is situated), ranks 
at present among the finest cities in Europe, containing numerous palaces 
and other magnificent public and private buildings, is at the same time the 
centre of Polish industry and commerce, and noted for its strong fortifica- 
tions (among which ranks first the extensive citadel of Alexander, reared in 
1832 and the following years), and had at the close of the year 1845 a popu- 
lation of 156,073 inhabitants. Rava (with 3,200 inhabitants), Lowicz (with 
noted horse-marts, and 1,100 inhabitants), Tomaszov (with considerable cloth 
manufactures, and 5,000 inhabitants), Ozorkov (with cloth manufactures, and 
8,000 inhabitants), and Brzesk, surnamed Cujavski (with 1,800 inhabitants), 
towns. Kalish, a handsome city, on the Prosna, and near the frontier of Po- 
sen, with important linen and cloth manufactures, extensive inland trade, and 
12,000 inhabitants. Sieradz (with 2,100 inhabitants), Czenstochau (with 7,000 



606 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of Poland. 

inhabitants), Zdunska Wola (with 9,000 inhabitants), LasJc (with 2,000 in- 
habitants), and Petrikau (with 4,500 inhabitants), more or less notable towns. 
-}-Plock, a city on the Vistule, 60 miles below Warsaw, with a remarkable 
cathedral, various manufactures, considerable trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. 
Modlin, at present officially named Novo-Georgievsk, a very strong fortress 
on the Vistule, at its junction with the Bug. Pultusk, a town on the Narew, 
northward and 32 miles distant from Warsaw, with 4,000 inhabitants, is 
noted in history for battles in 1*703 and 1806. Ostrolenka, a town on the Na- 
rew, north-eastward and 64 miles distant from Warsaw, with 1,800 inhabitants. 
Battle on the 26th May, 1831, between the Russians and Poles. -|-Suwalki, 
chief town of the above-mentioned government of Augustovo, at the high- 
road between Warsaw and St. Petersburg, is regularly and handsomely 
built, and has 5,000 inhabitants. Lo?nza, a fortified town on the Narew, with 
3,500 inhabitants. Augustovo, a town on a lake, southward and 18 miles 
distant from Suwalki, with noted cattle and horse-marts, and 3,400 inhabi- 
tants. -j-Radom, a town on the Radomka, southward and 56 miles distant 
from Warsaw, with 1,000 inhabitants. Sandomir, a town on the Vistule, at 
its junction with the San, with inland trade, and 4,500 inhabitants. Staszov 
(with 3,200 inhabitants), Konskie (with 3,400 inhabitants), Szydlowiec (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Opatow (with 2,500 inhabitants), and Zawichost (with 
2,400 inhabitants), towns. Kielce, until recent times chief town of a gov- 
ernment, at present united with that of Radom, north-eastward and 64 miles 
distant from Cracow, with considerable iron-works and iron trade, and 6,000 
inhabitants. Other more or less remarkable towns are : Chenceny (with 
3,000 inhabitants), Zarki (with 2,800 inhabitants), Pilica (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Olkusz (with 1,500 inhabitants), Miechow (with 1,600 inhabitants), 
Slavkov (with 2,200 inhabitants), Pinczow (with 4,200 inhabitants), Schidlow 
(with 1,800 inhabitants), Wislitza (with 1,500 inhabitants), and Siewierz 
(with 1,500 inhabitants), which latter was once the capital of the ancient 
duchy of Severia, that for a long period belonged to Silesia. -j-LuBLrN, a 
city in a beautiful and fertile district, on a lake, south-eastward and 116 
miles distant from Warsaw, with 18 churches (among them a remarkable 
cathedral), 12 monasteries, and 6 nunneries, several magnificent palaces, con- 
siderable inland trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. Pulawy, a town on the Vis- 
tule, with 3,000 inhabitants, is noted for the splendid mansion of the prince 
of Czar tory ski. Siedlce, a town eastward and 56 miles distant from War- 
saw, with 5,000 inhabitants. Zamosk, a town on a little lake, and at the 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. GOT 



Geographical Description of Poland and the Kingdom of Kasan. 

high-road between Warsaw and Lemberg, has 4,800 inhabitants, and is rioted 
for its strong fortress. Dubienka (with 2,000 inhabitants), Lenzna (with 2,600 
inhabitants), Chehn (with 800 inhabitants), Tamaszow (with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants), Hrubieszoio (with 4,000 inhabitants), Kock (with 1,800 inhabitants), 
Lukow (with 3,200 inhabitants), and Miedzerzyce (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
more or less notable towns. 



VII— THE KINGDOM OF KASAN. 

Area: 251,340 square miles. 
Population : 6,000,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated between Great Russia and Siberia, and among its 
population are many Tartars, Kalmucks, Mordwines, and other 
tribes. It was since the latter half of the 13th century under 
the sway of the Mongoles, until in 1552 the Russians conquered 
it. It contains : 

-4-Kasan, its capital, on the Kasanka, near its junction with the Volga, east- 
ward and 500 miles distant from Moscow, has 45,500 inhabitants, and is noted 
for its university (see ante), its numerous and important manufactures, and 
its extensive inland trade, especially to Siberia. Tetinschi (with 3,000 inhab- 
itants), Swiask (with 3,500 inhabitants), and Tsheboksar (with 5,200 inhab- 
itants), more or less notable towns. -[-Perm, a city on the Kama, north-east- 
ward and 340 miles distant from Kasan, and westward and 240 miles distant 
from Tobolsk, has 27,000 inhabitants, carries on considerable inland trade, and 
is noted for its productive copper and iron mines. Near Kungur (a town with 
8,400 inhabitants), are likewise such mines. Solikamsk, a town on the Kama, 
with 5,000 inhabitants, is noted for its fur trade and salt-works. Katharin- 
burg, or Jekaterinburg, a fortified city at the foot of the Ural Mountains, and 
in the centre of the gold and platina mining district, with various manufac- 
tures, and 16,000 inhabitants. Werchoturie (with 3,000 inhabitants), and 



608 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of the Kingdoms of Kasan and Astrachan. 

Nishnei-Tagil sk (with 20,000 inhabitants), are noted mining towns. The 
town of Irbit, between Katharinburg and Tobolsk, with 4,000 inhabitants, is 
noted for its important annual fairs. -(-Wjatka, a city on the river Wjatka, 
northward and 200 miles distant from Kasan, with a handsome cathedral, 
considerable trade, especially in grain, and 11,000 inhabitants. Ish, or Ish- 
evski-Zavod, a noted manufacturing town, on the river Ish, with 12,000 in- 
habitants. Sarapul, a town, with various manufactures, salt and corn trade, 
and 6,000 inhabitants. Slobosk, or Slobodskoi, a town on the Wjatka, has 
6,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its considerable iron-works. Jebalaga, a 
town near the Kama, with leather and other manufactures, considerable 
trade, and 4,700 inhabitants. -(-Simbirsk, a city on the Volga, southward 
and 116 miles distant from Kasan, with various branches of industry, inland 
trade, and 18,000 inhabitants. Sysran, a city on the Volga, with 13,000 in- 
habitants, is noted for its cattle fairs. Samara, a city on the Volga, with 
considerable trade, and 12,000 inhabitants. -J-Pensa, a city on the Sura 
(branch of the Volga), south-eastward and 370 miles distant from Moscow, 
has 20,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its leather and linen manufactures. 
Saransk (with 10,200 inhabitants), Insara (with 3,000 inhabitants), Nishnij 
Lomov (with 7,000 inhabitants), Werchi Lomov (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
Kerensk (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Mokshansk (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
more or less notable towns. 



«8»» 



VIII— THE KINGDOM OF ASTRACHAN. 

Area : 329,837 square miles. 
Population : 4,000,000 inhabitants. 

It is situated between the kingdom of Kasan and the Cas- 
pian Sea, and among its population are many Kalmucks, Bash- 
kirs, Kirguises, etc. It was in 1554 conquered by the Russians, 
having until then been under the sway of the Mongoles, like the 
kingdom of Kasan. It contains : 



RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 609 



Geographical Description of the Kingdom of Astrachan. 

-{-Astrachan, its capital, on an island of the Volga, and at about 60 miles 
distance from the mouths of this river, southward and 700 miles distant from 
Kasan, and south-eastward and 900 miles distant from Moscow, has 48,000 
inhabitants, and is not only one of the first commercial cities of the Russian 
empire, but also renowned for its sturgeon fisheries, which latter yield an im- 
mense revenue. The commerce and trade of Astrachan extend so far as even 
to India. The town of Krasnoi-Jar, with 3,000 inhabitants, is the residence 
of a Kalmuck Khan. Tshernoi-Jar is a fortified town, with 3,500 inhabitants. 
-{-Saratow, a city on the Volga, northward and 420 miles distant from As- 
trachan, with canvass, leather, and other manufactures, considerable inland 
trade, and 45,000 inhabitants. Within the limits of the Saratow government 
are more than one hundred German settlements, among them Sarepta, founded 
in 1765 by Moravian Brethren, and being a very handsome and industrious 
town, with 3,500 inhabitants. Other notable towns are : Zaritzin (with 5,000 
inhabitants), Petrovsk (with 7,000 inhabitants), Kamyshin (with 7,300 inhab- 
itants), Kusnetzk (with 10,700 inhabitants), and Wolsk (with 15,600 inhab- 
itants). The government of Orenburg, the most extensive in European 
Russia, contains among others : -|-Oufa, a city on the Bilaja (branch of the 
Volga), eastward and 300 miles distant from Kasan, is the seat of a Mufti 
for the Mohammedans in Russia, and has 1 3,000 inhabitants. Orenburg, a for- 
tified city on the Ural river, north-eastward and 530 miles distant from As- 
trachan, and south-eastward and 1,600 miles distant from St. Petersburg, is 
the emporium for the Russian trade with Central Asia, and at the same time 
a chief military station in this quarter, and has 16,000 inhabitants. Uralsk, 
formerly called Jaik, a fortified town on the Ural river, with important fish- 
ery, considerable trade, and 16,000 inhabitants. 

26* 



610 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 



Russia in Europe.— Geographical Description of South Russia. 



IX.— SOUTH RUSSIA. 

Area: 189,510 square miles. 
Population : 3,500,000 inhabitants. 

It embraces, for the most part, former territories of Turkey, 
wrested from this power in the course of the last and in the 
beginning of this century, and is divided into 6 governments 
and provinces, which are to be described separately. 

1. The government of Tauris, comprising the Tauric Chersonese (Crimea 
proper), and the Nogyan Steppe. The former, or Crimea proper, consists 
of a peninsula projecting into the Black Sea, and connected with the main 
land only by an isthmus not more than four miles broad. The Tauric Moun- 
tains (see page 8) are covered with valuable forests, and intersected with 
beautiful and densely-peopled valleys. The peninsula in general is noted for 
the fertility of its soil and the mildness of its climate. In the 6th century 
before the Christian era, Greeks from Asia Minor began to establish colonies 
in Crimea, where since flourishing commercial towns arose. Respectively 
in 1774 and 1783, Crimea was annexed to the Russian empire. It contains: 
-[-Simferopol, a city at the northern foot of the Tauric Mountains, with 5 
churches, 4 mosques, a seminary for Tartars, a botanic garden, and 8,600 in- 
habitants. Baktshisarai, once the capital of Crimea, in a romantic valley, 
with a remarkable ancient palace of the Tartar Khans, who ruled the coun- 
try, 32 mosques, 2 churches, manufactures of fire-arms and cutlery, and 
12,800 inhabitants. Sevastopol, a city on a bay of the south-west coast, 
is noted for one of the finest and most spacious harbors in Europe, where 
the Russian fleets in the Black Sea have their chief station, and has 
44,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is situated the maritime town of Ba- 
laklava, with 2,000 inhabitants. Kaffa, or Feodosia, a maritime town on 
the south coast, with several literary institutions, considerable fishery, and 
7,000 inhabitants. Kaffa belonged in the period of 1262-1475 to the Gen- 
oese, and was at that time a noted commercial city, with 80,000 inhabitants. 
Karasu, a city in the centre of the peninsula, with noted leather and other 



RUSSIA IN" EUROPE. 611 

Geographical Description of South Russia. 

manufactures, and 12,000 inhabitants. Koslow, or Jewpatoria, a maritime 
town on the west coast, with considerable commerce, and 10,000 inhabitants. 
Other maritime towns are Jalta (with 6,000 inhabitants), and Kertsh (with 
4,000 inhabitants). — The above-mentioned Nogayan Steppe (to which, for the 
rest, the name of Crimea is frequently extended) contains: Nogayzg, the 
chief place of the Nogayan Tartars, near the Sea of Azov, with 1,300 inhab- 
itants. Aleshki, a fortified town on the Dnieper, with 4,000 inhabitants. 
Berdjansk, a maritime town on the Sea of Azov, with considerable commerce, 
and 8,000 inhabitants. 

2. The government of Cherson, noted for the fertility of its soil, contains : 
-{-Cherson, a city on the Gulf of Liman (see page 12), with a commodious 
harbor, where part of the Russian fleets in the Black Sea are stationed, a 
very strong citadel, considerable industry and commerce, and 30,000 inhabi- 
tants. Nikolajew, a city at the mouth of the Bog, with a fine harbor, which 
is the third station of the Russian navy in the Black Sea, vast docks, hand- 
some houses, and 29,600 inhabitants. Elisabethgrad (with 12,000 inhabitants), 
Olviopol (with 2,600 inhabitants), Novo Mirgorod (witli 2,500 inhabitants), and 
WosnosensJc (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less notable towns. Odessa, a 
commercial city on a bay of the Black Sea, is the Russian emporium in 
this quarter, and at the same time one of the finest cities in Bussia, with 
80,000 inhabitants. In 1844 the exports of Odessa were at the value of 
18,209,699 silver rubles, and the imports of the value of 5,870,986 rubles. 
Odessa was founded in 1192. Oczakow, a town on the Gulf of Liman, was 
formerly noted for its strong fortress, and had more than 50,000 inhabitants, 
but was in 1788 taken by storm, and has since fallen greatly in decay. At 
present it has only 4,600 inhabitants. Ovidiopol, Tiraspol, and Origoriopol, 
towns with respectively 3,000, 6,600, and 4,000 inhabitants. 

3. The province of Bessarabia, separated from Moldavia (of which it formed 
part until 1812) by the river Pruth, and from the government of Cherson 
by the Dniester. This country is noted in ancient history by the name of 
Scythian Desert, and for the abortive expedition of Darius against the Scyth- 
ians in 514 B. 0, The province of Bessarabia contains : -+-Kishenev, a city on 
the Bikul river, eastward and 70 miles distant from Jassy (in Moldavia), is 
noted for its culture of fruits, and has 43,000 inhabitants. Ismail, a forti- 
fied city on the Danube, with numerous leather and other manufactures, con- 
siderable commerce, and 22,000 inhabitants, KUia, a fortified town at the 
mouth of the Danube, with provision trade, and 6,000 inhabitants. Ahjev 



612 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT 



Russia in Europe. — Geographical Description of South Russia. 

man, a fortified city at the mouth of the Dniester, with vine culture, fishery, 
considerable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Reny (anciently called Dino- 
getia), a fortified town at the mouth of the Pruth, with 6,000 inhabitants. 
Other more or less remarkable towns are : Belzi (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Orghei (with 2,000 inhabitants), Chotin (with 11,100 inhabitants), and SoroJca 
(with 2,000 inhabitants). Bender, a fortified city on the Dniester, north- 
westward and 70 miles distant from Odessa, with important leather manu- 
factures, and 10,000 inhabitants. Charles XII. of Sweden lived here from 
1709 to 1711. 

4. The government of Jekaterinoslav, comprising only older Russian terri- 
tories, contains: -{- Jekaterinoslav, a city on the Dnieper, 170 miles above 
Cherson, with silk stocking and cloth manufactures, and 12,500 inhabitants. 
Bachmut, a town on the Bachmuta, is noted for its horse-marts and tallow 
trade, and has 4,000 inhabitants. Other more or less notable towns are : 
Alexandrowsk (with 4,000 inhabitants), Mariupol (with 3,700 inhabitants), 
Nachitschewan (with 13,000 inhabitants), and St. Dmitria Rostovskaja (with 
9,100 inhabitants), Azov, a town near the mouth of the Don, has at present 
only 1,000 inhabitants, but was in the middle ages an important commercial 
city. Taganrog, a city on the Sea of Azov, has 22,500 inhabitants, and is at 
present the emporium for the trade with the provinces along the Don river. 
On the 1st December, 1825, Emperor Alexander I. died here. 

5. The land of the Cossacks of the Don, situated on both sides of this 
river, on the east bounded by the kingdom of Astrachan. Its area is estimated 
at 60,700 square miles, and the population at 640,500 inhabitants. The gen- 
erally fertile soil is rather well cultivated, and even vine culture is carried on 
extensively. About the Cossacks see above, page 580. Those of the Don 
differ from other Cossacks (as, for instance, of the Ural, of Tshernomorsk, etc. 
Cossacks), only by some attainments in industry, and a more general 
diffusion of knowledge. -|-^ owoi -Tsherkask, at present their capital, is 
situated near the Don, about 40 miles above Azov, has 18,000 inhabitants, 8 
churches, a gymnasium, a literary society, various manufactures, trade, etc. 
The former capital was Staroi Tsherkask (i. e. Old Tsherkask), situated on an 
island of the Don, with 15,000 inhabitants, vine culture, considerable fishery, 
and 7 churches, one of which is noted for its rich ornaments in gold, silver, 
pearls, and precious stones. 

6. The land of the Cossacks of Tshernomorsk (i. e. of the Black Sea), on 
the Sea of Azov and the Strait of Jenikale (see page 10), formerly known by 



RUSSIA m EUROPE. 613 



Geographical Description of South Russia. 



the name of Kuban, and annexed to Russia in 1782. It contains: 4-Jeka- 
terinador, a town on the Kuban river, southward and 150 miles distant 
from Azov, with noted annual fairs, a gymnasium, and 3,000 inhabitants. 
The island of Toman, lying before the mouth of the Kuban, was in ancient 
times noted by the name of Phanagoria, and its chief town Tmutarakan 
(with 1,000 inhabitants), was in the middle ages a flourishing commercial 
city. 



THE IONIAN ISIANDS. 

Area: 1,108 square miles. 
Population : 220,000 inhabitants. 

These islands, 7 in number, and lying in the Ionian Sea (see 
page 10), at the entrance into the Adriatic, are an aristocratic 
republic, under the protection of Great Britain, whose sovereign 
appoints the lord high commissioner, who is at the head of the 
government, or, properly said, the actual ruler. 

The inhabitants are, for the most part, Greeks ; but beside 
them are many Italians, English, etc. The Greek population is 
divided into three classes, the nobility, burghers, and peasantry. 
The nobility is not only possessed of nearly all the real estate, 
but occupy also the higher political and ecclesiastical offices. 

The surface of the islands is more or less mountainous ; earth- 
quakes occur frequently ; the climate is unusually mild. The 
soil is comparatively rich in the fruits and products of southern 
Europe, especially in olives, currants, and vine. The rearing of 
cattle is rather insignificant. — The fabricating industry is re- 
stricted to some manufactures of silks, cottons, and linen.— -The 
commerce is very considerable; of currants alone, nearly 20,- 
000,000 pounds are annually exported. — The schools are in a 
very good condition. In 1823 a university was founded at Corfu, 
which is frequented by 250 or 300 students annually ; and beside 
it, there are 2 gymnasiums, more than 60 elementary schools, etc 

The government is, as has already been stated, an aristocratic 
republic, under the control of the British lord high commissioner. 



THE IONIAN ISLANDS. 615 

Geographical and Historical Description of the Islands. 

The legislative power is vested in an assembly of 40 members 
(11 of whom are life-members), and the executive power in a 
senate composed of 6 members of the legislative assembly, and 
a secretary of state, appointed by the lord high commissioner. 
The public revenue was in 1838 to the amount of £157,989, but 
is at present far less (by about £27,000). The public debt was 
in the named year £154,450. — Beside 1,600 men of Greek mili- 
tia, there are 4,000 men regular troops that are kept here by 
Great Britain. Corfu is a chief station for the British fleets 
in this part of the Mediterranean. 

History. — In the flourishing days of ancient Greece, the Ionian islands 
were independent states, and took little notice of what passed on the Greek 
continent. Subsequently they shared the latter's political fate, were sub- 
jected by the Romans, and for a long period formed a constituent part of 
the Eastern empire. In the 13th century the Neapolitans, and in the 14th 
the Venetians took possession of them, and retained them until 1797, when 
first the French, and in 1799 the then allied Russians and Turks occupied the 
islands, which in 1800 were by Emperor Paul transformed into a republic, 
under the protection of the Ottoman Porte. In 1807 the French took pos- 
session of them again, but in 1815 the republic was restored and placed un- 
der the protection of Great Britain. 

The population stated in the following description of the 7 
islands, is according to the census of 1846. The most northern 
island is Corfu, and the most southern, Cerigo. 

1. The island of Corfu (224 square miles, and 64,566 inhabitants), by 
Homer called Phaeakia, but by the ancients generally named Corcyra. It 
contains : Corfu, fortified capital of the whole group, and the residence of 
the British lord high commissioner, with the above-mentioned university, a 
gymnasium, considerable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Peritia, a town 
with 1,500 inhabitants. 

2. The island of Paxo (32 square miles, and 5,017 inhabitants), noted for 
its extensive olive culture, containing : San Nikolo, or Porto Gai, chief town, 



616 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Ionian Islands. — Geographical Description of these Islands. 

■with 1,500 inhabitants. The neighboring isle of Antipaxo is very fertile in 
grain and southern fruits, but only inhabited by fishermen. 

3. The island of Santa Maura (181 square miles, and 18,676 inhabitants), 
anciently called Leucadia, and productive in olive oil, wines, etc., contains : 
Amaxichi, or Amakuki, chief town, with 14 churches, 2 monasteries, and 
6,000 inhabitants. Porto Drapano has the finest harbor of the island. To 
St. Alaura belong the little isles of Sessola and Meganisi. 

4. The island of Cephalonia (351£ square miles, and 69,984 inhabitants), 
is highly noted for its pleasant climate, and for the enterprising spirit of its 
inhabitants, who rank among the best sailors in the Mediterranean. Chief 
town is Argostoli, with a handsome convent of Franciscans, considerable 
commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. Lixuri, a town, with vine culture, cotton 
plantations, and 5,000 inhabitants. Livato, a town with 1,500 inhabitants. 

5. The island of Theaki (43 square miles, and 10,821 inhabitants), an- 
ciently known by the name of Ithaka, and at present noted for its excellent 
wines, currants, and olives, containing : Vathi, chief town, with houses mostly 
built of free-stone, considerable commerce, and 2,500 inhabitants. 

6. The island of Zante (159£ square miles, and 38,929 inhabitants) is the 
most fertile of the whole group ; the annual produce in currants being esti- 
mated at nearly 100,000 quintals, in wines at 10,000 hogsheads, and in olive 
oil at 55,000 barrels ; beside oranges, and other southern fruits. Its capital, 
Zante, is handsomely built (the dwelling-houses are 4 or 5 stories high), 
carries on a very considerable commerce, and has 20,000 inhabitants. The 
Strophades, or Strivali Isles, belonging to Zante, are likewise productive in 
fruits, etc. 

1. The island of Cerigo (111 square miles, and 11,694 inhabitants), lying 
near the southern extremity of Morea, and anciently known by the name of 
Cythera, has a fertile soil in the valleys of the interior, and contains : Kap- 
sali, or Cerigo, chief town, with no inconsiderable commerce, and 1,500 in- 
habitants. The isle of Cerigotto, with 300 inhabitants, belongs to Cerigo. 



THE KINGDOM OF GfiEECE. 

Area: 19,149 square miles. 
Population : 1,000,000 inhabitants. 

Lying at the south-eastern extremity of Europe, between the 
Ionian Sea and the Archipelago (see page 10), it is on the north 
bounded by European Turkey, of which it formed a constituent 
part, in the period from 1458 to respectively 1827 and 1829. 

As modern kingdom, it took existence in 1832, and, as such, it 
comprises ancient Greece south of Thessaly and JEpirus, together 
with those islands in the Archipelago, called the Cyclades, and 
the northern Sporades. 

The inhabitants may be called descendants of the ancient 
Greeks, just as well as the modern Italians might be called de- 
scendants of the ancient Romans. But whether those renowned 
people of antiquity would recognize their modern namesakes as 
their genuine offspring, is another question, and at all events, 
very doubtful. Without mentioning the gradual, and after the 
first centuries of the Christian era, rapid and total degeneration 
of the Greeks, it is an historical fact, that the country underwent 
nearly as many vicissitudes as Italy ; and especially since the es- 
tablishment of the Turkish sway, the Greek inhabitants have 
been thus intermingled with Slavonian tribes, that they, except 
the name, have nothing more in common with the ancient 
Greeks. 

The established religion is that of the Greek Church. There 
are however, about 25,000 Roman Catholics, chiefly on the 
islands. 



618 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Kingdom of Greece. — Its Natural Products, Commerce, etc. 

Notwithstanding the prevailing mountainous character of the 
surface, beautiful plains and districts with fertile soil are not 
lacking. Five millions acres are computed as being adapted to 
agriculture (the soil is however still badly cultivated) ; 1.750,000 
acres as woodland ; 180,000 as vineyards, and 4,500 acres as cur- 
rant-plantations. The number of olive-trees amounted in 1845, 
to 723,101. — The number of black cattle was. in the same year, 
only 110,114 heads: of horses (of small breed, but enduring). 
84,723 ; of mules, 23,956 ; of common asses, 63,754 ; of hogs. 
78,292; of goats, 1,876,269, and of sheep, 2,442,769. The rear- 
ing of the silk-worm and of bees is considerable. 

The manufactures are small in amount, and consist chiefly of 
carpets, canvass, and morocco leather. 

The more considerable is both the commerce and shipping. In 
1840 the imports were at the aggregate value of $13,507,000, and 
the exports at the value of $13,848,000. In 1841 were, among 
other articles (as currants, olive-oil and wines, which are the chief 
staples), exported figs to the value of $43,333 ; almonds to that 
of $35,641 ; galls to that of $26,667 ; honey to that of $5,833 
and raw silk to the value of about $167,000. The Greek mer 
chant vessels amounted, in 1843, to 3,169 of the burthen of 137,508 
tons, and were navigated by 19,000 men. In 1845 they had in 
creased to 3,314, which were navigated by 40,000 men. The 
Greeks are the best sailors in the Mediterranean, and in the art 
of ship-building they are likewise highly skilled. 

Until recent times, the means of education were in the most 
miserable state, with the exception of some islands where several 
British and American missionaries had their labor-field, anc? 
founded several excellent schools. But in 1832, and the follow 
ing years, a great many German scholars came to the country 
and their endeavors for the general diffusion of knowledge anc 
for school education, were soon met with the happiest success 



THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 619 

Government, Finances, and History of Greece. 

In 1837 a university was founded at Athens, on the same plan as 
those of Germany ; and in 1841 it was already frequented by 292 
students. Beside this university, a gymnasium was founded in 
the same city ; 3 others are in Nauplia, Patras, and Syra. The 
total number of secondary schools amounted, in 1846, to 37, and 
that of primary schools to 301. 

The government is a constitutional monarchy, and Prince Otho 
of Bavaria (born on the 1st June, 1815, and brother of the 
presently reiguing king of Bavaria) is the first king (since 1832). 

According to the budget for 1845-46, the public revenue was 
estimated at 14,486,300 drachms ($2,414,365), and the expendi- 
ture at 14,786, 546 drachms (82,464,405), thus with a deficit of 
300,246 drachms (or $50,040). The public debt amounts to about 
96,000,000 drachms (nearly $16,000,000). 

The army consists of 4,060 men, and the navy of 33 vessels, 
among which are 2 sloops of war, 3 brigs, 2 steamers, 12 gun- 
boats, etc. 

King Otho has, in 1845, instituted the Order of the Redeemer, 
in 5 classes. 

History. — The continental part of the present kingdom of Greece was in 
antiquity called Hellas, and the peninsula of Morea known by the name of 
Peloponnesus. In Hellas were Attica, Boeotia, and Aetolia — in the Pelopon- 
nesus, Laconia, Messenia, Arcadia, and Achaia, the most remarkable states. 
It would partly lead us too far, and partly be superfluous to enter into any 
particulars of ancient Grecian history here ; and it may only be remarked, 
that in 146 B. C it was, when Greece was formally annexed to the Roman 
empire. Since the year 395 A. D. forming a constituent part of the Eastern 
empire, it shared its fate, and was in 1458 subdued by the Turks, under 
whose sway it continued to be nearly four centuries. Several endeavors 
made in the latter half of the last century to stir up the people, having 
failed, it was not before 1821, when the first beginning of an insurrection 
actually took place. The leaders behaved, however, with so little skill and 
circumspection, that while the rage and fanaticism of the Turks were roused, 



620 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Kingdom of Greece. — Geographical Description of Greece. 

nothing was won for the cause of the Greeks ; and the latter would have 
succumbed if England, France, and Russia had not taken their part. First a 
combined fleet of these powers destroyed the Turkish fleet in the bay of 
Navarino, on the 20th October, 1827, and then a French body of troops 
landed in Greece, and compelled the Turks to evacuate it. In the peace con- 
cluded at Adrianople on the 14th September, 1829, between Russia and the 
Ottoman Porte, the independence of Greece was recognized by the latter. 
Meanwhile Count Kapodistrias, a Greek from Corfu, and a distinguished 
statesman, had in 1827 been elected president of the provisional Greek gov- 
ernment, but on the 9th October, 1831, he was murdered by his own country- 
men, who generally have but little conception of rational* freedom. Upon 
this Prince Otho, of Bavaria (see back), was elected hereditary king of 
Greece. 

The kingdom of Greece is divided into 10 provinces, styled 
no?nos : or nomarchies, which are subdivided into 47 districts, or 
eparchies. Of the three principal sections of the kingdom, that 
of Hellas, at present called Livadia, is divided into 3 nomos ; 
Peloponnesus, or Morea, is divided into 5, and the Islands into 2 
nomos. The capitals of the nomos will be found denoted with 
this sign: +. 

1. Livadia, or ancient Hellas, contains : -[-Athens, capital of the kingdom 
and royal residence, near the Gulf of Egina, and in Attica, was, as is univer- 
sally known, one of the most celebrated cities of antiquity, that lay subse- 
quently for centuries almost in ruins, but is now reviving so rapidly, that it 
in 1845 had a population of 31,700 inhabitants. It is laid out in conformity 
to a regular plan, and contains, beside a magnificent royal palace, many 
other handsome public edifices and private buildings ; a university (see 
above), a military academy, a gymnasium, several other schools, 15 churches, 
10 or 12 printing-offices, a theatre, hackney-coaches and stages, in short, 
the various accessories of civilization. Athens carries on a considerable 
commerce, and is by a fine road connected with its seaport Pyr'aus (in 1842 
with 450 houses, and 2,275 inhabitants). Megara, a town on the isthmus of 
Corinth, and near the Gulf of Egina, with 2,000 inhabitants. In the just- 
named gulf are situated the isles of Egina (21 square miles, and 11,000 in- 



THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 621 



Geographical Description of the Kingdom. 



habitants), and Salamis, or Koluri (32 square miles, and 5,000 inhabitants). 
Livadia, at present chief town of Bozotia, north-westward and 50 miles dis- 
tant from Athens, with various branches of industry, and 6,000 inhabitants. 
Not far from here is the village of Kaprena, anciently so renowned by the 
name of Cheronea. The ancient capital of Boeotia, Thebes, bears at present 
the name of Thiva, and has only 3,000 inhabitants. -j-Amphissa, or Salona, 
a town near the Parnassus, and in the beautiful district of Lokris, north-west- 
ward and 80 miles distant from Athens, has 4,000 inhabitants, and is at 
present the capital of the nomos of Phthiolis (with Lokris) and Phokis. 
On the Gulf of Lepanto is situated the commercial town of Galaxidi, with 
2,000 inhabitants. Amurani, a town in a valley, with 1,500 inhabitants. 
Lidoriki, a city on the Cephissus, west-north-west and 60 miles distant from 
Thebes, with trade in olive oil, cotton and silk, and 15,000 inhabitants. In 
the neighborhood is the village of Kastri, once renowned by the name of 
Delphi. On the Gulf of Zeitun (that separates the northern extremity of 
Negropont from the Greek continent) is situated the fortified commercial 
town of Zeitun, or Lamia, with 4,000 inhabitants. Patradschik, or New Pa- 
trae, a town with 3,000 inhabitants. Atalante, or Talanii, a town near the 
Gulf of Talanti (that separates Negropont from the Greek continent), with 
3,000 inhabitants. Not far from here is the pass of Thermopylae. -}-Vrach- 
ori (anciently Trichonium), at present the capital of the nomos of Aetolia 
and Acamaixia, north-westward and 28 miles distant from Lepanto, and 
north-eastward and 18 miles distant from Missolonghi. with considerable 
trade, and 3,000 inhabitants. Lepanto, or Naupaktos, a town on the Gulf of 
Lepanto, has 3,000 inhabitants, and is noted in history for the victory the 
Spaniards obtained here over the Turkish fleet in 1571. Missolonghi, a 
fortified town on the Gulf of Patras, westward and 23 miles distant from 
Lepanto, with considerable commerce, and 4,000 inhabitants. Pragomestre 
(anciently Astakos), a maritime town on the Ionian Sea, with 1,500 inhab- 
itants. Vonitza, a town on the Gulf of Arta, with 1,000 inhabitants. Not 
far from here is the promontory, anciently called Actium, and noted for the 
victory Octavianus obtained here in 31 B. C. 

2. Morea, or ancient Peloponnesus, contains : -(-Corinth, once a magnifi- 
cent city, with 300,000 inhabitants, is at present reduced to a town with 
2,000 inhabitants. Nauplia, or Napoli di Romania, a city on the gulf of 
the same name, southward and 28 miles distant from Corinth, was until 
1835 the capital of modern Greece, carries on a considerable commerce, 



622 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

The Kingdom of Greece. — Geographical Description of the Kingdom. 



has 14,000 inhabitants, and contains many houses built in European style. 
The neighboring town of Pronia, founded in recent times and considered 
as the suburb of Nauplia, has already a population of 13,000 inhabitants. 
Argos, a town north-westwar.d and 7 miles distant from Nauplia, with 6,000 
inhabitants. The isle of Spezzia has only 21 square miles in extent, but a 
population of 7,000 inhabitants, who are considerably engaged in commerce 
and shipping. The isle of Hydra (58% square miles, and 30,000 inhabitants) 
is noted not only for the enterprising spirit of its inhabitants, who are very 
expert sailors, but also for its handsome city, one of the finest in Greece, 
containing 50 churches and several other more or less magnificent public edi- 
fices, and 18,000 inhabitants, who are much engaged in manufactures, and 
carry on an extensive commerce. The isle of Poros, anciently Kalauria (21 
square miles, and 3,000 inhabitants), has a harbor where part of the Greek 
navy is stationed. On this isle it was, where Demosthenes poisoned himself 
in 322 B. C. -|-Patras, or Patrae,& fortified capital of the nomos of Achaia 
and Elis, near the entrance to the Gulf of Lepanto, opposite the Ionian 
islands of Cephalonia and Ithaka, with extensive commerce, and 10,000 in- 
habitants. Aegion, or Vostizza, a town on the Gulf of Lepanto, is noted for 
.its fruits, and has 2,000 inhabitants. KalavrHa, a town with 3,000 inhabi- 
tants. Pyrgos, or Letrini, a maritime town on the Ionian Sea, with 1,500 
inhabitants (formerly and until 1825 with 10,000 inhabitants). -{-Arcadia, 
at present called Kyparlssa, the capital of the nomos of Messenia, on the 
Gulf of Arcadia, with considerable provision trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. 
Phanari (anciently Phigalia), a town with 2,000 inhabitants. Aiidrossa, a 
maritime town with 1,500 inhabitants. Navarino (anciently Pylos), a forti- 
fied maritime town at the south-western extremity of Morea, has a very 
spacious and commodious harbor, an! 2,000 inhabitants, and is noted for 
the above-mentioned battle in 1827. Modon (anciently 3Iethone), a fortified 
maritime town, southward and 9 miles distant from Navarino, with 7,000 
inhabitants. Koron, a fortified maritime town, with commerce, and 5,000 
inhabitants. -j-Tripolizza, the capital of the nomos of Arcadia (not to be 
confounded with the above-mentioned town of the same name), in the centre 
of Morea, with 8,000 inhabitants. Karytene, a town in a valley, is noted for 
its cattle, and has 8,000 inhabitants. Londari, a town, with 1,000 inhabi- 
tants. -J-Sparta, the capital of the nomos of Laconia, is founded recently 
on the spot of ancient Sparta, and has already 6,000 inhabitants. Napoli di 



THE KINGDOM OF GREECE. 623 

Geographical Description of the Kingdom. 

Malvasia (anciently Epidanrus Limerd), a maritime town, noted for its excel- 
lent wines, has 2,000 inhabitants. 

3. The principal Islands are the following : Negropont, anciently called 
Euboza, has an extent of 1,480 square miles, and a population of 60,000 in- 
habitants, has a fertile soil, and is in some places thickly wooded, and con- 
tains : -\-Chalkis, or Egribos, the capital of the island, and of the nomos of 
Eubcea, with 6,000 inhabitants, and Karystos, a town with 2,000 inhabitants. 
The northern Sporades, belonging to this nomos, comprise the 4 isles of 
Skyros (with 2,000 inhabitants), Skopelos (with 3,000 inhabitants), Skiathos 
and Halonesiis. The group of the Cyclades comprise 21 islands in the 
Archipelago, the most remarkable of which are : The island of Syra (48 
square miles, and 42,000 inhabitants), productive in grain, wine, olive-oil, 
fruits, etc., and containing : -\-Hermopolis, a very important commercial city, 
and in some respect the emporium of modern Greece, with 30,000 inhabitants. 
The islands of Tinos, or Tenos (85 square miles, and 20,000 inhabitants), and 
Andros (90 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), both noted for their silk, 
fruits, wine, etc. The island of Milo (64 square miles, and 10,000 inhabi- 
tants) productive in grain, cotton, fruits, etc., and containing the town of the 
same name, with a very fine harbor, considerable commerce and shipping, 
and 5,000 inhabitants. The island of Paros (85 square mile?, and 3,000 in- 
habitants), is noted for its fine marble. The little isle of Delos is at present 
inhabited. The island of Naxia, or Naxos (106 square miles, and 14,000 in- 
habitants), is noted for the fertility of its soil. The island of Thera, or 
Santorin (57 square miles, and 15,000 inhabitants), is noted for its excellent 
wines. 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 

Area: 209,422 square miles. 
Population: 12,500,000 inhabitants. 

European Turkey comprises nearly the whole of the large 
south-eastern peninsula of Europe, situated between the Adriatic 
and the Black Sea, on the north bounded by the Austrian and 
Russian empires, and on the south by Greece and the Archipel- 
ago. (That the Turkish or Ottoman empire extends its sway 
also over the western part of Asia, and nominally, even over 
Egypt, etc., is a well-known fact ; we now, however, refer only to 
Turkey in Europe.) 

The ruling people are the Turks, or (as they call themselves 
after their first sultan, Osman, who reigned from 1299 to 1326) 
Osmanlis ; but they constitute only about one eighteenth of the 
population, numbering little more than 700,000. They belong 
to the Tartarian tribe, and have their primitive home in Turk- 
istan. The majority of the population consists of Bulgarians 
Bosniacs, Servians, Wallachians, and other Slavonic tribes, and 
the remainder of Albanians (a mixed tribe, like the Greeks ; th< 
latter are about 1,180,000, and the Albanians about 1,000,000 ii 
number), Armenians (200,000), Jews (300,000), Gypsies (80, 00 
and Franks, as the foreigners from other European countries u^ 
to be called in Turkey (50,000). 

In point of religion, not only the Turks, but also a great pai 
of the Albanians, Bosniacs, and Bulgarians are Mohammedan 
and the other nations (except the Jews and Gypsies) are Chn 
tians of different denominations. 



EUROPEAN" TURKEY. 625 

Natural Products, Manufactures, and Commerce. 

For description of the mountains and rivers in European 
Turkey, see pages 6, 15 and 16. 

The climate is generally very mild and pleasant, and the soil, 
with the exception of some mountainous districts, very fertile, 
and produces, though badly and negligently cultivated, far more 
than what is required for home consumption. The products are 
Indian corn, wheat, barley, and rice, cotton (in Macedonia are an- 
nually about 70.000 bales produced), tobacco (of fine quality, es- 
pecially in Macedonia, where the annual produce is at the value 
of more than $250,000), and madder, poppy (very much in de- 
mand to make opium of it), saffron, wine (in Wallachia and Mol- 
davia, but also in other provinces), olives, and immense quantities 
of timber, the northern and western provinces being covered with 
extensive forests, among which the forest of Belgrad, beginning 
in the neighborhood of Constantinople, has a length of 115 miles. 
The horses are generally of very fine breed ; the same may be 
said of the cattle, but less of the sheep, whose wool is, for the 
most part, rather coarse ; hogs are only reared in the northern 
provinces, as pork is prohibited by the Koran. Though the 
mountains contain valuable ores, they are of no avail, as the min- 
ing pursuits are neglected. Only in Servia the mines are wrought. 
Salt is made in great quantities, especially in Moldavia and Wal- 
lachia. 

The manufactures are in some branches distinguished, especially 
those of leather, carpets, and cotton goods. Ambelakia, Larissa, 
etc., are noted for their dyeries in Turkish red. 

The commerce is considerable, as well as the inland trade, but 
the former is chiefly carried on by foreigners, and mostly confined 
to the port of Constantinople, and the latter is in the hands of 
Greeks, Armenians, Jews, etc. The principal articles of export 
are cotton, grain, tobacco, silk, wines, mastich, galls, horses, and 
cattle. The imports consist chiefly of manufactured goods. The 

27 



626 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

European Turkey — its Schools, Government, Army, etc. 



chief commercial intercourse is entertained with Austria, Rus- 
sia, Italy, England, France, and the United States. 

.Among the Turks common school education is more widely ex- 
tended than among the other nations in European Turkey. Some 
years ago there were in Constantinople alone, 1,653 Mohammedan 
elementary schools, beside 515 colleges, etc. On the 1st Sep- 
tember, 1846, the sultan has founded a university on the plan 
of other European institutions of the kind. Many Turks of the 
better class have, in recent times, made their studies in Vienna, 
Berlin, and Paris. 

The government is absolutely despotic in form, but at present, 
in consequence of the political reforms introduced by the late 
sultan, as well as by the present, actually limited. The sovereigu 
is commonly called Sultan, or Grand Signior, sometimes also, 
Turkish emperor. The prime minister is (or, properly said, was) 
called the Grand Vizier, and the court of the sultan, the Forte, 
or Sublime Porte. The Mufti is the chief interpreter of the law, 
and ranks next in dignity to the sultan, as is also the case with 
the Grand Vizier. Governors of provinces are called Pachas or 
Bashaws, and are of three different ranks, denoted by the num- 
ber of horses' tails on their standard. 

The revenues of the whole Turkish empire are estimated at 
$10,000,000 to $15,000,000; and the public debt to about 
$36,000,000. 

The regular army consists of 124,000 men, but it can, by the ir- 
regular troops, be increased to 218,000 men. The navy consists 
of 10 ships of the line, 10 frigates, and a certain number of other 
vessels. 

There are two Orders of honor, viz., 1. The order of Fame, in- 
stituted in 1831, and in 4 classes; and 2, The order of the Cres- 
cent, instituted in 1799, but at present seldom conferred upon 
any one. 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 627 



History of Turkey. 



History. — Most of the Turkish provinces in Europe were anciently inhab- 
ited by people, whom the Greeks comprised under the common term of Bar- 
barians. Thessalia was frequently considered as belonging to ancient Greece ; 
Macedonia had with the latter nothing in common, until the reign of King 
Philip and of Alexander the Great. At an earlier period Greek culture had 
been introduced in Epirus (Albania). All the other provinces were civilized 
chiefly by the Romans, who since respectively 196 and 146 B.C., gradually 
extended their sway over the whole peninsula that since the year 396 A. D., 
funned the basis of the Eastern or Greek empire. The history, if not of this 
empire in general, but of its court, is almost a continual succession of the 
most horrible cruelties. Blinding, cutting off noses, cutting out tongues, 
and similar barbarities followed the frequent revolutions of the state. 
Meanwhile the Arabs wrested gradually all African and Asiatic provinces 
from the empire. The Turks having, under their sultan, Osman (1299- 
1326) and his son and successor, Orchan, conquered Asia Minor, passed 
over the Dardanelles, and took possession of Gallipoli, and subsequently 
of other places and districts on the European side. Sultan Murad I. (1360- 
1389) made Adrianople his residence, and in 1453 (on the 26th May) Con- 
stantinople, the last remnant of the Eastern or Greek empire, was con- 
quered by Sultan Mohammed IL Henceforth the Turks were the terror 
of Christian Europe, and in the 16th century they were at the height 
of their power. But since they have been more and more declining, and 
but for the jealousy between the European powers, they would have long 
since been driven out from Europe. The presently reigning sultan is Abdul 
Meshid, born on the 19th April, 1823, and on the throne since the 1st 
July, 1839. 

European Turkey is divided into 4 provinces, styled Ejalets, 
which are subdivided into districts, styled Livas, or Sandjaks. 
But a more natural and historical division, adopted by most 
of the European geographers, is the following : I. Roumelia ; 
II. Bulgaria; III. Macedonia ; IV. Thessalia; V. The Islands ; 
VI. Albania; VII. Bosnia ; and VIII. Tributary Provinces. 



628 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

European Turkey. — The Province of Roumelia. 



I —ROUMELIA. 

It was anciently called Thracia, came in 71 B. C. under the 
sway of the Romans, and contains : 

Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman empire, and residence of the 
sultan, is built on seven hills, and beautifully situated on the Bosphorus, 
•which here forms a fine harbor, with 88,000 houses and (according to the 
census taken in 1844) 900,000 inhabitants, more than one half of whom are 
Turks. The city appears magnificently at a distance, the gilded domes and 
elegant minarets of its 485 mosques rising everywhere from the bosom of 
beautiful groves ; but on entering the narrow, crooked, and ill-paved streets, 
bordered by low and gloomy houses, the delusion soon vanishes. Some of 
the mosques are superb structures, as those of Sultan Suleyman (reared in 
the years 1550-55) and of Sultan Achmet (founded in 1610) ; but the most 
remarkable is the mosque of St. Sophia, until the Turkish sway a Greek 
cathedral, reared in the years 582-38 by Emperor Justinan I. Its cupola is 
165 feet high, and rests on 170 pillars. The seraglio is an assemblage of 
palaces, inhabited by the sultan and his court. Constantinople often suffers 
from desolating fires, and from the plague. More than 2,000 merchant ves- 
sels are annually visiting this port. The city is about 14 miles in circuit, and 
has 18 suburbs, two of which (Scutari, one of them, has 60,000 inhabitants) 
are situated on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus. Galltpoli, a city on the 
Dardanelles, and near the Sea of Marmora, is noted for its morocco leather, 
carries on a considerable commerce, and has 40,000 inhabitants. Rodosto, a 
city on the Marmora Sea, with vine culture, considerable commerce, and 
16,000 inhabitants. Other cities or towns on this sea are Silivri (with 8,000 
inhabitants), and Erekli, anciently Heraclea (with 3,000 inhabitants). The 
Prince Isles in the Marmora Sea, 9 in number, are noted for their fertility 
and beautiful sceneries, and have a total population of 5,000 inhabitants. 
Enos smd Kumurdshina, maritime towns, with respectively 8,000 and 12,000 
inhabitants. Adrianople, the second city in European Turkey, on the Ma- 
rissa, north-westward and 140 miles distant from Constantinople, with 10 
churches, 40 mosques (among which are the superb mosques of Sultan Selim 
II. and Murad II.), noted leather and other manufactures, considerable in- 
land trade, 30,000 houses, and 140,000 inhabitants. In the period from 1360 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 629 

Geographical Description of Roumelia and Bulgaria. 

to 1453 Adrianople was the residence of the Turkish Sultans, and on the 14th 
September, 1829, a peace was concluded here between Russia and the Otto- 
man Porte. Philippople, a city on the Marissa, with leather, silk, and other 
manufactures, important inland trade, and 40,000 inhabitants. Other more 
or less notable cities and towns are: Demotica (with 15,000 inhabitants), 
Tatar Basardshik (with 10,000 inhabitants), Eskisagra (with 20,000 inhabi- 
tants), Selimnia (with 20,000 inhabitants), Kirkilissa (with 16,000 inhabi- 
tants), Sizeboli (with 8,000 inhabitants), Eskibaba (with 8,000 inhabitants), 
and Burgas (on the Black Sea, with 5,000 inhabitants). 



II— BULGARIA. 

It was by the ancient Romans called Lower Moesia, is situated 
between the Balkan and the Danube, has derived its name from 
the Bulgarians, who, having their primitive seat between the 
Volga and the Ural, immigrated here in the beginning of the 
5th century, and contains : 

Sophia (anciently Sardica), its capital, at the foot of a pass in the Balkan 
Mountains, on the road from Constantinople to Belgrade, with 23 mosques, 
noted leather and other manufactures, important inland trade, mineral baths, 
and 50,000 inhabitants. Temova, formerly the capital of Bulgaria, at present 
the centre of its trade, is moreover noted for its rose oil and rose water, and 
has 12,000 inhabitants. Widdin, a city and strong fortress, on the Danube, 
at about 54 miles distance from the Hungarian Military Frontier (see above, 
under the head of Austria), with 25,000 inhabitants. Nicopoli, a city on the 
Danube, carries on a considerable trade with "Wallachia and Moldavia, is 
much engaged in vine culture, and has 10,000 inhabitants. In 1396 Sultan 
Bajazet obtained here a victory over King Sigismund of Hungary. Sistova, 
a city on the Danube, with considerable vine culture and wine trade, and 
21,000 inhabitants. Bustschuk, a city and fortress on the Danube, with noted 
leather, linen, cotton, and other manufactures, considerable trade, and 
30,000 inhabitants. Silistria, or Dristra, a city and fortress, on the Danube, 
with considerable trade, and 20,000 inhabitants. Jiassova, a fortified town 
on the Danube, 40 miles below Silistria, with 8,000 inhabitants. Shumla, a 



630 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

European Turkey. — The Provinces of Bulgaria and Macedonia. 

fortified city at the foot of the principal pass into the Balkan Mountains, 200 
miles north-north-west of Constantinople, and 220 miles east-south-east of 
Widdin, with various branches of industry, silk manufactures, considerable 
inland trade, and 30,000 inhabitants. Ratzgrad, or Hesargrad, a fortified 
city on the Lorn river, with 16,000 inhabitants. Varna, a fortified city on 
the Black Sea, 180 miles north-north-west of Constantinople, with a very 
commodious harbor, highly important commerce, and 16,000 inhabitants. 
Mangalia (with 1,000 inhabitants), and Kostandshi (with 4,000 inhabitants), 
maritime towns on the Black Sea. Basardshik and Babadagh, cities with 
respectively 12,000 and 1 0,000 inhabitants. Hirsova, or Kersova, a town on 
the Danube, with 4,000 inhabitants. 



III.— MACEDONIA. 

Between Roumelia and Thessalia, is the finest province of 
European Turkey, surpassing in fertility of the soil even the 
island of Sicily, and contains : 

Salonica, anciently Thessalonica, its capital, on the gulf of the same name, 
is next to Constantinople the most important seaport in European Turkey, 
with many Roman and Creek antiquities, noted dyeries and manufactures, 
extensive commerce, and 70,000 inhabitants. The primitive name of the 
city was Halia, or Therma, and its subsequent name is derived from that of 
Alexander the Great's sister, Thessalonica. Philip and Alexander of Mace- 
donia did not, however, reside here, but in Pella, at present called Jenidshe. 
Vardar, a town north-westward and 30 miles distant from Salonica, is noted 
for its tobacco, and has 6,000 inhabitants. Vodina, anciently Edessa, a city 
on the Vistritza, north-westward and 42 miles distant from Salonica, with 
12,000 inhabitants. Near the frontier of Roumelia is situated the fortified 
town of Drama, noted for its tobacco, with 8,000 inhabitants. The neigh- 
boring village of Filibe was anciently noted by the name of Philippi, where 
in 42 B. C. Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antonius and Octavianus, 
and where at a later period St. Paul preached the gospel (Acts xvi. 12, 13, 
etc.). Near the frontier of Roumelia is also situated Kavala, a town with 
3,000 inhabitants, is remarkable as the birth-place of Mehemet Ali, the late 
pacha of Egypt, and is noted for its tobacco. Seres, a city on the Strymon, 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 631 



Geographical Description of Macedonia, Thessalia, and the Islands. 

and in a district noted for its cotton plantations, with cotton manufactures, 
considerable commerce, and 30,000 inhabitants. Or/an, a maritime town on 
the Gulf of Contessa, with important trade in cotton, and 3,000 inhabitants. 
Between here and Salonica is the remarkable mount Athos, with numerous 
Greek convents, churches, and chapels. Karaveria, or Veria (anciently Be- 
roea), a city on the Ferina, with 8,000 inhabitants. Kostendil, a city at the 
southern foot of the Balkan, with warm sulphur baths, and 8,000 inhabitants. 



IV.— THESSALIA. 

It is situated between Macedonia and the kingdom of Greece, 
has an area of 3.514 square miles, and more than 300,000 Greek 
inhabitants, who are distinguished for their industry, and con- 
tains : 

Larissa, its capital, on the Peneus, or Salambria river, 30 miles from the 
Gulf of Salonica, with noted dyeries and manufactures, vine culture, con- 
siderable commerce, and 25,000 inhabitants. Ambelakia, a town at the en- 
trance into the romantic valley of Tempe, with dyeries in Turkish red, trade 
in cotton, and 4,000 inhabitants. Tumovo, a town on the Salambria, and in 
the valley of Tempe, with cotton and silk manufactures, and 4,000 inhabi- 
tants. TriJcala, a city on the Salambria, with dyeries in Turkish red, and 
12,000 inhabitants. Farsa, anciently Pharsalus, a town in a well-cultivated 
plain, southward and 24 miles distant from Larissa, has 5,000 inhabitants, 
and is noted in history for the victory Csesar obtained here over Pompejus in 
48 B. C. Volo, a maritime town on the Gulf of Volo, with corn and silk 
trade, and 2,500 inhabitants. 

V.— THE ISLANDS. 

The islands in the Archipelago and in the Mediterranean, 
which are considered as belonging to European Turkey, are the 
following : 

1. The island of Candia, anciently known by the name of Creta, is situated 
in the Mediterranean, near the entrance into the Archipelago, and has an ex- 



632 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

European Turkey. — The Turkish Islands and Albania. 

tent of 4,008 square miles, and a population of 140,000 inhabitants, one half 
of whom consists of Turks, and the remainder of Greeks (among them about 
8,000 Sphakiotes), Armenians, Jews, and 6,000 Abadiotes (of Arabian origin). 
The island is very productive, especially in cotton, olive oil, wine, fruits, 
grain, etc. The island came in 68 B. C. under the sway of the Romans, and 
in 823 A. D. under that of the Arabs. Subsequently it often changed hands, 
until in 1669 the Turks became possessed of it. Its fortified capital, Candia. 
is situated on the northern coast, and has 12,000 inhabitants. The ancient re- 
nowned city of Kydonia bears at present the name of Canea, carries on a 
considerable commerce, and has 12,000 inhabitants. Rettimo, anciently 
Rhitymna, a maritime town, with 6,000 inhabitants. iSphakia, a town noted 
for its vine culture, has 1,800 inhabitants. — 2. The island of Lemnos (160 
square miles, and 8,000 inhabitants) is situated in the Archipelago, opposite 
the coast of Macedonia, is also called Stalimene, and is noted for the Lemnian 
earth. — 3. The island of Thasos, or Taso (85 square miles, and 6,000 inhab- 
itants), near the coasts of Macedonia and Roumelia, is noted for its wines and 
marble. — 4. The island of Samothraki, anciently Samothracia (36 square 
miles, and 1,500 inhabitants), has fertile valleys and an industrious popula- 
tion.^-5. The island of Imbro, or Imbros (85 square miles, and 4,000 inhab- 
itants), is wooded, with fertile valleys. 



VI.— ALBANIA. 

It was anciently called Epirus, and is situated along the Ionian 
and Adriatic Seas. Having been ruled for several centuries by 
native kings, Epirus was, in 148 B. C, annexed to the Roman 
empire, and in the latter half of the 15th century it was con- 
quered by the Turks. Concerning the Albanians, see back. Alba- 
nia contains : 

Scutari, its capital, on a lake of the same name, at 14 miles distance from 
the Adriatic, south-eastward and 270 miles distant from Zara (in Dalmatia), 
is the centre of the inland trade of Albania and Bosnia, and has 20,000 in- 
habitants. Durazzo, anciently Dyrrachium, a maritime town on the Adriatic, 
with considerable commerce, and 6,000 inhabitants. Other more or less nota- 
ble maritime towns on the Adriatic are : Dulcigno, or Olgun (with 6,000 in- 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 633 



Geographical Description of Albania and Bosnia. 

habitants), Antivari (with 6,000 inhabitants), Croja (with 6,000 inhabitants), 
Alessio (with 3,000 inhabitants), Avlona or Valona (with 5,000 inhabitants), 
Butrinto (with 1,800 inhabitants), Delvino (with 8,000 inhabitants), and 
Parga (with a strong fortress, and 4,000 inhabitants). Prevesa, a fortified 
town on the Gulf of Arta, with provision trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Arta, 
a maritime town near the Gulf of the same name, with commerce and inland 
trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Joanina, a fortified town in the interior, and 
on a lake, north-eastward and 48 miles distant from the Gulf of Arta, has at 
present only 5,000 inhabitants, but had, in the time when Ali Pacha (who 
was executed in 1822) resided here, a population of 40,000 inhabitants. 
Ochrida, a town near the frontier of Macedonia, with 6,500 inhabitants. Per- 
serin, a town at the foot of a mountain pass, is noted for its strong fortress, 
and has 5,000 inhabitants. Berat, or Arnaut Beligrad, a city in a fertile 
plain, with 11,000 inhabitants. Argyrokastro, or Ergi Kastri, a town noted 
for its snuff, has 4,000 inhabitants. The most northern part of Albania is 
known by the name of Montenegro, and inhabited by a people that belong 
to the Slavonic tribe, and enjoy several substantial political privileges. 



VIL— BOSNIA. 

It comprises the north-western part of European Turkey, did, 
in the days of the ancient Romans, form a constituent part of Pan- 
nonia, is for the most part inhabited by the Bosniacs, who belong 
to the Slavonic tribe, and who already, in the 9th century, were 
settled here. Many of them are Mohammedans, but the majority 
consists of Greek Christians. In the 12th century Bosnia came 
■under the sway of Hungary, but since the year 1376 it was an 
independent kingdom, until in 1528, the Turks conquered it. It 
contains : 

Bosna Serai, its capital, situated in the centre of the province, south- 
westward and 130 miles distant from Belgrade, is the emporium of Bosnia, 
and has 68,000 inhabitants. The neighboring villages of VisoTco and Varesh 
are noted for their iron- works and mines. Travnik, a city on the Lashva, 45 
miles west-north-west of Bosna Serai, with 12,000 inhabitants. Banjaluka, 

27* 



634 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

European Turkey. — Geographical Description of Bosnia and Servia. 



a strongly fortified city on the Verbas, with mineral springs, considerable 
trade, and 15,000 inhabitants. Zwornik, or' Swornlk, a strongly fortified city 
on the Drina, with considerable inland trade, and 14,000 inhabitants. Ja'itza, 
a town with 2,000 inhabitants. Bihacz (with 3,000 inhabitants), Biograd, or 
Beligrad (with 2,500 inhabitants), Bubitza (with 6,000 inhabitants), Berbir, 
or Turkish Gradisca (with 1,000 inhabitants), Stari Maidar (with 4,000 in- 
habitants), and Kamengrad (with 3,000 inhabitants), more or less notable 
towns in that part of the province, which is sometimes called Turkish 
Croatia. The cities and towns of Mostar (with 10,000 inhabitants), Botshi- 
tatz (with 12,000 inhabitants), Gabela (with 6,000 inhabitants), Nevesigna 
(with 3,000 inhabitants), Livno (with 4,000 inhabitants), and Trebigno (with 
10,000 inhabitants), are situated in that part of the province, which frequently 
is called Herzegovina, or Turkish Balmatia. 



VIII.— TRIBUTARY PROVINCES. 

They consist of the three mediate principalities of Servia, 
Wallachia, and Moldavia, forming the north-western and north- 
ern section of European Turkey. They are governed by their 
own princes, who are, as nearly all inhabitants, Greek Christians, 
and are independent in local affairs, except that they, as nominal 
vassals of the Porte, pay an annual fixed tribute to the sultan. 

1. Servia (12,780 square miles, and 1,000,000 inhabitants), situated along 
the right bank of the Danube, between Bulgaria and Bosnia, was, by the an- 
cient Romans, named Upper Moesia, and its population consists mostly of 
Servians proper, who belong to the Slavonian tribe, and to the Greek church. 
Servia was since the 10th century an independent kingdom, but respectively 
in 1389 and 1449, the Turks took possession of it. The Servians were long 
since tired of the Turkish sway, when, in 1801, one of them, named Czerny 
Georg, incited them to open revolt, in which they for the present failed ; yet 
finally they succeeded in so far, that foreign powers interfered in their favor, 
especially Russia, that induced the Porte, in 1815, to grant to Servia the 
privileges it enjoys now (see above). The annual tribute it has to pay to the 
eultan is fixed at about $18,600 annually. The reigning mediate prince since 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 635 



Geographical Description of Servia and Wallachia. 



1843, is Alexander Kara Georgewitch, a relation of the above-mentioned 
Czerny Georg. Servia is a very fertile country, and carries on an extensive 
and considerable inland trade, especially with Austria. It contains : Bel- 
grade, strongly fortified capital, on the Danube, at its junction with the Save, 
opposite the Austrian city of Semlin, is the Turkish emporium in this quarter,' 
is at the same time noted for its numerous manufactures, and has 30,000 in- 
habitants. Kragujewatz, fortified town and residence of the reigning prince, 
on a branch of the Morava river, 120 miles south-south-east of Belgrade, with 
2,500 inhabitants. Topola, a village remarkable as the birth and burial- 
place of the above-mentioned Czerny Georg, who was born in 1770, and in 
1817 seized by the Turks and beheaded. Sehabacz, a fortified town on the 
Save, westward and 60 miles distant from Belgrade, with vine culture, con- 
siderable inland trade, and 10,000 inhabitants. Semendria, a fortified city on 
the Danube, 18 miles below Belgrade, was anciently the residence of the 
kings of Servia, is noted for its exceUent wines and considerable trade, and 
has 10,000 inhabitants. Eastward and 14 miles distant from here, is situated 
near the Danube, the fortified town of Passarovitz (with 2,000 inhabitants), 
noted in history for the treaty concluded here in 1718, between Austria and 
Turkey. Poretsh, a fortified town on an island of the Danube, with vine cul- 
ture, and 3,000 inhabitants. Ifsicza, a fortified town in a mountainous dis- 
trict, with a gymnasium, a public library, considerable trade, and 14,000 in- 
habitants. Other fortified towns are: Waljewo (with 4,500 inhabitants), 
JSfovibasar, or Jenibazar (with 15,000 inhabitants), Jagodina (with 3,000 in- 
habitants), and Nissa (with 10,000 inhabitants). Pristina, a fortified town, 
near the frontier of Albania and Macedonia, 170 miles south-south-east of 
Belgrade, is noted in history as the birth-place of the Greek emperor, Justinian 
I (who reigned from 527 to 565), and has 10,000 inhabitants. Northward 
from here extends a fertile plain, by European historians commonly called 
Blackbird Field, being remarkable in history for two decisive battles won by 
the Turks in 1389 and 1449. Orsova, or New Orsova (to distinguish it from 
Austrian Orsova, see page 534), a fortress on an island of the Danube, oppo- 
site the just-mentioned Austrian market-town. 

2. Wallachia (27,690 square miles, and 2,188,000 inhabitants), situated 
along the left bank of the Danube, between Transylvania and Bulgaria, did, 
in the days of the ancient Romans, form a constituent part of Dacia (see 
History of Hungary), and is chiefly inhabited by Wallachians proper, a pecu- 
liar mixed people, that, however, in substance belong to the Slavonic tribe, 



636 EUROPE, PAST AND PRESENT. 

European Turkey. — Geographical Description of Wallachia and Moldavia. 

and to the Greek church. "Wallachia having changed hands in the earlier 
period of the middle ages, was since the 13th century ruled by native princes, 
but in 1386, subjected to the sovereignty of Poland, and in 1529, to that of 
the Porte. The Poles tried frequently to re-conquer Wallachia, and finally 
they renounced their claims upon it, by the treaty concluded at Carlowitz in 
1699. The sultan allowed, however, the country to be ruled by native 
princes, as formerly, though he appointed them arbitrarily. By the media- 
tion of Russia, however, the political condition of Wallachia is settled on 
similar terms and principles as in Servia, moreover, with the prerogative 
that no Turk is permitted to settle in Wallachia. The reigning princes, 
styled Hospodars, are appointed for lifetime, and the tribute which they pay 
to the sultan is fixed at about $15,000 annually. In 1843 George Demetrius 
Bibesco was appointed prince, or hospodar. Wallachia carries on a very con- 
siderable trade and commerce, and its public revenues are estimated at nearly 
$1,000,000. It contains : Bukarest, its capital and princely residence, on 
the Dumbowitza, 300 miles north-north-west of Constantinople, has 100,000 
inhabitants, and many stately public edifices and palaces, but is upon the 
whole a dirty city, built in a swamp, and its streets, instead of being paved 
in the usual way, are covered with planks and trunks. Yet its commerce 
and trade, especially in corn, wool, tallow, wax, etc., is very extensive. Tir- 
govist (with 5,000 inhabitants), Kimpolung (with 4,000 inhabitants), Buseo 
with 4,500 inhabitants), Pitest (with 5,000 inhabitants), and Rimnik (with 
3,000 inhabitants), more or less remarkable towns. Fokshan, a town on the 
frontier of Moldavia (to which belongs one half of it), with noted vine cul- 
ture, considerable cattle and corn trade, and 4,000 inhabitants. Braila, or 
Ibrahil, a fortified commercial city on the Danube, north-eastward and 96 
miles distant from Bukarest, with considerable commerce, and 30,000 inhabi- 
tants. Giurgewo, a fortified city on the Danube, southward and 38 miles dis- 
tant from Bukarest, with considerable inland and transit trade, and 18,000 in- 
habitants. Krajova, a city on the Shy 11 river, westward and 125 miles 
distant from Bukarest, has 10,000 inhabitants, who carry on a rather ex- 
tensive inland trade, and is the chief place of the so-called Little Wallachia. 
3. Moldavia (12,180 square miles, and 1,500,000 inhabitants), situated on 
the north side of Wallachia, separated by the Pruth river from Russia, in 
the days of the ancient Romans formed a constituent part of Dacia (see Wal- 
lachia), and is chiefly inhabited by Moldavians proper (of nearly the same 
origin as the Wallachians), but beside them by many Jews, Gypsies, Hunga- 



EUROPEAN TURKEY. 637 

Geographical Description of Moldavia. 

rians, Servians, Bulgarians, Armenians, Poles, Russians, and Germans. Most 
of the inhabitants are Greek Christians. The soil is very fertile, but negli- 
gently cultivated. The rearing of black cattle and horses, together with vine 
culture, is, however, carried on to a rather great extent. The inland trade is 
almost as considerable as in Wallachia. With regard to history, Moldavia 
underwent nearly the same vicissitudes as Wallachia ; and its political condi- 
tion is likewise similar to that of the latter. In 1834 Prince Michael Stourdza 
was appointed Hospodar. Moldavia contains : Jasst, its capital and princely 
residence, about 200 miles north-north-east of Bukarest, with a stately 
princely palace, 2 Lutheran and Catholic, and 43 Greek churches and 
chapels, dirty and unpaved streets, considerable inland trade, however, and 
noted annual fairs, and 60,000 inhabitants. Galacz, a commercial city on the 
Danube, at its junction with the Pruth, is in some respects to be considered 
as the emporium of Moldavia and Wallachia, and has 36,000 inhabitants. 
Roman, a town on the Sereth, with 1,500 inhabitants. Botushan, or Bot- 
toshani, a town on a river of the same name, with considerable inland trade, 
noted annual fairs, and 4,000 inhabitants. OJcna, a town noted for its rock- 
salt mines. Dorohoe, a town, 76 miles north-north-west of Jassy, with 8,000 
inhabitants. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Aach, 338 

Aachen, 489 

Aahaus, 483 

Aakirke, 550 

Aalborg, 552 

Aalborghuus, 552 

Aalen, 336 

Aalst, 280 

Aarau, 156 

Aarberg, 159 

Aarburg, 156 

Aardenburg, 271 

Aargau, 156 

Aarhuus, 552 

Aaioe, 557 

Aarwangen, 158 

Abadiotes, 632 

Abbano, 541 

Abbeville, 188 

Abenberg, 322 

Abensberg, 316 

Aberbrothik, 252 

Aberconway, 246 

Aberdeen, 252 

Aberdeenshire, 252 

Abergavenny, 240 

Abernethy, 253 

Aberystwith, 216 

Abo, 598 

Abundance, 109 

Abrantes, 72 

Abrudbanya, 531 
Abruzzi, 5, 143 

Abruzzo, 143 

Abtsgemiind, 335 

Acarnania, 621 

Acerenza, 145 

Acerra, 142 

Achaia, 622 

Acher, 338 

Achern, 341 

Achtyrka, 594 

Aci Reale, 148 

Acquapendente 133 

Acquaria, 119 

Acquaviva, 136 

Acqui, 110 

Actiuin, 621 

Adda, 15 

Addiscombe, 235 

Adelsberg, 511 

Adelsheim, 344 

Adige, 15 



PAGE 

Adolphseck, 362 

Adolzfurth, 337 

Adorf, 384 

Adour, 16 

Adria, 541 

Adrianople, 628 

Adriatic Sea, 10 

Aegades, 147 
Aegadian Islands, 147 

Aegeri, 168 

Aesrion, 622 

Aelen, 168 

Aeolian Islands, 148 

Aeroe, 557 

Aeroeskjobing, 557 

Aerschot, 278 

Aerzen, 436 

Aetolia, 621 

Affenthal, 341 

Affoltern, 169 

Agde, 220 

Agen, 215 

Agenois, 215 

Aggerhuus, 576 

Agincourt, 189 

Aglie, 108 

Agno, 165 

Agnone, 145 

Agordo, 542 

Agosta, 148 

Agrapha Mts., 6 

Agrigent, 147 

Agrara, 529 

Ahlden, 437 

Ahrweiler, 488 

Ahun, 212 

A'i, 192 

Aichach, 315 

Aichstetten, 334 

Aigle, 168 

Aigueperse, 213 

Aiguesbelles, 109 

Aigues Mortes, 221 

Aiguillon, 215 

Aillon, 109 

Aillv, 186 

Ailsa, 252 

Aime, 110 

Ain Department, 201 
Aire, 189, 217 

Airolo, 165 
Aisne Department,l85 

Aix, 223 



PAGE 

Aix (in Savoy), 109 

Aix-la-Chapelle, 489 

Ajaccio, 225 

Ajuda, 71 

Aken, 478 
Akjerraan, 611, 612 

Alagna, 111 

Alais, 221 

Aland, 599 

Aland Isles, 593 
Alans, 23, 24 
Alaric, king of 

the Visigoths, 24 

Alassio, 113 

Alava, 98 

Alba, 108 

Albacete, 94 

Alba de Tonnes, 90 

Albania, 632 

Albanians, 624 

Albano, 132 

Albarracin, 94 

Albenga, 113 

Albert the Bear, 462 

Albertville, 109 

Albigenses, 220 

Albigeois, 220 

Albizola, 113 

Alboin, 28 
Albret, 216, 217 

Albufeira, 74 

Alby, 220 
Alcala de Henares, 87 

Alcala la Real, 93 

Alcamo, 146 

Alcaniz, 94 

Alcantara, 91 

Alcaraz, 88 

Alcaudete, 93 

Alcira, 96 

Alcobaga, 72 

Alcoy, 96 

Alcudia, 96 

Alderney, 247 

Alegria, 97 

Alemtejo, 73 

Alencon, 187 

Aleria, 225 

Ales, 114 

Aleshki, 611 

Alessio, 633 

Alet, 220 

Alessandria, 111 





PAGE 


Alexandrowsk, 


612 


Alexisbad, 


404 


Alfaques, 


95 


A Held, 


439 


Alfred the .Great 


, 32 


Algarve, 


73 


Algesheim, 


356 


Algeziras, 


92 


Alghero, 


114 


Alghieri, 


114 


Alhama, 


93 


Alhambra, 


93 


Alicante, 


96 


Alicata, 


147 


Alkmaar, 


269 


Allemanni, 


298 


Allemont, 


222 


Allendorf, 


370 


Allendorf an der 




Lumda, 


357 


Allenstein, 


496 


Aller, 


17 


Allstedt, 


388 


Allier, 


15 


Allier Department,201 


Allingsos, 


572 


Alloa, 


251 


Allobrogi, 


161 


Allodium, 


35 


Alio way, 


251 


Almada, 


72 


Almaden, 


88 


Almagro, 


88 


Almansa, 


94 


Almaraz, 


91 


Almeida, 


72 


Almelo, 


272 


Almeria, 


94 


Alnwick, 


244 


Alost, 


280 


Alp, 


7 


, Franconian 


7 


, Rauhe, 


7 


, Rough, 


7 


, Swabian, 


7 


Alpirspach, 


333 


Alpnach, 


166 


Alps, 


4 


Alpujarras, 


5 


Alsace, 


196 


Alsen, 


557 


Alsfeld, 


357 


Alsheim, 


356 



640 



INDEX. 



Alstahaug, 
Alster, 
Alta Comba, 
Altamura, 
Alt-Breisach. 



Alt-Bruchliausen, 436 

Altdorf, 321 

Altena, 485 

Altenau, 444 

Altenberg, 381 

Altenbruch, 438 

Altenburg, 396 

Altenryf, 159 

Altensteig, 333 
Althaldensleben, 477 

Althorp, 241 
Alt-Katzenellnbo- 

gen, 364 

Altkirch, 199 

Altkonig,. 8 
Alt-Landsberg, 465 
Altmark, 477, 478 

Altmiihl, 16 

Altnacht, 166 

Altomonte, 145 

Altona, 418 

Altorf, 166 

Alt-Strelitz, 412 

Altvater, 6 

Aluta, 16 

Alzey, 350 

Amakuki, 616 

Amalfi, 142 
Amalfi(Hist.of),39,48 

Amantra, 145 

Amarante, 73 

Amaxichi, 616 

Ambelakia, 631 

Amberg, 317 

Ambert, 213 

Arnbleteuse, 190 

Amboise, 206 

Ameland, 272 

Araersfoort, 271 

Amiens, 188 

Amoal, 573 

Amoneburg, 372 

Amorbach, 323 

Amphissa, 621 

Amrutn, 553 

Amsterdam, 268 

Amurani, 621 

Ancenis, 210 

Anclam, 470 

Ancona, 134 

Andalusia, 91 

Andelflngen, 169 

Andelvs, les, 186 

Andenne, 282 

Andennatt, 167 

Andernach, 487 

Anderno, 148 

Andorno, 108 

Andorra, 218 

Andorre, 218 
Andorre la vieille, 219 

Andreasberg, 444 

Andrichau, 518 

Andros, 623 



PAGE PAGE 

578 Androssa, 622 

17 Androssan, 250 

109 Andujar, 93 

144lAnduze, 221 

345 Anet, 185 

Angerburg, 497 

Angermanland, 574 

Angermiinde, 466 

Angers, 207 

Angles, 25 

Anghiari, 124 

Anglesea, 246 

Angouleme, 211 

Angoumais, 211 

Angra, 75 

Angus, 252 

Anhalt, ancestral 

castle of, 404 

Anhalt, duchies of, 402 
Anhalt-Bernburg, 403 
Anhalt-Cothen, 
Anhalt-Dessau, 
Anholt, 

Anholt (isle of), 
Anjou, 
Ankum, 
Annaberg, 
Annan, 
Anana, 
Annecy, 
Annonay, 
Annweiier, 
Ansbach, 
Ansgarius, 
Anspach, 
Antequera, 
Antibes, 



405 
404 
483 
553 
206 
441 
383 
250 

98 
109 
221 
328 
320 
438 
320 

94 
224 
616 
633 
257, 258 
279 



Antipaxo 
Antivari, 
Antrim, 
Antwerp, 

Anxur, 133 

Anzin, 190 

Aosta, 108 

Apennines, 5 

Apenrade, 556 

Apingadam, 273 

Apolda, 387 
Appenzell, 156, 157 

Appin, 253 

Appleby, 244 

Apt, 224 

Apulia, 143 

Aquila, 143 

Aquileja, 512 

Aquino, 142 

Aquitania, 214 

Arabs, 28 

Arad, 528 

Aragon, 94 

Aragon River, 14 
Aragona(inSicily), 147 
Aranda de Duero, 88 

Aranjuez, 87 

Arboga, 569 

Arbois, 203 

Arbon, 166 

Arbroath, 252 

Arcadia, 622 





PAGE 




PAGE 


Arc en Barrois, 


202 


Arpadians, 


522 


Archangel, 


593 


Arpino, 


142 


Arch-duchy of 




Arran, 


252 


Austria, 


508 


Arras, 


189 


Archettes, 


195 


Arroe, 


557 


Archipelago, 


10 


Arroux, 


15 


Arcis sur Aube, 


191 


Arta, 


633 


Arcona, 


471 


Arth, 


164 


Arcos de la Fron 




Artlenburg, 


437 


tera, 


92 


Artois, 


189 


Ardeche, 


15 


Ascania, 


402 


Ardeche Depart- 




Ascanianova, 


406 


ment, 


221 


Aschaffenburg, 


323 


Ardee, 


257 


Aschersleben, 


478 


Ardennes, 


6 


Ascoli, 


134 


Ardennes Depart 


- 


Ascoli di Satriano, 144 


ment, 


192 


Ascona, 


165 


Ardres, 


189 


Asele, 


575 


Arelatian king- 




Ash ton under Line,243 


dom, 


200 


Askersund, 


569 


Aremberg, 


442 


Asmannshausen, 


363 


Aremberg-Mep- 




Asperg, 


331 


pen, 


442 


Asperen, 


270 


Arendal, 


577 


Aspern, 


509 


Arendonk, 


279 


Assen, 


273 


Arendsee, 


478 


Assenheim, 


357 


Arensburg, 


597 


Assens, 


551 


Arens de Mar, 


95 


Assisi, 


133 


Arenzano, 


112 


Astakos, 


621 


Arevalo, 


89 


Asti, 


108 


Arezzo, 


124 


Astorga, 


89 


Argeles, 


217 


Astrachan, 608 


, 609 


Argentan, 


187 


Asturias, 


90 


Argenteuil, 


184 


Atalaute, 


621 


Argonnes, 


6 


Ath, 


281 


Argos, 


622 


Athens, 


620 


Argostoli, 


616 


Athlone, 257 


,259 


Argyleshire, 


253 


Athos, 


631 


Argyrokastro, 


633 


Athy, 


257 


Arvillers, 


109 


Atri, 


J 43 


Ariano, 


142 


Atribaldo, 


143 


Ariege Depart- 




Atripalda, 


143 


ment, 


218 


Attila, king of the 




Aritzu, 


114 


Huns, 


25 


Arklow, 


256 


Au, 


314 


Arlaut, 


213 


Aub, 


323 


Aries, 


223 


Aubagne, 


224 


Arlesheim, 


157 


Aube, 


J5 


Arlon, 


283 


Aube Department,! 91 


Armagh, 


258 


Aubenas, 


221 


Armagnac, 


216 


Aubenton, 


188 


Armenierstadt, 


531 


Aubeterre, 


212 


Armentieres, 


J 90 


Aubin, 


216 


Armorica, 


208 


Aubonne, 


163 


Armoricans, 


26 


Aubusson, 


212 


Arnaut Beligrad, 


633 


Auch, 


216 


A may le Due, 


201 


Aude, 


15 


Arneburg, 


478 


Aude Department,220 


Arnemuyden, 


270 


Aue, 


383 


Arnheim, 


271 


Auerbach, 


384 


Arnhem, 


271 


Auerstiidt, 


480 


Arno, 


15! 


Augsburg, 


324 


Amsberg, 


485 i 


Augustenburg, 


557 


Arnstadt, 


401 ! 


Augustovo, 


606 


Amstein, 


323 


Aulla, 


119 


Arnswalde, 


467; 


Ault, 


188 


Arulsen, 


376 1 


A uma, 


388 


Arona, 


lll|Aumale, 


J 86 


Arpad, 


522| 


Aumiihle, 


420 



INDEX. 



641 



PAGE 
211 

209 

442, 443 

247 



Aunis, 
Auray, 
Aurich, 
Aurigny, 

Aurillac, 213 
Auriol, 224 
Auronzo, 542 
Auschwitz, 518 
Ausonians, 102 
Ausser-Rhoden, 157 
Austerlitz, 516 
Austrasia, 26 
Austria, 501 
Austria, arch-du- 
chy of, 508 
Austrian circle, 292 
Austrian empire, 501 
Austrian Nether- 
lands, 277 
Austrian Silesia, 517 
Autun, 201 
Auvergne, 212 
Auvergne Mts., 6 
Auxerre, 201 
Auxonne, 201 
Avalanches, 152 
Avallon, 201 
Avares, 29, 521 
Avarian mark, 31 
Aveiro, 72 
Avellino, 142 
Avenches, 168 
A versa, 142 
Avesnes, 191 
A vesta, 570 
Aveyron Depart 
ment, 



Avezzano, 

Avigliaua, 

Avignon, 

Avila, 

Aviles, 

Avlona, 

Avola, 

Avranches, 

Ax, 

Axel, 

Axius, 

Ayamonte, 

Aylesbury, 

Ayr, 

Ayrshire, 

Azof Sea, 

Azore Islands, 

Azores, 

Azov, 

Azpeytia, 



216 

143 

107 

224 

89 

90 

633 

148 

187 

218 

271 

15 

92 

235 

250 

250 

10 

74 

74 

612 

97 



Baar (Switzerland) 168 
Baasdorf, 406 

Babadagb, 630 

Babeuberg, 319 

Babenhausen, 326, 354 ! Bandon, 



PAGE 

Bacs, 526 
Badajoz, 91 
Baden (city in the 
grand-duchy of 
Baden), 341 
Baden, grand-du- 
chy of, 337 
Baden (in Austria) 509 
Baden (in Swit- 
zerland), 156 
Baden-Baden, 340 
Baden-Durlach, 340 
Badenweiler, 345 
Badia, 541 
Baena, 93 
Baetica, 84 
Baeza, 93 
Bagne, valley of, 167 
Bagneres de Bi- 

gorre, 217 
Bagneres de Lu- 

chon, 219 

Bagni, 126 

Bagno alia Villa, 126 

Bagnols, 221 

Bagolino, 540 

Baiersdorf, 3-21 

Bagnols, 221 

Bailleul, 190 

Bajoarians, 298 

Bakonya Forest, 520 

Baktshisarai, 610 

Bala, 246 

Balaguer, 95 

Balaklava, 610 

Balasfalva, 531 

Balaton Lake, 11 

Balearic Islands, 96 

Bale'rno, 165 

Balingen, 333 

Balkan, 6 

Ballenberg, 344 

Ballenstedt, 404 

Balleyma, 258 

Ballina, 259 

Ballinasloe, 259 

Ballinrobe, 259 

Ballon d' Alsace, 6 

Ballon de Sulz, 6 

Ballstall, 164 

Ballycastle, 258 

Ballyshannon, 258 

Balme, La, 222 
Baltic Provinces 



Banzkow, 

Bapaume, 

Bar, 

Bar (Lorraine), 

Bar sur Aube, 

Bar le Due, 

Bar sur Seine, 

Barbastro, 

Barbezieux, 

Bar by, 

Barcellona (in Si 

cily), 
Barcellos, 
Barcelonetta, 
Barcelonette, 
Barcelona, 
Barchfeld, 
Bard, 
Bardewik, 
Bardo, 
Bareges, 



PAGE I PAGE 

403 Bavay, . , 191 

139JBavi, 114 
602 Bay of Biscay, 10 

1U5 Bavern, 311 

rJljBayeux, 187 

195JBayouue, 217 

202jBaylen, 93 

94 Bayreuth, 318, 319 



211 

479 



148 



Bayreuth, High- 
land of, 
Bayreuth, Low- 
320, 



of Russia, 595| 

Baltic Sea, 
Balzers, 
Bamberg, 
Banagher, 
Banat, 
Banbury, 
Ban de la Roche, 197 



Barge, 
Bari, 
Barletta, 
Barmbeck, 

Barmen, 492 

Barmstedt, 418 

Barnstable, 238 

Barolo, 108 

Baron Hill, 247 

Barr, 197 

Barrow, 14 

Barsac, 215 
Bartenstein, 337, 496 

Bartfeld, 527 

Barth, 470 

Baruth, 467 

Barwalde, 467 

Basardshik, 630 

Baschkirs, 580 

Bashaw, 626 

Basle, 157 

, Little, 157 

Basques, 19, 76 

Basques, country 

of the, 216 
Basque Provinces, 97 

Bassano, 542 

Bassum, 436 

Bastia, 225 
Bastide de Clar- 
ence, 
Bastogne, 
Batalha, 



land of, 
73 Baza, 
95'Bazadois, 
22 ij Bazas, 
95 Beam, 
373 Beaucaire, 
109 J Beau court, 
437 1 Beaufort, 
109;Beauge, 
217 Beaugency, 
Beaujeu, 
Beaujolais, 
Beaumaris, 
144 1 Beaumont, 
450 Beaune, 
Beaupreau, 
Beauvais, 



125 
107 

144 



319 

321 
93 

215 
215 
218 
221 
199 
207 
207 
205 
214 
214 
247 
281 
201 
207 
184 



Beau voir sur Mer, 210 



9|Batavians, 



Babia Gura, 

Baccanello, 

Baccarat, 

Bacharach, 

Bachmut, 

Backnang, 



5 

117 
195 
488 
612 
331 



Banff, 

Banffshire, 

Bangor, 

Banjaluka, 

Bannockburn, 

Banos de Ebro, 



218 
283 
72 
263 
239 



351 Bath, 

319 Bath (Dutch fort), 270 

257 Bathgate, 249 

528 Batsch, 526 

237 Battaglia, 541 

Battenberg, 357 

259 Bauerwitz, 476 

253 Bauraannshohle, 447 

253jBaume les Dames, 203 

246, 258 Bauske, 597 

633 J Bautzen, 385 

251 1 Bavaria, 311, 314 

981 Bavarian circle, 292 



Bechtheim, 

Beckum, 

Bedarieux, 

Bedburg, 

Bederkesa, 

Bedford, 

Bedfordshire, 

Beerberg, 

Beeskow, 

Befort, 

Beierberg, 

Beilngries, 

Beira, 

Beja, 

Bejar, 

Belchen, 

Belem, 

Belfast, 

Belfort, 

Belgard, 

Belgians, 

Belgium, 

Belgorod, 

Belgrade, 

Beligrad, 

Bellac, 

Belle Isle, 

Belleville, 

Belley, 

Bellinzona, 

Bellowerth, 

Bellrock, 

Belluno, 

Belt, Great, 

, Little, 

Belturbet, 

Belvoir, 

Belzi, 

Bembibre, 

Bemposta, 



357 

483 

220 

492 

438 

237 

237 

7 

466 

199 

7 

322 

72 

73 

90 

7 

71 

257 

199 

472 

263 

275 

592 

635 

634 

212 

209 

214 

201 

165 

164 

252 

542 

9 

9 

258 

242 

612 

89 

71 



642 



INDEX. 



PAGE 
612 

351 
108 
114 
135 
96 



Bender, 
Benderen, 
Bene, 
Benetutti, 
Benevento, 
Benidorme, 
Ben Lawers, 8 
Ben Nevis, 8 
Benneckensteiu, 481 
Bennfelden, 197 
Bensberg, 492 
Bentheim, 442 
Bentink, earl of, 424 
Berat, 633 
Berauu, 515 
Berbir, 634 
Berching, 322 
Berchtesgaden, 315 
Berdjansk, 611 
Berdyczew, 602 
Berent, 498 
Beresina, 12 
Berg, duchy of, 492 
Berg, grand-du- 
chy of, 294 
Berga, 388 
Bergamo, 540 
Bergara, 97 
Bergedorf, 450 
Bergen, 577 
Bergen (in Bel- 
gium), 281 
Bergen (in Hesse- 

Cassel), 374 
Bergen (on the 

island of Riigen), 471 

Bergen op Zoom, 274 

Bergerac, 215 

Bergheim, 376 

Bergstrasse, 7 

Bergues, 190 

Bergzabern, 328 

Berka, 387, 389 

Berkeley, 240 

Berkshire, 235 

Berleburg, 486 

Berlin, 464 

Berlinchen, 467 

Bermeo, 97 

Bernalda, 145 

Bernaldo, 145 

Bernau, 465 

Bernay, 186 

Bernburg, 404 

Berne, 158 

Berneck, 319 

Berner Oberland, 158 

Bernkastel, 489 

Bernstadt, 474 

Bernstein, 467 

Beroea, 631 

Berre, 223 

Berry, 204 

Berthelsdorf, 385 

Bervie, 252 

Berwick, 244 

Berwickshire, 249 

Besancou, 202 

Besigheim, 331 



Beskides, 


5 


Bessarabia, 


611 


Besse, 


213 


Bessestad, 


560 


Betanzos, 


90 


Bethune, 


189 


Bettingen, 


157 


Betzenstein, 


320 


Beutelsbach, 


336 



Beuthen, 475, 476 

Beveren, 280 

Beverley, 243 

Bevern, 447 

Bex, 168 

Beziers, 220 

Biala, 518 

Bialla, 497 

Bialowieza, 601 

Bialystock, 602 

Biancavilla, 148 

Bibbiena, 124 

Biberach, 334 

Biddeford, 238 

Bihacz, 634 

Biebrich, 362 

Biedenkopf, 357 

Biel, 159 

Biel, Lake of, 11 

Bielefeld, 484 

Biella, 108 

Bielsk, 602 
Bielsteinhohle, 447 

Bienne, 159 

Bietigheim, 331 

Biervliet, 271 

Bilbao, 97 
Bill of Portland, 238 

Billerbeck, 483 

Billingfors, 573 

Billom, 213 
Billung, Hermann, 433 

Billwerder, 450 

Bilsen, 283 

Bilston, 241 

Binche, 281 

Bingen, 356 

Binic, 209 

Biograd, 634 

Birkenfeld, 426 

Birmingham, 241 

Birr, 257 

Birstein, 374 

Bisanz, 202 

Biscari, 148 

Biscay, 97 

Bisceglia, 144 
Bischofsheim, 342, 344 
Bischofsheim vor 

der Rhon, 323 

Bischofszell, 166 

Bischweiler, 198 

Bismark, 478 

Bistritz, 532 

Bitburg, 489 

Bitonto, 144 

Bitsch, 196 

Bitterfeld, 480 

Bivona, 147 

Bjelew, 591 



PAGE 

Bjorko, 38, 568 

Bjorneborg, 598 

Blackbird Field, 635 

Blackburn, 243 

Black Elster, 16 

Black Forest, 7 
Biack Forest circle 332 

Black Russia, 601 

Black Sea, 10 

Blankenberghe, 281 
Blankenburg, 401, 447 

Blankenese, 418 

Blankenhayn, 387 

Blasendorf, 531 

Blasien-Zella, 394 

Blaubeuren, 335 

Blaye, 215 

Bleiberg, 512 

Bleicherode, 481 

Bleking, 571 

Blendheim, 326 

Blexen, 423 

Blexum, 423 

Blieskastel, 328 

Blindheim, 326 

Blocksberg, 8 

Blois, 206 

Blomberg, 428 

Blumfeld, 347 

Bobbio, 111 

Bober, 13 

Boblingen, 331 

Bobruisk, 60 1 

Bochnia, 519 

Bocholt, 483 

Bockenem, 439 

Bockenheim, 374 

Bockum, 485 
Bodenteich Lake, 431 

Bodenwerder, 436 

Bodoe, 577 
Bodrog-Keresstur, 527 

Bog, 12 

Bogense, 55 1 

Bohemia, 514 
Boehmerwald Mts., 7 

Bohus, 573 

Boisbelle, 205 

Boisle Due, 273 

Boitzenburg, 466 

Bojano, 145 

Bojanowo, 499 

Bolbec, 186 

Bolkenhain, 475 

Bollenz, 165 

Bologna, 135 

Bolognese, 131 

Bolsena, 133 

Bolsward, 272 

Bolton, 243 

Bolzano, 513 

Bommel, 272 

Bonames, 456 

Bondage, 36 

Boness, 249 

Boniface VIII., 41 

Bonifacio, 2-25 

Bonn, 491 
Bonneville, 109, 159 



PAGE 

Bonnigheim, 331 

Bootia, 621 

Bopfingen, 336 

Boppard, 487 

Bora Mts., 6 

Borchloen, 283 

Bordeaux, 215 

Borgholm, 571 

Borgholzhausen, 484 

Borgloh, 441 
Borgo, 126, 599 

Borgoinanero, 111 

Borgomasino, 108 
Borgo Sandonnino 117 
Borgo San SepoL 



cro, 
Borgosesia, 
Borgo Taro, 
Borja, 
Borkelo, 
Borken, 
Borrnio, 
Borna, 
Bornheim, 
Bornholm, 
Boros, 
Borowsk, 



124 

111 

117 

94 

272 
371, 483 
539 
383 
456 
550 
572 
591 



Borromean Isles, 1 1 1 
Borrowstownness, 249 



Borysthenes, 

Borzonasca, 

Bosa, 

Bosau, 

Bosco, 

Bosna Serai", 

Bosnia, 

Bosniacs, 

Bosphorus, 

Bossormeny, 

Boston, 

Bothnia Gulf. 

Bottoshani, 

Botushan, 

Botzen, 

Bouchain, 

Boudry, 

Bouillon, 

Bouin, 

Boulogne, 

Boulonnais, 

Bourbon, 

Bourbon l'Archam 



12 
113 
114 

426 
111 
633 
633 
633 
10 
529 
237 
9 
637 
637 
513 
190 
163 
283 
210 
189 
189 
203 

204 



bault, 
Bourbonne les 

Bains, 192 

Bourbon Lancy, 201 
Bourbonnais, 203 

Bourbon Vendee, 210 
Bourdelois, 215 

Bourg, 215 

Bourgain, 222 

Bourganeuf, 212 

Bourg en Bresse, 201 
Bourges, 204 

Bourges les Bains, 204 
Bourg la Reine, 183 
Bourgneuf, 210 

Bourgogne, 199 

Bourg St. Andeol, 221 



INDEX. 



643 





PAGE : 


PAGE| 


PAGE 




PAGE 


Bourmont, 


195 Briancon, 


22:2 


Buchanan, 


251 


Biitzow, 


409 


Boussac, 


212 Briare, 


205 


Buchau, 


334 


Butzbach, 


357 


Bouvignes, 


282 Bridgenorth, 


242 


Bnchen, 


344 


Buttstiidt, 


387 


Bouvines, 


190 Bridgewater, 


239 


Biichen, 


420 


Butrinto, 


633 


Bovenden, 


440 Bridlington, 


243 


B.ichholz, 


466 


Buxtehude, 


438 


Boves, 


108 Bridport, 


23d 


j Buch horn, 


334 


Buxton, 


242 


Bo vino, 


144 Brie, 19J 


, 193 


iBuchs, 


165 






Bavines, 


190 Brie Champenoise 193 


JBuchsweiler, 


198 


Cabras, 


114 


Boxberg, 


344 Brie Compte Ro- 




|Bucina, 


114 


Cabrera (isle of) 


97 


Boyle, 


259 bert, 


184 


Bii eke burg, 


429 


Caceres, 


91 


Bra, 


108 Brie Francoise, 


184 


! Buckingham, 


235 


Cadaques, 


95 


Brabant, 


278 Brie sur Yeres, 


184 


; Buckinghamshire 


,235 


Cader Idris, 


8 


Brackenheim, 


331 Brieg, 


473 


Bucko w, 


467 


Cadiz,' 


92 


Brackwede, 


484 Briel, 


270 


Bucks, 


235 


Cadore, 


542 


Braclaw, 


602 Brienne, 


192 


iBuda, 


525 


Caen, 


186 


Bradford, 239 


, 244 Briesen, 


498 


Biidesheim, 


356 


Caermarthen, 


245 


Bradley, 


241 Briey, 


196 


Biidingen, 


357 


Caermarthenshire, 245 


Braga, 


73 Brig, 


167 


Budissin, 


385 


Caernarvon, 


246 


Braganza, 


73 Briga, 


110 


Budweis, 


516 


Caernarvonshire, 


246 


Brahestad, 


599 Brighton, 


236 


Buelach, 


169 


Cagliari, 


114 


Braila, 


636,Brihuega, 


88 


Buen Retiro, 


87 


Cahors, 


215 


Braine-Lalleu, 


279 Brignolles, 


224 


Bueren, 


158 


Cairgf>rm, 


8 


Braine le Comte, 


281!Brilon, 


485 


Bug, 


13 


Caithness, 


254 


Brake, 


423!Brindisi, 


144 


Blimey, 


202 


Cajazzo, 


142 


Brakel, 


484 


Brioude, 


213 


Buhl, 


341 


Calabria, 


145 


Bramsche, 


441 


Bristol, 


239 


Bujalance, 


93 


Calahorra, 


88 


Brarastedt, 


417 


Bristol Channel, 


10 


Bukarest, 


636 


Calais, 


189 


Brand, 


381 


Britannia, 


24 


Bukowina, 


520 


Calatafimi, 


146 


Brandenburg, city j Brittany, 


208 


Bulach, 


333 


Calatayud, 


94 


of, 


465 


Brive laGaillarde 


,212 


Bulgaria, 


629 


Calatrava, 


88 


Brandenburg, pro 




Briviesca, 


88 


Bulgarians, 29 


629 


Calcar, 


494 


vince of, 


464 


Brixen, 


513 


Biinde, 


484 


Caldano, 


126 


Braslaw, 


600 


Brjiinsk, 


591 


Bunzlau, 


474 


Caledonians, 


243 


Biiitz, 


499 


Brecada, 


117 


Biiren, 


484 


Calenberg, 


435 


Braubach, 


364 


Brocken, 


8 


Burg, 477 


,557 


Callata bellata, 


5 


Braunau, 


510 


Brody, 


519 


Burgas, 


629 


Callenberg, 


384 


Braunfels, 


488 


Broek in't Water- 




Burgau, 


325 


Callies, 


472 


Braunlingen, 


347 


land, 


268 


Burgdorf, 


437 


Calmar, 


570 


Brauusberg, 


496 


Bromberg, 


499 


Burgdorf (Switze 




Calne, 


239 


Braunschweig, 


446 


Bromsebro, 


570 


land), 


158 


Caltagirone, 


148 


Bray, 


256 


Bronte, 


148 


Burghaslach, 


322 


Caltanisetta, 


147 


Bray sur Seine, 


193 


Brood, 


534 


Burghaun, 


373 


Caluso, 


108 


Brazza, 


535 


Broos, 


532 


Burghausen, 


315 


Calvados Depart- 




Bre, 


540 


Broseley, 


242 


Biirglitz, 


515 


ment, 


183 


Brechin, 


252 


Brotterode, 


373 


Burgos, 


88 Calvi, 


225 


Brecknock, 


246 


Brouage, 


211 


Burgraviate of Nu- 


Calvorde, 


447 


Brecknockshire, 


246 


Brouwershaven, 


270 


remberg, 


318 


Calw, 


333 


Brecon, 


246 


Brozzi, 


123 


Burgundian circle, 292 


Camajore, 


126 


Breda, 


273 


Bruchsal, 


341 


Burgundians, 24 


199 


Camaldoli, 


124 


Bregenz, 


514 


Bruck, 156 


511 


Burgundy, 27 


, 199 Camarguei 


15 


Breisach, 


345 


Briickenau, 


323 


Burgundy, earl- 




Cam bray, 


190 


Breisgau, 


344 


Bruges, 


280 


dom of, 


202 


Cambresis, 


190 


Bremen, 453 


,454 


Brugg, 


158 


Burken, 


344 


Cambridge, 


237 


Bremen, duchy of 


433 


Briihl, 


491 


Burkheim, 


345 


Cambridgeshire, 


237 


Bremerhaven, 


454 


Brundusium, 


144 


Burladingen, 


350 


Cam busneath, 


251 


Bremerlehe, 


438 


Brunetta, 


107 


Burntisland, 


252 


Camenz, 


385 


Bremgarten, 


156 


Briinn, 


516 


Burscheid, 


493 


Camerino, 


134 


Bre no, 


540 


Brunsbiittel, 


418 


Burslem, 


241 


Cameryk, 


190 


Brenta River, 


15 


Brunshausen, 


438 


Burton upon Trent 241 


Cammin, 


470 


Brescello, 


119 


Brunswick, city, 


446 


Burtscheid, 


490 


(yamogli, 


112 


Brescia, 


539 


Brunswick, duchy 




Bury, 


243 


Campagna, 


142 


Breslau, 


473 


of, 


444 


Bury St. Edmunds, 236 Campagua di Ro 




Bressanone, 


513 


Brunswick-Oels, 


445 


Busachi, 


114| ma, 


132 


Bresse, 


201 


Brussels, 


278] 


Busachiuo, 


146iCampan, 


217 


Bressuire, 


210 


Brzesk Cujavski, 


605 


Busca, 


107JCampanians, 


102 


Brest, 


209 


Brzesc Litewski, 


601 


Busco, 


636 Campbelltown, 


253 


Bretagne, La, 


208 


Bublitz, 


472 


Bute, 


252 Campen, 


272 


Bretten, 


342 


Buccari, 


529 


Buteshire, 


252!Campobasso, 


144 


Breyzards, 


171 


Buch, 


215! 


Buljadingerland, 


423! 


Campo Formio, 


542 



644 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Campo Mayor, 73 
Campo di San Pie- 

tro, 514 
Campredon, 95 
Cancale, 208 
Cancaie, bay of, 208 
Candia, 63J, 632 
Canea, 632 
Cangas de Onis, 90 
Canigou, 5 
(Jam no, 133 
Canna, 255 
Cannae, 144 
Canne, 144 
Cannes, 224 
Cannicatti, 147 
Canobbio, 111 
Canosa, 144 
Canossa, 119 
Canstatt, 331 
Cantabria Mts., 5 
Cantal Depart- 
ment, 213 
Cantavieja, 94 
Canterbury, 236 
Can tyre, * 253 
Capaccio, 142 
Cape Lizard, 239 
Cape Trafalgar, 92 
Cape St. Vincent, 74 
Capetians, 32 
Capetingians, 179 
Capodistria, 512 
Caponnori, 126 
Cappel, . 169 
Capraja, 113 
Caprera, 114 
Capri, 141 
Capua, 142 
Carcarente, 96 
Carcassonne, 220 
Cardiff, 245 
Cardigan, 246 
Cardiganshire, 246 
Cardona, 95 
Carelia, 599 
Carhaix, 209 
Carignan, 107 
Carignano, 107 
Carini, 146 
Carinthia, 511 
Carleby, Gainla, 599 

, Ny, 599 

Carlingford, 257 

Carlisle, 244 

Carloforte, 114 

Carlopago, 533 

Carlo vingians, 27 

Carlovv, 257 

Carlowitz, 533 

Carlsbad, 515 

Carlsborg, 573 

Cailsburg, 531 

Carlshafen, 370 

Carlshamn, 571 

Carlskrona, 571 

Carlsruhe, 340 

Carlstad, 573 
Carlstadt, 323,529 



I Carlstein, 
j Carlsten, 
; Carmagnola, 
jCarmona, 
Carniola, 
Carolath, 
j Carolina, 
I Carouge, 
Carpathes, 
jCarpaLhes prope 
|Carpentras, 
I Carpi, 
Carrara, 
jCarrickfergus, 
Carrickmacross, 
Carrick on Shan 

non, 
Carrick on Suire, 2ii0 



PAGE | PAGE 

515 ; Castle Rushen, 247 
573jCastleton, 242,247 
107!Castres, 215, 220 



92 1 Castro del Rio, 
511iCastro Giovanni, 
475|Castronuovo, 

93 j Castroreale, 
161jCastrovillari, 



93 
147 
146 
148 
145 
5iCatalaunian Fields 192 



5jCatalaunum, 192 

225i Catalonia, 94 

119 Catanea, 148 

119!Catania, 148 

257 Catanzaro, 145 

258 Catharinburg, 3 
Catherlagh, 257 

259|Catheta, 75 
Catholic Nether- 



Carron, 


251 


lands, 


277 


Carthagena, 


94 


Catolica, 


147 


Carthageniensis, 


84 


Cattaro, 


535 


Carthaus, 


498 


Cattegat, 


9 


Casale, 


110 


Caub, 


364 


Casale de Grecchi 


,147 


Caudebec, 


186 


Casal Maggiore, 


538 


Caudinian Passes, 142 


Caselle, 


107 


Cauterets, 


217 


Casentino, 


124 


Cava, 


142 


Caserta, 


141 


Cavaillon, 


225 


Caserta Nuova, 


141 


Cavan, 


258 


Cashel, 


260 


Cavoux, 


107 


Cassano, 


145 


Cefalu, 


146 


Cassel, 


370 


Celano, 


143 


Cassel (in France) 190 


Celle, 


437 


Cassis, 


224 


Celts, 


19 


Cassiterides, 


239 


Ceneda, 


542 


Cassonay, 


168 


Central Franconia,320 


Cassuben, 


471 


Central Italy, 


103 


Castel (in Bava- 




Cento, 


135 


ria), 


317 


Cephalonia, 


616 


Castelfranco, 


542 


Cerdagne, 


219 


Castel Gandolfo, 


132 


Ceret, 


219 


Castelguelfo, 


117 


Cerigo, 


616 


Castell, 


323 


Cerigotto, 


616 


Castellamare, 141 


,146 


Cerlier, 


158 


Castellamonte, 


108 


Cernay, 


199 


Castel lane, 


224 


Cers, 


247 


Castellina Marit- 




Certaldo, 


123! 


tima, 


125 


Cervera, 


95,96 


Castello, 


123 


Cervia, 


135 


Castello de Ampu- 


Cesana, 


107 


rias, 


95 


Cesena, 


135j 


Castellobranco, 


72 


Cette, 


220; 


Castellon de la 




Ceva, 


108 


Plana, 


96 


Cevio, 


165 


Castelnaudary, 


220 


Cezimbra, 


72 


Castelnuovo, 


125 


Chabeuil, 


222 


Castel nuovo di 




Chablais, 


109 


Garfaema, 


119 


Chablis, 


193 ; 


Castel Sardo, 


114 


Chalkis, 


623 


Castel Sarrazin, 


221 


Chalonnes, 


207 


Castelvetrano, 


146 


Chalons sur Mai 


nel92 


Castenedolo, 


540 


Chalons sur Sadne 201 


Castiglione, 


539 


dial us, 


212! 


Castile, 


87 


Cham, 


317! 


Castilians, 


76 


Cham (Switzer- 




Castillon, 


215 


land), 


168 


Castlebar, 


259 


Chambery, 


109! 


Castle Comer, 


257 


Chambord, 


206! 


Castlereagh, 


259 


Chambra, 


150] 



PAGE 

Chamouny, 110 
Champagne, 191 
Chantilly, 185 
Charente, 16 
Charente Depart- 
ment, 211 
Charenton, 183 
Charile, La, 204 
Charkow, 594 
Charlemagne, 30 
Charlernont, 191 
Charleroi, 281 
Charles Martell, 27 
Charleville, 193 
Charolles, 201 
Charlottenburg, 465 
Chartres, 205 
Chartreuse, 

Grande, 222 

Chasseron, 6 

Chatam, 236 

Chateaubriand, 210 
Chateau Cambre- 

sis, 190 

Chateau-Chinon, 204 
Chateau du Bourg, 211 

Chateaudun, 205 
Chateau-Gonthier, 207 

Chateaulin, 209 

Chateau du Loir, 207 

Chateauneuf, 207 
Chateauneuf de 

Random, 221 
Chateau Regnaud, T'3 

Chateau-Renard, 224 

Chateauroux, 205 

Chateau Salins, 195 

Chateau Thierry, 193 

Chatelleraut, 210 
Chatillon sur 

Marne, 192 
Chatillon sur 

Seine, 201 
Chatillon les 

Dombes, 202 



Chatillon (in Italy) 109 

Chatts, 297 

Chatsworth, 242 

Chaudes-Aigues, 213 

Chaudfontaine, 282 

Chaumont, 192 

Chauny, 185 

Chaux de Fonds, 163 

Chaves, 73 

Chelm, 607 

Chelmford, 236 

Chelsea, 235 

Cheltenham, 240 

Chemille, 207 

Chemnitz, 383 

Chenceny, 606 
Chene le populeux 193 

Chepstow, 240 

Cher, 15 

Cher Department, 204 

Cherasco, 108 

Cherbourg, 187 

Cheronea, 621 

Cherson, 611 



INDEX. 



645 





PAGE 


PAGE 




PA G K 




PAGJ5 


Cherusks, 


297 


Civita Ducale, 


143 


Com area di Roma, 132 


Cossacks, 


580 


Cheshire, 


24-2 


Civita di Penne, 


143 


Comino, 


150 


Cossacks of the 




Chester, 


242 Civita Vecchia, 


133 


Cominotto, 


150 


Don, 


612 


Chesterfield, 


242 


Civitella del 




Comiso, 


148 


Cote d'Or, 


6 


Cheviot Hills, 


8 


Tronto, 


143jCommercy, 


195 


Cote d'Or Depart 




Chiaramonte, 


148 


Civray, 


210 Commines, 19C 


,280 


ment, 


201 


Chiari, 


540 


Clackmannan, 


251 


Como, 


538 


Cothen, 


406 


Chiasso, 


165 


Clackmannanshire 251 


Corao Lake, 


11 


Cotrone, 


145 


Chiavari, 


113 


Clagenfurt Lake, 


ii. 


Comorn, 


526 


Cottbus, 


467 


Chiavenna, 


539 


Clairvaux, 192 


,367 


Compiegne, 


184 


Cottian Alps, 


4 


Chichester, 


23(5 


Clamecy, 


204 Concarneau, 


209 


Coulanges les Vi- 




Chiclana, 


92 


Clara River, 


13 Conches, 


186 


neuses, 


201 


Chiem Lake, 


11 


Clare, 


260 Concordia, 


119 


Coulommiers, 


193 


Chieri, 


107 


Clausthal, 443, 


444iConde, 


190 


Council at Con- 




Chieti, 


143 


Clemenswerth, 


442JConde surNoireau!87 


stance, 


302 


Chimay, 


281 


Clermont, 


213 Condom, 


216 


Council at Trent, 


302 


Chinchilla, 


94 


Clermont en Au- 




Condomois, 


216 


Country of Cam 




Chinchon, 


89 


vergne, 


213 


Condrieu, 


214 


bresis, 


190 


Chinon, 


206 


Clermont en Beai 


i- 


Conference Island 217 


Courmayeur 


109 


Chiny, 


283 


vaisis, 


184 


Conflans, 


109 


Course ule, 


186 


Chioggia, 


541 


Clermont-Ferranc 


213 Confolens, 


212 


Courteson, 


223 


Chiozza, 


541 


Clermont l'Herault220;Coni, 


107 


Courtray, 


280 


Chippenham, 


239 


Clermont-Lodeve 


, 220lConil, 


92 


Coutances, 


187 


Chiusa, 


108 


Clermont-Oise, 


184 


Conitz, 


498 


Coutras, 


215 


Chiusi, 


124 


Clery, 


205 


Connaught, 


258 


Cove, 


259 


Chivalry, 


46 


Cleve, 


494 


Constance, 


346 


Coventry, 


240 


Chivasso, 


J 07 


Cleven, 


539 


Constance, Lake of, 11 


Covilhao, 


72 


Chollet, 


207 


Clingen, 


401 


Constantinople, 


628 


Cracow, 


519 


Clioper, 


12 


Clonmel, 


259 


Constantinople 




Crailsheim, 


336 


Chotin, 


612 


Clovis, king of the 


(Hist.), 38, 39 


Cranach, 


320 


Christburg, 


498 


Franks, 


26 


Contessa, 


147 


Crane n burg, 


494 


Christchurch, 


238 


Clugny, 


201 


Conti, 


188 


Craonne, 


185 


Christiania, 


576 


Clumber Park, 


242 


Conza, 


142 


Crecy, 


188 


Christianiafjord, 


576 


Chiny, 


201 


Copa, 


12 


Creetown, 


250 


Christianopel, 


571 


CI use, 


109 


Copenhagen, 


549 


Creglingen, 


336 


Christiansand, 


576 


CI uses, 


110 


Coppenbriigge, 


436 


Creil, 


185 


Christianstad, 


572 


Clusium, 


124 


Coppet, 


168 


Crema, 


540 


Christiansund, 


577 


Clusone, valley of 


107 


Corbach, 


376 


Cremona, 


538 


Christineharan, 


573 


Clyde, 


14 


Corbeil, 


184 


Crescentino, 


108 


Christinestad, 


599 


Clydesdale, 


250 


Corcyra, 


615 


Ci-epy, 


184 


Chrudin, 


516 


Clyde Iron Works 


,251 


Cordova, 


92 


Crespy en Laonai 


?185 


Chur, 


162 


Coblenz, 


487 


Corfu, 


615 


Crespy en Valois. 


184 


Ciablese, 


109 


Coburg, 


394 


Cori, 


133 


Cressy, 


188 


Cid, the 


88 


Cocconato, 


108 


Coria, 


91 


Crest, 


223 


Cilli, 


511 


Codogno, 


538 


Corigliano, 


145 


Greta, 


631 


Cimbrians, 


297 


Coe, 


253 


Corinth, 


621 


Creuse-Depart- 




Cimbrishatnn, 


572 


Coesfeld, 


483 


Cork, 


259 


ment, 


212 


Cinesi, 


146 


Cognac, 


211 


Corleone, 


148 


Creux du Vent, 


6 


Cinosa, 


147 


Cogoleto, 


113 


Corlin, 


472 


Creuzburg, 


389 


Circe, 


107 


Coimbra, 


72 


Cormaggiore, 


109Creuzot, 


201 


Cinque Ports, 


236 


Col berg, 


471 


Corneliusmiinster 


490 Crevecoeuer, 


190 


Cinto, 


5 


Colchester, 


236 


Corneto, 


133 Crickhowel, 


246 


Cintra, 


71 


Colditz, 


382|Cornigliano, 


112 Crimea, 


610 


Ciotat, La, 


223 


Coldstream, 


249 Cornwall, 


238 Crimmitzschau, 


383 


Cirey, 


195 


Colebrookdale, 


242iCorreggio, 


119,Cnvitz, 


408 


Cirknitz Lake, 


11 


Coleraine, 


258 Correze Depart- 


j Croates, 


29 


Cisjuranian Bur- 




Coll, 


255 ment, 


212 Croatia, 


529 


gundy, 


200 


Colle, 


124 [Corsica, 


225 Croce Mosso, 


108 


Cistercium, 


201 


Collioure, 


219|Corsignano, 


124 Croja, 


633 


Cita di Castello, 


134 


Colmar, 


198 Cortaillod, 


163 Croix Rousse, La 


214 


Cita della Pieve, 


134 


Col mars, 


224 Corte, 


225 Cromarty, 


254 


Citeaux, 


201 


Coin, 


491 Cortona, 


124 Cromwell, 


233 


Citta Vechia, 


150 


Cologne, ancient 


Cortryk, 


280 Crosic, Le, 


210 


Ciudadela, 


97 


archbishopric of, 490'Coruna, 


90 Croton, 


145 


Ciudad Real, 


88 


, city of, 


491 [ Corvey, 


484 Crotoy, 


188 


Ciudad Rodrigo, 


90 


Colomba, 


97|Corvo, 


75 Croydon, 


235 


Cividale, 


542,Colonio, 


i!7JCosenza, 


145 Crusades, 


45 


Civita Castellana 


133iColumbretes, 


9o!Coslin, 


471 Csepin, 


530 


Civita di Chieti, 


143 1 


Comacchio, 


135 


Cosne, 


204 


Csongrad, 


528 



646 



INDEX. 





PAGE) 


PAGE 




PAGEj 


PAGE 


Cucarro, 


111 


Davos, 


162 


Dieu le Fit, 


222 Dortmund, 


485 


Cuccio, 


5 


Davidow, 


601 


Dieuze, 


195 Dorum, 


438 


Cudillero, 


90 


Dax, 


217 


Digne, 


224 Dotis, 


526 


Cuenca, 


88 


Debreczin, 


528 


Dijon, 


201 Douai, 


190 


Cuglieri, 


114 


Debreczin Heath 


502 


Dillenburg, 


362 Doubs Depart- 




Cuilly, 


168 


Dees, 


531 


Dillingen, 


325 ment, 


292 


Cullen, 


253 


Deggendorf, 


316 


Dinan, 


209 Doue, 


207 


Cully, 


168 


Deidesheim 


327 


Dinant, 


282 Douglas, 


247 


Culm, 


498 


Deinach, 


333 


Dingle, 


260 Douflens, 


188 


Culmbach, 


3J9 


Deister, 


8 


Dingwall, 


254 Douro, 


14 


Culmsee, 


498 


Delbriick, 


484 


Dinkelsbiihl, 


321 1 Dover, 


236 


Cumberland, 


244 


Delemont, 


159 


Dinklage, 


423;Dovre-fjeld, 


5 


Cum brays, 


252 


Delft, 


269 


Dinogetia, 


612Down, 


258 


Cumbrede Mulha- 


Delfzyl, 


273 


Dinslaken, 


494 Downham, 


237 


ceu, 


5 


Delitzch, 


480 


Dippoldiswalde, 


381 iDownpatrick, 


258 


Cmniana, 


107 


Delmenhorst, 


423 


Dirschau, 


498 J Dragomestre, 


621 


Cuneo, 


107 


Delos, 


623 


Disentis, 


162 Dragon era, 


97 


Cans, 


489 


Delphi, 


621 


Dissen, 


441iDraguignan, 


224 


Cuurgne, 


108 


Delsberg, 


159 


Dithmarschen 414,418 Drama, 


630 


Cupar, 


251 


Del vino, 


633 


Divenow, 


13 Dram burg, 


472 


Curishe Haff, 


9 


Demmin, 


470 


Dixmuyden, 


281 Dram men, 


576 


Curland, 


597 


Demonte, 


108 


Dnieper, 


12 Drave, 


16 


Cusel, 


328 


Demotica, 


629 


Dniester, 


12[Dreieicherhain, 


355 


Cuxhafen, 


450 


Denain, 


191 


Dobbertin, 


410lDreuthe, 


273 


Cyclades, 


623 


Denbigh, 


246 


Doberan, 


409! Dresden, 


380 


Cythera, 


616 


Denbighshire, 


246 


Dobriluck, 


468 


Dreux, 


185 


Czar, 


589 


Dender, 


16 


Doesburg, 


272 


Dreysam, 


338 


Czarnikow, 


500 


Dendermonde, 


280 


Doge (of Venice) 


,540 


Driburg, 


484 


Czech, 


514 


Denia, 


96 


Dohna, 


381 Driesen, 


467 


Czenstochau, 


605 


Denmark, 


543 


Dokkum, 


272 


Drin, 


15 


Czernigow, 


594 


Deptt'ord, 


236 


Dole, 6 


,203 


Dristra, 


629 


Czernowitz, 


520 


Derby, 


242 


Dolgelly, 


246 


Drogheda, 


257 


Czerny Georg, 


634 


Derbyshire, 


242 


Dollart, 


9 


Drohyczyn, 


602 






Derenburg, 


478 


Dombes, 


202 


Droitwich, 


240 


Dacia,521,530,635, 


Deny, 


258 


Domburg, 


270 ! Drome, 


15 


Dago, 


596 


Des, 


531 


Domfront, 


187 


Diome Depart- 




Dahlen, 


493 


Desenzano, 


539 


Domhof, 


412 


ment, 


222 


Dal River, 


13 


Desna, 


12 


Domino, 


144 


Dronero, 


108 


Dalarne, 


569 


Dessau, 


405 


Domitz, 


409 


Drottningholm, 


568 


Dalekarlien, 


569 


Detmold, 


428 


Doinodossola, 


111 


Drontheim, 


577 


D.ilhem, 


283 


Dettelbach, 


323 


Domo d'Ossoia, 


111 


Duben, 


480 


Daikeith, 


249 


Dettingen, 


323 


Domremy, 


193 


Dubienka, 


607 


Daimatia, 


534 


Deutichem, 


272 


Don, 


12 


Dubitza, 532 


, 634 


Dalsland, 


573 


Detitsch-Crone, 


498 1 Donaghadee, 


258 


Dublin, 


256 


Dalya, 


530 


Deutsch-Warten- 




Donaueschingen, 


347 


Dtulerstadt, 


440 


Dam, 


273 


berg, 


475 


Donaustauf, 


317 


Dudley, 


240 


Dam bach, 


197 


Deutz, 


491 


Donauwortn, 


325 


Duero, 


14 


Damm, 


469 


Deux-Ponts, 


328 


Donegal, 


258 


Duisburg, 


494 


Dammersfeld, 


7 


Deva, 


531 


Donez, 


12 


Dukeries, 


242 


Dammgarten, 


470 


De venter, 


272 


Dongio, 


165 


Dukla, 


519 


Damvilliers, 


195 


Devil's Bridge, 


166 


Doornik, 


281 


Dulcigno, 


632 


Danastris, 


12 


Devil's Ladder, 


363 


Dora Baltea, 


15 


Diilken, 


493 


Daugast, 


425 


Devonport, 


238 


Dora Riparia, 


15 


Diil men, 


483 


Danish Islands, 


549 


Devonshire, 


238 


Dorat, 


212! Dumbarton, 


251 


Daunemoia, 


568 


Deynse, 


280 Dorchester, 


238 1 Dumbartonshire, 


251 


Dannenberg, 


437 


Diakovar, 


530 Dordogne, 


15|Dumfrie3, 


250 


Dantzick, 


497 


Diano, 


142 


Dordogne Depar 


[Dumfriesshire, 


250 


Danube, 


16 


Die, 


222 


ment, 


215 iDu miner Lake, 


431 


Danube circle, 


333 


Diedenhofen, 


196 


Dorgali, 


114 Duna, 


13 


Danzig, 


497 


Die burg, 


355 


Dornburg, 


406 Dunaburg, 


601 


Dardanelles, 


10 


Diekirch, 


367 Dornhan, 


333 


Dunbar, 


249 


Darkehmen, 


497 


Diepenau, 


436 Dornholzhausen, 


359 


Dundalk, 


257 


Darlington, 


244 


Diepholz, 


436 Dornoch, 


254 


Dundee, 


252 


Darmstadt, 


354 


Dieppe, 


18(5:Dornstetten, 


3331 Dunfermline, 


252 


Daroca, 


94 


Diessenhofen, 


166 Dorohoe, 


637iDungannon, 


258 


Dartmouth, 


238 |Di est, 


278 Dorpat, 


597|Dmiuarvan, 


259 


Dauphins of Vi 


en- Dietfurt, 


317 Dorsetshire, 


238!Dunkeld, 


253 


nois, 


2-22'Dh-iz, 


3(>2iDorsten, 


433 ID tin kirk, 


191 


Dauphiny, 


222 


Dieu (island), 


210 


Dort, 


269 


Dunse, 


249 



INHDEX. 



647 



Dunsinan, 

Durance, 

Durango, 

Durazzo, 

Diirea, 

Durham, 

Durhamshire, 

Durkhe^m, 

Durlach, 

Da rial, 

Dusemond, 

Diisseldorf, 

Dii-sselthal, 

Dutch, the 

Dutch Flanders, 

Dwina, 

D'Yeu (island), 

Dyrrachium, 



PAGE 

253 
15 

97 

632 

490 
244 
244 
328 
340 
207 
489 
492 
492 
21)5 
270 
12 
210 
632, 



Eaglesham, 251 
East Flanders, 279 
East Friseland, 442 
East Galloway, 250 
East Lothian, 249 
East Meath, 257 
Eastphalians, 293 
East Prussia, 495 
East Pyrenees De- 
partment, 219 
E ist Riding, 243 
Eauze, 216 
Ebeleben, 401 
E belt oft, 553 
Eberbach, 344 
Ebermannstadt, 319 
Eberu, 323 
Ebersdorf, 393 
Ebingen, 333 
Eboli, 142 
Ebro, 14 
Echallens, 168 
Echelles, 109 
Eehternach, 3(57 
EcijH, 92 
Eckardtsberga, 430 
Eckernforde, 555 
Eckmiihl, 316 
Eel use, 270 
Eoouen, 184 
Edam, 269 
Edderachvllis, 254 
Eddy stone, 233 
Edenkoben, 327 
Edesheim, 327 
Edessa, 630 
Edinburgh, 249 
Edinburghshire, 249 
ErcIoo, 280 
E^er (city), 515 
Eger (in Hungary) 527 



PAGE 

Ehningen, 333 

Ehrenbreitstein, 487 
Ehrig, 400 

Eibenstock, 383 

Eichsfeld, 481 

Eichsfeld, Lower, 440 
Eichstadt, 322 

Eider, 14 

Eifel, 8 

Eilenburg, 480 

Eilsen, 429 

Eimbeck, 440 

Eindhoven, 274 

Einsiedeln, 164 

Eisenach, 388 

Eisenberg, 396 

Eisenburg, 525 

Eisenstadt, 527 

Eisfeld, 392 

Eisgrub, 517 

Eisleben, 479 

Ekenas, 599 

Ekesjo, 570 

Elba, 126 

Elbe, 16 

Elberfeld, 492 

Elbeuf, 185 ! 

Elbing, 497 

Elbin?erode, 440 

El burg, 272 

Elche, 96 

Eldasrsen, 436 

Eldena, 471 

Electoral Hesse, 368 
Electoral Palat- 
inate, 327, 342 
Electors of the an- 
cient German 
empire, 
El tsborg, 
Elfsnabben, 
Elgersburg, 
Elgin, 
Elginshire, 
Eli's, 

Elisabethgrad, 
EHfeld, 
Ellbo^en, 
Ellg, 
Ellingen, 
Eilrich, 
Ellwangen, 
Ehnshorn, 
Ebenftr, 
Eisfleth, 
Elsterberg, 
Elsterwerda, 
Elterlein, 



Emme-valiey, 

Ems (in Nassau), 

Ems River, 

Encartationes, 

Endingen, 

Engadin, 

Engelberg, 

Engelholm, 

Enger, 

Engers, 

Eughien, 

England, 

English Channel, 

Enkhuyzen, 

Enkoping, 

Ennis, 

Enniscorthy, 

Enniskillen, 

Enontekis, 

Enos, 

Ens, 

Enschede, 

Ensigns armorial, 

Ensisheim, 

Entre Minho e 

Douro, 
Entrevaux, 
Eperies, 
Epernay 



PAGE 

158 
, 364 

17 

98 
345 
162 
166 
572 
484 
298 
281 
234 
, 9 
269 
568 
260 
256 
258 
599 
628 

16 
272 

46 
199 



72 
224 
527 
192 



Epidaurus Limera623 



Eger River, 

E^lofstein, 

E^-idstadt, 

Egi na, 

Egisheim, 

Eglisau, 

Egribos, 

Ehenheim, 

Ehingen, 



16 
320 

531 
6201 

198 
109 
623 j 
197] 
335, 



El t maim, 

Eltville, 

Elvas, 

Ely, 

Elysiatis, 

E'zach, 

Elza, 

Embrun, 

Emden, 

Emmendingen, 

Emmerich, 



293 
572 
569 
394 
253 
253 
622 
6!l 
363 
515 
161 
321 
481 
335 
418 
549 
421 
334 
430 
333 
321 
363 
73 
237 
472 
345 
439 
222 
44:i 
345 
494 



Epinal, 
Epirus, 

Eppendorf, 

Eppingen, 

Epsom, 

Epstein, 

Erbach, 

Ercole, 

Erdely, 

Erdely Highland, 

Erding, 

Erekli, 

Erfurt, 

Ergi Kastri, 

Erlach, 

Erlangen, 

Eiiau, 

Erlier, 

Ennatingen, 

Ermeland, 

Ernsttbal, 

Erpel, 

Erzo:ebirge, 

E^ch, 

Eschenbacb, 

Escherslebeii, 

Eschwe^e, 

Eschweiler, 

Escurial, 

Esans, 

Eskibaba, 

Eskilstmia, 

E-ikisagra, 

E-^palion, 

Espinosa de los 

Monteros, 
E^queira, 
E>sek, 
lessen, 



195 
632 
450 
342 
235 
364 
355 
125 
530 

5 
315 
628 
481 
633 
153 
321 
527 
158 
166 
496 
392 
483 

7 
367 
317 
447 
371 
490 
89 
443 
62.) 
569 
629 
2JG 

83 

72 j 

529 

494, 



PAGE 


Essex, 


236 


Essling, 


509 


Esslingen, 


332 


Estavayer, 


159 


Este, 


541 


Este, house of, 


118 


Estella, 


97 


Esterhaz, 


527 


Esthnia, 


595 


Estremadura, in 




Portugal, 


71 


Estremadura (in 




Spain), 


91 


Estremoz, 


73 


Etampes, 


184 


Etaples, 


189 


Etholone, 


259 


Etna, 


5 


Eton, 


235 


Etruria, 


122 


Etruria (England) 


,241 


Etruscan Apen- 




nines, 


5 


Etruscans, 


102 


Ettenheim, 


316 


Ettenheimmiinster 345 



Ettlingen, 341 

En, 1»6 

Euboca, 623 

Eulen-Gebirge, 7 

Eupen, 490 

Eure, 15 

Eure Department, 186 
Eure and Loir De- 
partment, 205 
European Russia, 579 



E us k ire hen, 

Eutin, 

Evian, 

Evora, 

Evreux, 

Exeter, 

Exideuil, 

Exilles, 

Eyj afialle-Joekul, 

Eylau, 

Eymoutiers, 

Faaborsr, 

Fa.briano, 

Fachinjen, 

Faemund Lake, 

Faenza, 

Faetano, 

Fagaras, 

Falaise, 

Falkenberg, 193, 

Falkirk, 

Falmouth, 

Falkoping, 

Falster, 

Falun, 

Fano, 

Fanoe, 

Faro, 

Faroe Isles, 

Farsa, 

Faucigny, 

Faulquemont, 



492 
425 
109 
73 
186 
238 
215 
107 
8 
496 
212 

551 
134 
362 

11 
135 
136 
531 
187 
572 
251 
239 
573 
551 
569 
134 
553 

74 
557 
631 
109 
196 



648 



INDEX. 



] 


PAGE 


PAGK 


PAGK 


Fauquemont, 


368 


Fivizzano, 


125 


Frankenau, 


372 


Favara, 


147 


Fladstrand, 


552 


Frankenberg, 372 


384 


Faverges, 


109 


Fladungen, 


323 


Frankenhausen, 


401 


Faviere, 


160 


Flanders, 279 


,280 


Frankenstein, 


474 


Favignana, 


147 


Flatow, 


498 


Frankenthal, 


327 


Fayal, 


75 


Flemings, 19 


,275 


Frankenwald, 


7 


Fecamp, 


186 


Flensburg, 


556 


FYankfort, grand- 




Feder Lake, 


329 


Fleurus, 


281 


duchy of, 


294 


Fees, 


36 


Flint, 


246 


Frankfurt on the 




Feglio, 


136 


Flintshire, 


246 


Mayne, 454 


455 


Fehrbellin, 


465 


Florae, 


221 


Frankfort on the 




Fejer Teraplom, 


534 


Florence, 


123 


Oder, 


467 


Feldberg, 


7 


Flores, 


75 


Frankish circle, 


292 


Feldberg, Great, 


8 


Floridia, 


148 


Frankisch-Krum- 




Feldkirch, 


514 


Flottbeck, 


418 


bach, 


355 


Felegyhaza, 


529 


Fliielen, 


166 


Franks (German 




Felicudi, 


149 


Flushing, 


270 


tribe), 


26 


Felletin, 


212 


Fochabers, 


253 


Franks (in Tur- 




Fellin, 


597 


Foehn, 


152 


key), 


624 


Felsberg, 


371 


Foggia, 


144 


Franks, Ripuarian 298 


Feltre, 


542 


Fohr, 


557 


, Salic, 


298 


Felvincz, 


532 


Foix, 


218 


Franzensbrunn, 


515 


Femern, 


557 


Fokshan, 


636 


Frascati, 


132 


Fenestrelle, 


107 


Foldvar, 


532 


Frasersburgh, 


252 


Feodosia, 


610 


Foligno, 


134 


Frauenburg, 


496 


Ferrara, 


135 


Fondi, 


142 


Frauenfeld, 


165 


Fere Champenoise, 


Fonni, 


114 


Frauenstein, 


381 


La, 


192 


Fontenay, 


281 


Fraustadt, 


499 


Fermanagh, 


258 


Fontenay le Comte 110 


Fredensborg, 


549 


Fermo, 


134 


Fontainebleau, 


184 


Frederic the Great 463 


Fermoselle, 


90 


Fontaine 1'Eveque 281 


Frederiksborg, 


549 


Fermoy, 


259 


Fontaine Fran- 




Frederikshald, 


576 


Ferney, 


202 


caise, 


201 


Frederishamn, 


599 


Ferrol, 


90 


Foradada, 


97 


Frederikshavn, 


552 


Ferte Bernard, La 207 


Forcalquier, 


224 


Frederiksoort, 


273 


Ferte sous Jouarre 


,193 


Forchheim, 


320 


Frederiksort, 


556 


Feuchtwang, 


320 


Forch ten berg, - 


337 


Frederiksstad, 


576 


Feudal System, 


35 


Forchtenstein, 


527 


Frederikstad, 


556 


Fichtelberg, Grea 


, 7 


Fordon, 


500 


Frederikssteen, 


576 


Little, 


7 


Forest of Thurin- 




Frederikssund, 


550 


Fichtel-Gebirge, 


7 


gia, 


7 


Frederiksviirn, 


576 


Fiesole, 


123 


Forez, 


214 


Frederikswerk, 


549 


Fife, 


251 


Forfax, 


252 


Free Cities, 


51 


Fifeshire, 


251 


Forfaxshire, 


252 


Freiberg, 


381 


Figeac, 


216 


Forli, 


135 


Freiburg in Breis- 




Figline 


123 


Formentera, 


97 


gau, 344 


345 


Figueira do Mon- 




Fornovo, 


117 


Freiburg (in Swit 




dego, 


72 


Forres, 


253 


zerland), 


159 


Figueras, 


95 


Forst, 


327 


Freiburg unterm 




Filehne, 


500 


Forste, 


468 


Fiirstenstein, 


473 


Filibe, 


630 


Fort Louis, 


198 


Freienhagen, 


376 


Finale, 


113 


Fort Opus, 


535 


Freienwalde, 


466 


Finale (in Mode- 




Fort Vauban, 


198 


Freihan, 


474 


na), 


119 


Forth, 


14 


Freising, 


315 


Findhorn, 


253 


Fosdinovo, 


119 


Freiwaldau, 475 


517 


Fingal's Cave, 


254 


Fossano, 


108 


Frejus, 


224 


Finisterre Depart- 




Fossigny, 


109 


French Flanders, 


190 


ment, 


209 


Fossombrone, 


134 


French Nether- 




Finland, 


598 


Fotheringay, 


241 


lands, 


190 


Finland Gulf, 


9 


Fougeres, 


208 


French Switzer- 




Finnan, 


252 


Fraga, 


94 


land, 


167 


Finnish tribe, 


564 


Francavilla, 


145 


Fresh Haff, 


9 


Finnmarken, 


578 


France, 


170 


Freudenstadt, 


333 


Finspong, 


570 


Franche 




Freudenberg, 


344 


Finsteraarhorn, 


4 


Comte, 200 


202 


Freystadt, 


318 


Finsterwalde, 


468 


Franconia, 




Friaul, 31, 


512 


Fiorenzuola, 


117 


318, 320 


322 


Friaul, Venetian, 


542 


Fiume, 


529 


Franconiau Alps, 


7 


Friburg, 


159 


Fiumicino, 


133 


Franeker, 


272 


Frick, 


156 



PAGE 

Fridericia, 553 
Fiiesoyte, 423 
Friedberg, 358 
Fried berg (in Ba- 
varia), 315 
Friedeberg, 467, 475 
Friedewald, 373 
Fried ingen, 332 
Friedland, 496,516 
Friedrichshafen, 334 
Friedrichshof, 359 
Friedrichstadt, 597 
Friesack, 466 
Frieses, 263 
Friesland, 272 
Frieslanders, 298 
Frignano, 1 19 
Fritzlar, 372 
Frontignan, 2-20 
Froome, 239 
Frosinone, 133 
Frutingen, 158 
Fuente Ovejuna, 93 
Fuenterabia, 97 
Fugger, princes 

and earls of, 326 

Fulda (city), 373 
Fulda (Hessian 

province), 372 

Fulda River, 17 

Fulnek, 517 

Fumay, 191 

Funen, 551 

Fiinfkirchen, 526 

Furnas, 75 

Furnes, 281 

Fiirstenau, 441 
Fiirstenberg, 412, 447 
Fiirstenberg, prin- 
ces of, 346, 347 
Fiirstenberg, town 

of, 347 

Fiirstenstein, 473 

Furstenwalde, 467 

Fiirth, 320 

Fiissen, 325 

Fyen, 551 

Gadebusch, 409 

Gabela, 034 

Gaeta, 142 

Gaels, 1 9 

Gaibach, 323 

Gaillac, 220 

Gailuripi, 5 

Gainsburough, 237 
Gais, 157 

Galacz, 637 

Ralantha, 524 

Galaxidi, 621 

Galenstock, 166 

Galicia (Austrian) 518 
Galicia (in Spain), 90 
Gallaecia, 84 

Gallego, 14, 77 

Gallipoli, 144,623 

Galloway, East, 250 

, New, 250 

, West, 250 



INDEX. 



64S 



Gallura, 

Galoshields, 

Gal way, 

Gamertingen, 

Gamla Carleby, 

Gandersheim, 

Gandia, 

Ganges, 

Gannat, 

Gap, 

Gard, 



PAGE 
114 

250 
259 
349 
599 
447 

96 
220 
204 
222 

15 



Gard Department, 220 



Garda Lake, 

Gardanne, 

Gardelegen, 

Garding, 

Gardone, 

Garfagna, 

Garfagna Grandu- 

cale, 
Gargnano, 
Garigliano, 
Garraisch, 
Garmouth, 
Garonne, 
Garter, the, 
Garz, 
Garz (on the island 

of Riigen), 
Gascony, 
Gastein, 
Gatshina, 
Gaualgesheim, 
Gaul, 
Gebesee, 
Gebweiler, 
Gedern, 
Geertsberghen, 
Geeste, 
Geesthacht, 
Gefle, 
Gehren, 
Geilnau, 
Geisenheim, 
Geiser, 
Geisingen, 
Geislingen, 
Geismar, 
Gelderland, 
Geldern, 
Geldern (in Prus 

sia), 
Gellen, 
Gellheim, 
Gelnhausen, 
Gembloux, 
Gemiinden, 
Generalife, 
Geneva, 
Geneva Lake, 
Genevese, 
Genevois, 
Gengenbach, 
Gennargentu, 
Gennep, 
Genoa, 
Genthin, 
Gepides, 
Gera, 



11 
224 
478 
556 
540 
119 



Gerabronn, 

Gerace, 

Gerardmer, 

Gerdauen, 

Geringswalde, 

Gerlachsheim, 

German Empire, 

the ancient, 291 
Germanes, 18, 19 

Germania, 297 

Germanic Confed- 



PAGE 

336 
145 
195 
496 
383 
344 



125 
540 

15 
315 
253 

15 
232 
469 



471 
216 
510 
596 
356 

26 
481 
198 
357 
280 

17 
450 
573 
401 
365 
363 
559 
347 
334 
371 
271 
271 



494 
471 
328 
374 
282 
323, 372 

93 
160 

11 
109 
109 
341 
5 
368 
111,112 
478 

24 
399 



eration, 
Germany, 
Germersheim, 
I Gernrode, 
'Gernsbach, 
Gernsheim, 
Gerolzhofen, 
| Gerona, 
Gerresheim, 
Gers, 

Gers Department 
Gersau, 
Gerstungen, 
Gertruidenberg, 
Gesecke, 
Gessenay, 
I Gestrikland, 
Gevio, 
Gex, 
Geyer, 
Geysa, 
Gheel, 
Ghent, 



295 
284 
327 
404 
341 
354 
323 

95 
492 

15 
216 
164 
389 
274 
485 
158 
573 
165 
202 
383 
389 
279 
279 



Giant's Causeway, 258 



Giants' Mts., 
Gianuti, 
Giare, 
Giaveno, 
Gibraltar, 
Giebichenstein, 
Gieboldehausen, 
Gien, 
Giengen, 
Giessen, 
Gifhorn, 
Gigantinu, 
Giglio, 
Gijon, 
Gilgenberg, 
Gingst, 
Giornico, 
Giovenazzo, 
Girgenti, 
Gironde, 
Gironde Depart- 
ment, 
Gisborough, 
Giurgewo, 
Givet, 
Givors, 
Glaciers, 
Gladbach, 
Glammis, 
Glamorganshire, 
Glarus, 
Glasgow, 
G'ashiitte, 
Glastonbury, 



6 
125 
148 
107 
3,93 
480 
440 
205 
336 
357 
437 

5 
125 
90 
164 
471 
165 
144 
147 
15 



215 
243 
636 
191 
214 
152 
493 
253 
245 
161 
250 
381 
239 

28 



PAGE 

Glatz, 474 

Glatz, earldom of, 474 
Glauchau, 384 

Gleiwitz, 476 

Glen-Coe, 253 

Glina, 533 

Glogau, 474 

Glommen, 14 

Glons, 282 

Glott, 326 

Gloucester, 240 

Gloucestershire, 240 
Gliicksbrunn, 391 

Gliicksburg, 557 

Gliickstadt, 416 

Gmiind, 336 

Gmunden Lake, 11 
Gnadau, 479 

Gnadenfeld, 476 

Gnesen, 500 

Goch, 494 

Goes, 270 

Goeschenen, 166 

Goetzenbruck, 195 
Goksholm, 569 

Goldapp, 497 

Goldau, 164 

Goldberg, 410, 474 
Golden Bull, 301 

Golden Fleece, 83, 506 
598 
319 
328 
470 
498 
195 
157 
539 
243 
335 
270 
531 

531 
125 
512 
270 
475 
358 
512 
439 
533 
238 
169 
562 
394 
13 
570 
572 

44 
18,23 
572 
440 
571 
165 
556 
270 
216 



Goldingen, 

Goldkronach, 

Gollheim, 

Gollnow, 

Gollup, 

Gondreville, 

Gonten, 

Gonzaga, 

Goole, 

Geppingen, 

Goree, 

Gorgeny, 

Gorgeny-Szent- 

Imreh, 
Gorgona, 
Gorizia, 
Gorkum, 
Gorlitz, 
Gortz-Schlitz, 
Gorz, 
Goslar, 
Gospich, 
Gosport, 
Gossau, 
Gota-Canal, 
Gotha, 
Gotha River, 
Gotharike, 
Gotheborg, 
Gothic style in ar 

chitecture, 
Goths, 
Gottenburg, 
Gottingen, 
Gottland, 
Gottlieben, 
Gottorp, 
Gouda, 
Gourdon, 



PAGE 

Gournay, 186 

Govone, 108 

Gozzo, 150 

Graben, 32! 

Grabfeld, 32 

Grabow, 40f 

Graciosa, 7 

Gradisca, 51- 

Gradisca, New, 53- 

, Old, 534 

Grafenau, 31C 
Griifenberg, 518 
Grafenberg (in Ba- 
varia), 320 
Giafenhainchen, 4c 
Giafrath, 49c 
Grammont, 28C 
Grampian Hills, 8 
Gran, 525 
Granada, 93 
Granard, 257 
Grand Colombier, 6 
Grand Donnon, 6 
Grand Chartreuse, 22 
Grandpre, 
Grand Signior, 
Grandson, 
Grand Vizier, 
Grangemouth, 
Gran River, 



168 

626 

251 

16 

Gran Sasso d'ltalia, 5 



Gransee, 
Granville, 
Grao, 

Grasbrook, 
Grasse, 
Grasse, La, 
Gratz, 
Gratz, 
Graudenz, 
Graulhet, 
Grave, 
Gravelines, 
Gravelingen, 
s'Gravenhaag, 
Gravenstein, 
Gravesand, 
Gray, 
Gray Alps, 
Gray le Pre, 
Great Belt, 
Great Britain, 
Great Feldberg, 
Great Greece, 
Great Hafif, 
Great-Island, 
Great Rumania, 
Great Poland, 
Great Rad, 
Great Russia, 
Great Schneeberg 
Grebenstein, 
Grecian Archipel- 
ago, 
Greding, 
Greece, 
Greek Church, 
Greeks, 
Greenlaw, 



168 

187 
96 
450 
224 
220 
510 
510 
498 
220 
274 
190 
190 
269 
556 
236 
203 

4 
205 

9 
227 

8 
102 

9 
259 
528 
605 

7 
590 
, 6 
371 

10 

322 

517 

20 

19 

249 



650 



INDEX. 



PARE 

Greenock, 251 

Greenwich, 236 

Greetsiel, 443 

Gregory VII., 41 

Greiffenberg, 470 
Greiffenberg (in 

Silesia), 475 

Greiffenbagen, 470 

Greifswald, 471 

Greiz, 398 

Grenaa, 553 

Grenchen, 164 

Grenna, 571 

Grenoble, 222 

Gretna Green, 250 

Greussen, 400 

Grevemachern, 366 

Grevenbroicb, 493 

Grevismuhlen, 409 

Greyerz, 159 

Grigoriopol, 611 

Grimby, 237 

Grirnma, 382 

Grim men, 470 

Gripsholm, 569 

Grisons, 161 

Grodno, 600 

Groenlo, 272 

Grohnde, 436 

Groix, ' 209 

Grol, 272 

Gronau, 439 

Gronenbach, 325 

Groningen, 273 

Gross- Almerode, 370 

Grossbottwar, 33 1 

Grosselflngen, 350 

Grossenhain, 381 

Grossetto, 124 

Grossgerau, 354 
Grosshennersdorf, 385 

Gross-Linden, 357 

Gross-Salze, 477 

Gross-Schlatten, 53 1 

Gross-Schonau, 385 

Gross-Strehlitz, 476 

Gross- Vargula, 481 

Gross-Wardein, 528 

Grotkau, 476 
Grotzingen, 333, 340 

Grouaix, 209 

Grubenhagen, 440 

Grubin, 598 

Grueningen, 169 
357, 474 



Gi tin berg, 

Grand, 

Gitinhain, 

Gsiinsfeld, 

Griinstadt, 

Gruyeres, 

Guadalaviar, 

Guadalaxara, 

Guadalquivir, 

Guadiana, 

Guadix, 

Guardamar, 

Guastalla, 

Gubbio, 

Guben, 



444, 486 

384 

344 

328 

159 

14 

88 

14 

14 

93 

98 

117 

134 

468 



I PAGE 

Guden, J4 

Gudensberg, 371 

Guelphs, 433 

Guerande, 210 

Guerche, La, 208 

Gueret, 212 

Guernsey, 247 

Guetaria, 97 

Gtigglingen, 331 

Guibray, 187 

Guildford, 235 
Guildhall in Lon- 
don (History of), 54 
Guilds, 52, 53 

Guillotiere, La, 214 

Guimaraes, 73 

Guingamp, 209 

Guide, 216 

Guipuzcoa, 97 
Gtildene Aue, 399, 458 

Gulf of Genoa, 10 

Gulf of Lyons, 10 

Gulf of Riga, 9 

Gulf of Taranto, 10 

Gumbinnen, 496 

Gundelflugen, 326 

Gundelsheim, 332 

Guns, 526 

Guntersblum, 357 

Gtiuthersberge, 404 

Gtinzburg, 325 

Gunzenhausen, 321 

Gurau, 473 

Guspini, 114 

Gtistrow, 409 

Guyenne, 214 
Gyergyo Szent 

Miklos, 534 

Haarlem, 269 

Haarlem Lake, 1 1 

Haarlingen, 272 

Haase, 17 

Habelschwerdt, 474 
Habelschwerdt 

Mountains, 7 

Habichtswald, 8 

Habsal, 596 

Hachenburg, 362 

Hadamar, 362 

Haddington, 249 

Haddingtonshire, 249 

Hadeln, 438 

Hadersleben, 556 

Haemus, 6 

Hafnerzell, 316 

Haga, 568 

Hagen, 485 

Hagenau, 197 

Hagenow, 409 

Hagos, 528 

Hague, the, 209 

Haiger, 362 

Haigerlnch, 349 

Haihault, 281 

Hainichen, 381 

Hajduks' District, 529 

Halberstadt, 478 

Halia, 630 



PAGE 

Halifax, 243 
Hall, 335, 513 

Halland, 572 

Halle, 480 
Halle (in Belgium) 278 

HaJlein, 510 

Halligen, 557 

Halmstad, 572 

Ham, 188 

Hambach, 327 
Hamburg, 448, 450 

Hameln, 435 

Hamilton, 251 
Hamm, 450, 485 

Hamme, 280 

Hammelburg, 323 

Hammerfest, 578 

Hammerstein, 498 

Hampshire, 238 

Hampton Court, 235 

Hanau, 373 
Hauau-Lichten- 

berg, 328 

Hanover, city, 435 
Hanover, Kingdom 

of, 430 

Hanschuchsheim, 343 

Hanseatic cities, 447 
Hanseatic League, 54 

Hants, 238 

Hanut, 283 

Hapsburg, 156 
Hapsburg, House 

of, 301, 507 
Hapsburg-Lor- 

raine, 303, 507 

Harburg, 437 

Hardenberg, 272 

Harderwyk, 271 

Hardt Mountains, 6 

Harfleur, 186 

Harlech, 246 

Harleigh, 246 

Harrowgate, 244 

Harsefeld, 438 

Hartenstein, 384 

Hartz, 7, 8 

Harwich, 236 

Harzburg, 447 

Harzgerode, 404 

Haseiunne, 442 

Haslach, 342 

Hasle, 550 

Haslithal, 158 

Hasparon, 217 

Hasparren, 217 

Hasselfelde, 448 
Hasselt, 272, 283 

Hassfurt, 323 

Hass-Gebirge, 7 

Hastenbeck, 435 

Hastings, 236 

Hatteni, 272 

Hattenheim, 363 

Hattersheim, 363 

Hatlingen, 485 

Hatzeg, ' 534 

Hatzteld, 357 

Haulx, 278 



PAOT5 

Hauptweil, 166 

Hausach, 312 

Hausberge, 484 
Hausen, 342, 345, 346 

Haute Combe, 109 

Hauterive, 159 

Hautpoul, 220 

Havel, 17 

Havelberg, 466 

Haverfordwest, 245 

Havre de Grace, 186 

Hawick, 249 

Hay barn Mts., 7 

Hazebrouk, 190 
Heath of Debrec- 

zin, 502 
Heath of Ketske- 

met, 502 
Heaths Depart- 
ment, 217 
Hebrides, 254 
Hechingen, 349 
Hecla, 8 
Heddernheim, 363 
Hedemora, 570 
Hedemtinden, 440 
Heerenveen, 272 
Hegendorf, 164 
Hegyallya Hills, 527 
Heide, 418 
Heidelberg, 343 
Heidelsheim, 342 
Heidenheim, 320, 337 
Heilbronn, 332 
Heilige Linde, 496 
Heiligenbeil, 496 
Heiligenberg, 347 
Heiligenhafen, 417 
Heiligenstadt, 481 
Heiliger Damm, 407 
Heilsberg, 496 
Heilsbronn, 320 
Heinersdorf, 392 
Heitersheim, 346 
Heldburg, 392 
Helder, 269 
Heldrungen, 479 
Helensburgh, 251 
Heligoland, 247 
Hellas, 619, 620 
Hellebeck, 550 
Helmond, 274 
Helmstildt, 447 
Helsingborg, 572 
Helsingfors, 5!i9 
Helsingland, 573 
Helsingor, 594 
Heltau, 532 
Helvetia, 151 
Helvetic Republic 153 
Helvoelsluis, 270 
Hermeberg, ancient 

castle of, 391 
Heimeberg, earl- 
dom of, 388 
Hennebon, 209 
Hennersdorf in 

Peifen, 385 

Henrichemont, 205 



INDEX. 



651 



Henry the Lion, 
He;>pt;nheim, 
HepLarehy, 
Heraclea, 
Herault, 

Herault Depart- 
ment, 
Herbolzheim, 
Herborn, 
Herculaimm, 
Hereford, 
Herefordshire, 
He rentals, 
Herford, 
Hericourt, 
Hering, 
Heringen, 
Herisau, 
Herjedalen, 
Herlisheim, 
Hermannstadt, 
Hermopolis, 
Hermundari, 
Hemosand, 
Herrenberg, 
Herrieden, 
Herrnhut, 
Hersbruck, 
Hersfeld, 
Herstall, 
Hertford, 
Hertfordshire, 
Hertogenbosch, 
Heruli, 
Herve, 
Herzberg, 
Herzegovina, 
Herzogenrath, 
Herzogenaurach, 
Hesargrad, 
Hesdin, 
Hesse- Cassel, 



PAGE ] PAGE 

433 Hillebrunn, 573 

354 Hilleiod, 549 
25 Hillscheid, 363 

628 Hilpoltstein, 317 

15 Hilsbach, 344 

I Him m elsberg, 544 
220 Hindelopen, 272 

343Hirschau, 317,333 
362:Hirschberg, 474 

141 Hirschhorn, 
240 Hiisova, 
240 Hisingen, 
279 Hispania citerior, 
484 HLspania ulterior, 
203 Hitzacker, 

355 Hjelmar Lake, 
373 Hjelmsnabben, 
157, Hjo, 
574 Hjorring, 
198'Hobro, 
532 'Hoch berg, 
623|Hochheim, 
378 Hochkirch, 
574|H6chst, 
333jH6chstadt, 
322jHodimont, 
385 1 Hoegaerden 
32lJHof, 
373 Hofgeismar, 
282|Hofheim, 



237 
237 
273 
25 
283 
440 



Hofwyl, 
Hogue, La, 
Hohe Eule, 
Hohegeiss, 
Hohr, 
Hohscheid, 
634 i Hohenasperg, 
490 Hohenberg, 



320 
630 
189 
368 



Hesse-Darmstadt, 351 
Hesse, electorate of 368 
Hesse, grand-duchy 

351 
358 



of, 

Hesse-Homburg, 
Hesse, landgravi- 

ate of, 358 

Hesse and at 

Rhine, 351 

Het Loo, 271 

Hettingen, 349 

Heubach, Klein, 323 
Heuscheuer Ge- 

birge, 7 

Heusden, 274 

Hexham, 244 

Highland of Bay- 

reuth, 319 

Highlands of 

Berue, 158 

Highland of Meis- 
sen, 376 
Highlands of Scot- earldom of, 

land, 253 Holbek, 

Hilchenbach, 436 Holland, 

Hildbmvnausen, 392 Hollfeld, 
Hildesheim, 439|Holstebro, 



Hohenembs, 

Hohenfriedberg, 

Hohenheben, 

Hohenklingen, 

Hohenkrahen, 



355 
630 
572 
84 
84 
437 
11 
569 
573 
552 
553 
345 
363 
385 
363 
319, 326 
233 
279 
319 
370 
363 
158 
187 
7 
448 
363 
493 
331 
33-2 
514 
475 
347 
164 
347 
314 
336 



Hohenlinden, 

Hohenlohe, 

Hohenlohe-Schil- 

lingsfiirst, 322 

Hohensalzburg, 510 
Hohenschvvangau, 314 
Hohenstaufen, 

324, 335 
Hohenstein, 384 

Hohenstoffeln, 347 
Hohentwiel, 333 

Hohenzollern, an- 
cestral castle of, 349 
Hohenzollern, the 

principalities of, 347 
Hohenzollern-He- 

chingen, » 349 
Hohenzollern-Sig- 

maringen, 349 

Hohnstein, 440 

Hohnstein, ancient 

481 
550 
268 
320 
553 



PAGE 

Holstein, 412 

Holsteiu-Gottorp, 414 
Holum, 560 

Holy Causeway, 407 
Holyhead, 247 

Holy Kreuzberg, 7 
Holy River, 12 

Holv Roman Em- 
pire, 291 
Holyrood, 249 
Holywell, 246 
Holzappel, 364 
Holzminden, 447 
Hombergin Hesse, 371 
Homberg an der 

Ohm, 357 

Homburg (in Bava- 
ria), 328 
Homburg vor der 

Hohe, 
Homel, 
Honfleur, 
Hoogstraten, 
Hooksiel, 



PAGE 

Humber, 14 

Hiimmling, 431 

Hundholm, 578 

Hundsruck, 8 

Hundwyl, 157 

Hiinfeld, 373 

Hungary, 520 

Hungen, 357 

Hiiaingen, 199 

Huns, 25 

Hunsriicken, 8 

Hunte, 17 

Huntingdon, 237 
Huntingdonshire, 237 



359 
601 
186 
279 
424 
269 
109 
332 
485 
209 
169 
428, 450 
346 



Hoorn, 

Hopital, 

Horb, 

Horde, 

Hordic, 

Horgen, 

Horn, 

Hornberg, 

Horneburg, 

Horsens, 

Horstmar, 

Horta, 

Hospodars, 

Hostalrich, 

Houat, 

House of Bourbon, 180 

House of Bragau- 

za, 69 

House of Este, 118 
House of Hanover, 233 
House of Medici, 122 
House of Stuart, 
House of Tndor, 
House of Wittels- 

bach, 
Howden, 
H oxter, 
Hoya, 

Hoyerswerda, 
Hoym, 
Hradschin, 
Hraundalur, 
Hrubieszow, 
Hubertsburg, 
HUckeswagen, 
Huddersfield, 
Hudikswall, 
Huelva, 



Husavik, 

Httsum, 

Huttweil, 

Hutwyl, 

Huy, 

Hven, 

Hydra, 

Hyeres, 

Hyerian Islands, 

Hypanis, 

Hythe, 



560 
556 
158 
158 
2- ! 2 
572 
622 
224 
224 
12 
236 



Ibbenbiiren, 483 

Iberian Mountains, 5 



438 
553 
483 

75 
636 

95 
209 



233 
233 



Iberians, 

Ibrahil, 

Iceland, 

Icolmkill, 

Idar, 

Idarkopf, 

Idria, 

Idstein, 

Ifferten, 

Iglau, 

Iglesias, 

Igualada, 

Ilanz, 

Ilfeld, 



19 
636 
559 
254 
426 
8 
512 
362 
168 
517 
114 

95 
162 
440 



Huesca, 

Hiilingen, 

Huissen, 

Hull, 

Hulonesus, 

Hnlst, 

Hultschin, 



313 
243 
484 
436 
475 
404 
514 
560 
607 
382 
493 
243 
574 
92 
94 
347 
272 
243 
623 
271 
476 



Hie and Vilaine De- 
partment, 203 
Iller, 16 
Illertissen, 325 
[llok, 530 
Illyria, 511 
Illyrians, 102 
Ilmen Lake, 11 
Ilmenau, 388 
Ilraenau River, 17 
llsenburg, 479 
Imbro, 632 
Imbros, 632 
Imgenbroich, 490 
lmmediateness (in 

Germany), 51 

Immenhausen, 371 

Immenstadt, 325 

Imola, 135 

Indre, 15 
lndre Department 205 
Indre and Loire 

Department, 206 

Ingelfingen, 336 

Ingelheim, 356 

Tnjdeborough, 8 

Ingolstadt, 314 



652 



INDEX. 



Ingrande, 

Brigria, 

Inn River, 

Innerl ei then, 

Inner-Rhoden, 

Innocentus III., 

Innspruck, 

Inowraclaw, 

lnsara, 

Inselsberg, 

Insterburg, 

Interamnia, 

Interlachen, 

Interlaken, 

Intra, 

Inverbervie, 

Inverary, 



PARK 

207 
595 

16 
250 
157 

41 
513 
500 
608 
7 
497 
143 
158 
158 
111 
252 
253 



Inverlochy Castle, 253 



Inverness, 


253 


Inverness-shire, 


253 


Iona, 


254 


Ionian Islands, 


614 


Ionian Sea, 


10 


Iperia, 


150 


Ipswich, 


236 


Irbit, 


608 


Ireland, 


256 


Irnis, 


165 


Irwin, 


250 


Isar, 


16 


Ischia, 


141 


Ischl, 


510 


Isefjord, 


544 


Iseghem, 


281 


Isenburg, 


355 


Isenburg-B iidin- 




gen, 


357 


Iseo, 


540 


Isere Department, 222 


Iserlohn, 


485 


Isernia, 


144 


Ish, 


608 


Ishevski-Zavod, 


608 


Isigny, 


187 


Isili, 


114 


Isla, 


254 


Isla de Leon, 


92 


Islay, 


254 


Isle de France, 


182 


Ismail, 


611 


Isny, 


334 


Isola, 


512 


Isola bella, 


111 


Isola mad re, 


111 


Isola dei Pescatori 11 


Isole de Tremiti, 


144 


Isselburg, 


494 


Isselhorst, 


484 


Issengeaux, 


221 


Issoire, 


213 


Issoudun, 


205 


Istres, 


223 


Istria, 


512 


Issnrtille, 


201 


Italian Switzer- 




land, 


165 


Italy, 


99 


Ithaca, 


616 


Itter, 


357 



rtzehoe, 

Ivanovo, 

Iverdun, 

Ivica, 

Ivrea, 

Ivry, 

Jaca, 

Jacobstad, 

Jacobstadt, 

Jaen. 

Jagello, 

Jagerndorf, 

Jagodina, 

Jaik, 

Ja'itza, 

Jalta, 

Janepol, 

Jankau, 

Jankowitz, 

Jaonina, 

Jarlsberg, 

Jarmen, 

Jarnac, 

Jaroslav, 

Jass-Bereny, 

Jassenovacz, 

Jassy, 

Jastrow, 

Jauer, 

Jaxt, 

Jaxtberg, 

Jaxt circle, 

Jazyges, 

Jazygia, 

Jebaluga, 

Jedburgh, 

Jekaterinador, 

Jekaterinburg, 

Jekaterinoslav, 

Jelatma, 

Jemappes, 

Jemtland, 

Jena, 

Jenibazar, 

Jenidshe, 

Jersey, 

Jeschken, 

Jesi, 

Jessnitz, 

Jever, 

Jewpatoria. 



PAGE 

417 
592 
163 
97 
108 
186 

94 
599 



Judenbach, 

Judenburg, 

Jugria, 

Jiilich, 

Juliers, 

Jul in, 

Jung-Breslau, 

Jungfrau, 

Jung-Stilling, 



PAGE 

392 
511 
521 

490 
490 
469 
500 
4 
486 



598! Jura Department, 203 



93 Jura (island), 
600 Jura Mts., 
5l7|Jurburg, 
635 Jussey, 
609 Justinian, 
634 Jiiterbock, 
611 Jutland, 
602 1 

515 Kadolzburg, 
515 Kaferloh, 
633 Kafernburg, 
576 Kaffa, 
470|Kahla, 
211 Kaisersberg, 

519, 592 Kaisersla utern, 
529 i Kaisersreuth, 
533 ! Kaiserswertb, 
637JKalau, 
498 1 Kalauria, 
474 i Kalavrita, 
329 Kalbe, 
337|Kalish, 
335 1 Kallenberg, 

521, 529 Kallmiinz, 



254 
6 
601 
203 
26 
467 



pag a 
Katzenr.lhibogen, 

354, 364 

Katzenellnbogen 



529 
608 
249 
613 
607 
612 
592 
281 
574 
387 
635 
630 
247 
7 
134 
405 
424 
61 J 



Joachimsthal, 466, 515 



Jockmock, 
Johanngeorgen- 

stadt, 
Johannisberg, 
Johannisburg, 
John O'Groat's 

house, 
Johnstown, 
Johstadt, 
Joigny, 
Joinville, 
Jonkoping, 
Jonzac, 
Joux, 

Joux, valley of, 
Juckasjarwi, 



575 

383 
363 
497 

254 
251 
383 
193 
192 
571 
211 
203 
168 
575 



Kallundborg, 

Kalmucks, 

Kaltennordheim, 

Kaltensundheim, 

Kaluga, 

Kama, 

Kamengrad, 

Kaminiec Podol- 

ski, 
Kammin, 
Kamyshin, 
Kandern, 
Kapnik Banya, 
Kaprena, 
Kapsali, 
Kaptshak, 
Karansebes, 
Karasu, 
Karaveria, 
Kardsschag-Uj 

Szallas, 
Kiirnthen, 
Karystos, 
Karytone, 
Kasan, 
Kaschau, 
Kasimov, 
Kasmark, 
Kastel, 
Kastri, 
Katarinburg, 
Katscher, 
Katz, 
Katzbach, 
Katzenbuckel, 



(town), 
Kaub, 

Kaufbeuren, 
Kavala, 
Kecskemet, 
Kedrich, 
Kehl, 
Keighley, 
K^lheim, 
Kellinghusen, 
Kells, 
Kelso, 
Kemi, 
552 Kemitriisk, 
Kemnath, 
Kempen, 
Kempten, 
Kendal, 
Kengis, 
Kenilworth, 
Kent, 

Kensington, 
Kenzingen, 
Keraes, 
Kerensk, 
Kerns, 
Kernwald, 
Kerry, 
Kersova, 
Kertsh, 
Kesmark, 
Kesselsdorf, 
Keswick, 
Ketskemet, 



321 
314 
401 
610 
396 
198 
327 
336 
493 
468 
622 
622 
477 
605 
394 
317 
550 
580 
389 
389 
591 
12 
634 



602 
470 
609 
345 
531 
621 
616 
588 
534 
15, 610 
631 

528 
511 
623 
622 
607 
527 
592 
527 
356 
621 
607 
476 
364 
13 
7 



364 
364 
324 
630 
5-25 
363 
341 
244 
316 
417 
257 
249 
13 
599 
317 
493 
324 
245 
575 
240 
236 
235 
345 
209 
608 
166 
166 
260 
630 
611 
527 
381 
244 
525 



Ketskemet Heath, 502 



Kettwig 

Keula, 

Kezdi Vasarhely, 

Kickelhahn, 

Kidderminster, 

Kidwelly, 

Kiel, 

Kielce, 

Kiev, 

Kiew, 

Kieydani, 

Kilbarchan, 

Kildare, 

Kilia, 

Killala, 

Killalve, 

Killarney, 

Killkenny, 

Kilmarnock, 

Kimpolung, 

Kindelbriick, 

King's County, ._ 

Kingston, 

Kincardine, 

Kinnaird's Head, 

Kinross, 

Kinross-shire, 

Kin sale, 

Kirch berg, 

Kirchhain, 

Kirchheim, 



494 
401 
534 
7 
240 
245 
417 
606 
594 
594 
601 
251 
257 
611 
259 
260 
260 
256 
250 
636 
481 
257 
235, 256 
252 
252 
2f)2 
252 
259 
336 
372 
326 



INDEX. 



653 



PAGE 

Kirchheim unter 

Teck, 335 
Kirdorf, 357 
Kirkaldy, 253 
Kirkcudbright, 250 
Kirkcudbright- 
shire, 250 
Krkilissa, 629 
Kirkwall, 255 
Kirn, 488 
Kishenev, 61 1 
Kissingen, 32-2 
Klagenfurt, 511 
Klausenburg, 531 
Klein-Heubach, 323 
Kleinhueningen, 157 
Klein-Schlatten, 531 
Klei n-Sch malkal- 

den, 373 

Kleinwelka, 385 

Klettgau, 34fi 

Klingenberg, 323 

Klingenthal, 197 

Klingnau, 156 

Klodnitz, 13 

Kloppenburg, 423 

Klundert, 274 

KlUtz, 409 

Knaresborough, 244 
Knights of St. John, 46 
Knights of the Or- 
der of the Sword 596 
Knights Templars, 46 

Knin, 535 

Kniphausen, 424 

Knyszyn, 602 

Kobryn, 601 

Koburg, 394 

Kocher, 329 

Kochheim, 487 

Kock, 607 

Koenigsfelden, 156 

Koesfeld, 483 

Koevoerden, 273 

Kola, 593 

Kolberg, 471 

Kolding, 553 

Kolen, 5 

Kollero, 573 

Kollin, 515 

Kolocsa, 525 

Kolosvar, 531 

Koluri, 621 

Komorn, 526 

Kongelf, 573 

Kongsbacka, 572 

Kongsberg, 576 

Kongshavn, 558 

Konisjsrratz, 516 

K6nia;heim, 344 

Konisrsberg, 496 
Konigsberg in 

Franken, 394 
Konigsberg in der 

Neumark, 467 

Konigsbronn, 337 

Koni?sbriick, 3^5 

Konisjsee, 401 

Konigshofen, 322, 344 



PAGE 

Konigshiitte, 444 

Konigslutter, 447 
Konigstein, 364, 382 

Konigsstuhl, 488 

Konigswalde, 467 
Konigswinter, 492 

Konskie, 606 

Kopenick, 465 

Koping, 569 

Korbach, 376 

Korneuburg, 509 

Koron, 622 

Kdrosbanya, 531 

Korsoer, 550 

Kortgene, 270 

Kosel, 475 

Kosen, 480 

Koslow, 611 

Kosstainicza, 533 

Kostandschi, 630 

Kostendil, 631 

Kostritz, 399 
Kostroma, 12, 592 

Koswick, 404 

Kothen, 406 

Kowno, 600 

Krabla, 559 

Kraarujewatz, 635 

Krailsheim, 336 

Krain, 511 

Krajova, 636 

Kranichstein, 354 

Krasna, 531 

Krasnoi-Jar, 609 

Krautheim, 344 

Krawinkel, 394 

Krefeld, 495 

Kreischa, 381 

Kremlin, 591 

Kremnitz, 525 

Krems, 509 

Kremsier, 517 
Kremsmiinster, 510 

Kreut, 315 
Kreuzburg, 389, 476 

Kreuznach, 488 
Krenz-Wertheim, 323 

Krivan, 5 

Krolewetz, 594 

Kronach, 320 

Kronberg, 364 

Kronborg, 549 
Kronstadt, 532, 596 

Krossen, 467 

Krotoszin, 499 

Krumbacb, 325 

Kruschwitz, 500 

Krzemieniec, 602 
Kuban, 12, 613 

Kufstein, 513 
Kuhlandchen, 517 

Kukukstein, 381 

Kullen, 572 

Kiilsheim, 344 
Kumania, Great, 523 

, Little, 529 

Kumurdshina, 688 

Knngur, 607 

Kunnersdorf, 467 





PAGE 


KUnzelsau, 


337 


Kuopio, 


599 


Kupferberg, 


320 


Kupferzell, 


337 


Kiirnbach, 


340, 355 


Kurnik, 


499 


Kursk, 


592 


Kusamo, 


599 


Kusnetzk 


609 


Kiistrin, 


467 


Kuttenberg, 


516 


Kuylenburg, 


272 


Kyburg, 


169 


Kydonia, 


632 


Kyffhausen, 


401 


Kyparissa, 


622 


Kyritz, 


466 


KjRrteminde, 


551 


Kjobenhavn, 


549 


Kjoge, 


549 



Laaland, 550 
Laasphe, 486 
La Balme, 222 
La Bastide de Clar- 
ence, 218 
Labes, 470 
Labour, 216 
La Charite, 204 
La Chatre, 205 
Lachen, 164 
La Chiusa, 108 
La Ciotat, 223 
Laconia, 622 
Laden burg, 343 
Ladinian, 151 
Ladoeja Lake, 10 
La Fere, 188 
La Fere Champe- 

noise, 192 
La Ferte Bernard, 207 
La Ferte sous Jou- 

arre, 193 

La Ferte Milon, 185 

La Fleche, 207 

La Foce, 112 

Lages, 75 

Lagnieu, 202 

Lagonegro, 145 

Lngonero, 145 

Lagos, 74 

La Gran j a, 89 

La Grasse, 224 

La Guerche, 208 

La Guillotiere, 214 

La Haye, 206 

Labn, 16 

Lahneck, 364 

Lahnstein, 363 

La Hogue, 187 

Laholm, 572 

Lahr, 342 

Jiaibach, 511 

L'Aigle, 187 

Laigueglia, 113 

Lake circle, 346 
Lake of Constance, 1 1 

Lake di Ga^da, 11 

Lake of Geneva, !!• 



] 
Lake Maggiore, 


PA.GE 
11 


La Mancha, 


88 


La Marche, 


212 


Lamballe, 


209 


Lambesc, 


223 


Lamego, 


72 


Lamia, 


621 


Lamlash, 


252 


Lamothe-Fenelot 


,215 


Lampedusa, 


147 


Lampione, 


147 


Lanark, 


250 


Lanarkshire, 


250 


Lancashire, 


242 


Lancaster, 


242 


Lanciano, 


143 


Landau, 


327 


Landen, 


283 


Landernau, 


209 


Landeron, 


163 


Landes, 


216 


Landrecies, 


191 


Landsberg, 


315 


Landsberg an dei 




Warthe, 


467 


Land's End, 


239 


Landshut, 


315 


Landshut (in Sile 




sia), 


475 


Landskrona, 


572 


Landstuhl, 


328 


Lanesborough, 


257 


Langeac, 


213 


Lansreland, 


551 


Langenargen, 


335 


Langenberg, 


493 


Langenburg, 


336 


Langensalza, 


481 


Langrenthal, 


158 


Langholm, 


250 


Langnau, 


158 


Langogne, 


221 


Langon, 


215 


Langres, 


192 


lianguedoc, 


219 


Lansrueglia, 


113 


Lannion, 


209 


Lans-le-Bourg, 


110 


Lanusei, 


114 


Lanzo, 


107 


Laon, 


185 


La Palisse, 


204 


Lapland, 


574 


Laplanders, 


574 


Laredo, 


88 


La Reole, 


215 


Largentieres, 


221 


Larissa, 


631 


Larne, 


258 


La Roche, 


283 


La Rochefoucauld 212 


La Rochelle, 


211 


Laruns, 


218 


Las Cabezas de San 


Juan, 


92 


La Seyne, 


224 


Lask, 


606 


Liisoe, 


552 


La Superga, 


107 



654 



INDEX. 



PACK 

La Teste de Buch, 215 
Latins, 102 

Latisana, 542 

Latium, 132 

La Tour de Peils, 168 
La Tour du Pin, 222 



La Trappe, ' 208 
Laubach, 357 

Lanban, 475 

Lauchheim, 336 

Lauchstiidt, 479 

Lauda, 344 

Laudenbach, 343 

Lauenau, 436 

Lauenburg, 413, 418, 
419 
Lauen stein, 436 

Lauf, 321 

Laufen, 159, 169|Le Mans, 

Laufen(in Bavaria)315 Lemberg:, 



Leicester, 

Leicestershire, 

Leichlingen, 

Leimen, 

Leine, 

Leiningen, 

Leiningen, earl 

dom of, 
Leinster, 
Leipsic, 
Leipzig, 
Leire, 
Lei da, 
Leisnig, 
Leith, 
Leitha, 
Leitmeritz, 
Leitrim, 



Lauffen, 

Lauffen burg, 

Lauingen, 

Lauis, 

Launceston, 

Laiipen, 

Laurenburg, 



156 
326 
165 
239 

158 
361, 364 



Lawrencekirk, 

Laurvig, 576 

Lausanne, 167 

Lauscbe, 7 

Laiitenthal, 444 

Lanterbach, 357 
Lauterbrunnen, 158 

Lanterburg, 198 

Lautereck, 327 

Lautrec, 220 

Lavagna, 113 

Laval, 207 

La Valetta, 150 

Lavaur, 220 

Lavedan, 217 

La Veneria, 107 

Lavenza, 119 

Lavis, 165 

La Voulte, 221 

Laxenburg, 509 

Lay bach, 511 

Lazzaroni, 141 

Leadhills, 251 

Leamington, 241 

Le Blanc, 205 

Lebus, 467 

Lecce, 143 

Lecco, 538 

Loch, 16 

Leek, 16 

Le Crosic, 210 

Lectoure, 216 

Ledesma, 90 

Leeds, 243 

Leer, 443 

Leerdam, 270 

Leerfoss, 577 

Leeuwarden, 272 

Leghorn, 125 

Legnago, 542 
Legue St. Brienc, 

208,209 



33l|Lemf'6rde, 
Lemgo, 
Leranos, 
Lempster, 
Lemsal, 
Lemvig, 
Lendinara, 



252jLengenfeld, 
Lengerich, 
Lennep, 
Lens, 
Lentini, 
Lenzburg, 
Lenzen, 
Lenzerwische, 
Lenzna, 
Leoben, 
Leobschiitz, 
Leominster, 
Leon, 
Leonberg, 
Leonforte, 
Leopoldshafen, 
Le panto, 
Lepontine Alps, 
Le Pay en Velay, 221 



Le Quesnoy, 

Lerici, 

Lerida, 

Lerinian Islands, 

Lerwick, 

Les Andelys, 

Lesina, 

Lesparre, 

Les Sables d'Ol- 

onne, 
Lessines, 
Lesum River, 
Letrini, 
Leucadia, 
Leucate, 
Leuchtenberg, 
Leuk, 

Leutershausen, 
Leuthen, 
Leutkirch, 
Leutschau, 
Leuze, 
Levantina, 



PAGE PAGK 

241 Levanto, 113 

241 Levanzo, 147 

493LeVigan, 221 

343,Levroux, 205 

17|Lewin, 474 

328 Lewis (island), 255 
Leyden, 269 

357 Libau, 598 

256 Libourne, 215 

382jLicata, 147 

382iLich, 357 

549 1 Lichfield, 241 

72, 560 Lichtenau, 342,371 

383 Lichtenberg, 489 

249 .Lichtenberg (Al- 
16| sace), 198 

515 Lichtenberg:, prin- 

259: cipality of, 393 

207!Lichtenfels, 320 

5)9 Lichtensteig, 160 

436 Lichtenstein, 384 

428 Lichtervelde, 281 

632 Lidkoping, 573 

240 Lidoriki, 621 

597 Lieban, 475 

553|Liebenau, 436 

541JLiebenstein, 391 

384Liebenwalde, 465 

442, 483!Liebenwerda, 480 

493 Liebenzell, 333 

189iLieberose, 468 

148|Liebstadt, 381 

156|Liechstall, 157 

466 j Liechtenstein, 350, 35] 

458 j Liege, 282 

607 Liegnitz, 474 

511 Lier, 279 Liltorale, 512 

476 Liestall, 157 Livadia, 620, 621 

240 Lifford, 258 Livato, 616 

89 Ligne, 281 Liverpool, 243 

331 Ligny, 282 Livno, 634 

148 Ligny (Lorraine), 195 Livonia, 596 

340 Ligurian Apen- Livorno, 125 

621 nines, 5 Lixuri, 616 

4 Ligurian Repub- Lizard Point, 239 

lie, 112 Ljusnedal, 574 

Lili, 126 Llandaff, 245 

Lille, 190 Llanelly, 245 

Lillebonne, 186 Llanydloes, 246 

Lilybaeum, 147 Llerena, 91 

Limagne, 213 Loano, 113 

Liman Gulf. 12 Lobau, 385, 498 

Limburg (town in Lobenstein, 398 

Belgium), 283 Locana, 108 

Limburg (in Nas- Locarno, 165 

sau), 362 Loccum, 435 

Limburg, duchv Loch Awe, 12 

of, 274, 365, 367 Lochem, 272 

Limerick, 260 Loches, 206 

Limmer, 435 Loch Katerine, 253 

Limoges, 212 Loch Lomond, 11 

Limousin, 212 Loch Ness, 12 

Limoux, 220 Locle, 163 

Linares, 93 Lbcse, 527 

Lincoln, 237 Lodeve, 220 

Lincolnshire, 237 Lodi, 538 

Lindau, 324, 440 Lodomeria, 518 

Lindenfels, 355 Lbffingen, 347 

Lindesberg, 569 Lofoden, 577 



PAGE 

Lines of Weissen- 

burg, 198 

Lingen, earldom 

of, 441 

Lingen, town, 442 
Linkoping, 570 

Linlithgow, 249 

Linlithgowshire, 249 
Linz, 509 

Linz (in Prussia), 483 
Li pari, 148 

Lipari Islands, 148 
Lippe-Biickeburg, 428 
Lippe-Detmold, 427 
Lippe River, 16 

Lippehne, 467 

Lippstadt, 428 

Liria, 96 

Lisboa, 71 

Lisbon, 71 

Lisburn, 258 

Liscowo, 592 

Lisianka, 594 

Lisieux, 187 

L'Isle, 225 

Lismore, 259 

Lissa, 499, 535 

Lithuania, 600 

Little Belt, 9 

Little Brittany, 208 
Little England, 258 
Little Haff, 9 

Little Poland, 602, 605 
Little Russia, 594 

Little Schiitt, 524,525 
Little Wallachia, 636 



191 
113 
95 
224 
255 
186 
535 
215 

210 
281 
17 
622 
616 
220 
318 
167 
321 
473 
334 
527 
28! 
165 



INDEX. 



655 



PAGE 

Lofsta, 568 
Logrono, 88 
Lohr, 323 
Loir and Cher De- 
partment, 206 
Loire, 15 
Loire Depart- 
ment, 214 
Loiret Depart- 
ment, 205 
Loka, 559 
Lokeren, 280 
Lokris, 621 
Lombards, 28 
Loin bard y, 536, 537 
Lombardy and Ve- 
nice, 536 
Lombez, 216 
Lommatzsch, 381 
Lomnitzer Spitze, 5 
Lomza, 606 
Lonato, 540 
Lpndari, 622: 
Loudon, 234: 
London (History), 38J 
Londonderry, 258 
Longford, 239, 257 \ 
Longobuco, 145 
Longwy, 196 
Longy, 247 
Loningen, 423 
Lons le Saulnier, 203 
Loo, het, 271 
Looz, 233 
Lopshorn, 423 
Lorca, 94 
Lorch, 337, 363 
Lore to, 134 
Loretto, 134 
Lorient, 209 
Lorrach, 345 
Lorraine, 193 
Lorsch, 354 
Loschkirch, 532 
Los Passages, 97 
Lossnitz, 384 
Lot, 15 
Lot Department, 215 
Lot and Garonne 

Department, 215 

Lothians, 249 

Lotzen, 497 

Loudeac, 21)9 

Loudun, 210 

Loueche, 167 

Lougbborough, 242 

Lough Neagh, 12 

Loughrea, 259 

Louhans, 201 

Lourdes, 217 

Louth, 257 

Louvain, 278 

Louven, 14 

Louviers, 186 

Louvre, 182 

Lovere, 540 

Lovisa, 599 

Lovvenberg, 471 

Lowenstein, 332 



324 

224 
197 
508 
315 

211 

440 



PAGE 

Lowenstein-Wer- 
theim, 

Lower Alps De- 
partment, 

Lower Alsace, 

Lower Austria, 

Lower Bavaria, 

: Lower Charente 

| Department, 

Lower Eichsfeld, 

Lower Franconia, 322 

Lower Hesse (of 
Hesse-Cassel), 370 

Lower Hungary, 524 

Lower Ingelheim, 356 

Lower Italy, 103 

Lower Lake, 11 

Lower Loire De- 
partment, 

Lower Lusatia, 

Lower Margra- 
viate, 

Lower Moesia, 

Lower Palatinate, 342 

Lower Pyrenees 
Department, 

Lower Rhenish 
circle, 

Lower Rhine cir- 
cle, 

Lower Rhine De- 
partment, 

Lower Saxon cir- 
cle, 

Lower Saxony, 

Lower Seine De- 
partment, 

Lower Selters, 

Lower Silesia, 

Lower Stamm- 
heim, 

Lower Valais, 

Lowestoff, 

Lowicz, 

Lowlands of Scot 
land, 

Loxa, 

Lozere, 

Lozere Depart- 
ment, 

Liibbecke, 

Liibben, 

Liibbenau, 

Lubec, 



209 
467 



340 

629 



218 
292 
342 
197 

293 

378 

185 
363 

474 

169 
167 
236 
605 

249 

93 

6 



221 
484 
468 
468 
451, 452 



Lubec, principality 



of, 

Liibeck, 

Lublin, 

Lublinitz, 

Liibtheen, 

Lucania, 

Lucca, 

Lncena, 

Lucera, 



425 
452 
605 
476 
409 
145 
126 
93 
144 



Lucerna, valley of, 107 
Liichow, 437 

Lucka, 396 

Luckau, 467 

Luckenwalde, 466 





PAGE 


Lucon, 


210 


Liide, 


484 


Liidenscheid, 


485 


LiidinghaUsen, 


483 


Liidingworth, 


438 


Ludlow, 


242 


Ludwigsburg, 


331 


Ludwigslust, 


409 


Ludwigstadt, 


319 


Lugano, 


165 


Lugano Lake, 


11 


Liigde, 


484 


Lugo, 


91 


Luhe, 


17 


Luik, 


282 


Lukow, 


607 


Lulea, 


574 


Lumello, 


111 


Lund, 


571 


Lunden, 


418 


LUneburg, 


436 


Liiueburg Heath, 


431 


Lunel, 


220 


Luneville, 


194 


Lunigiana, 119 


, 125 


Lupodanum, 


343 


Lupodum, 


343 


Lure, 


203 


Lurgan, 


258 


Lurley, 


364 


Lus, 


217 


Lusatia, 


384 


Lusatia, Lower, 


467 


Lusatia, Upper, 


475 


Lusatian Mts., 


7 


Lusatian Neisse, 


13 


Lusignan, 


210 


Lusitania, 


84 


Luso, 


127 


Lussin Piccolo, 


512 


Lustri, 


168 


Lutetia, 


183 


Lutetsburg, 


443 


Lutjenburg, 


417 


Lutry, 


168 


Luttenberg, 


511 


Lutter am Baren- 




berge, 


447 


Lutterworth, 


241 


Liittringhausen, 


493 


Liitzelburg, 365 


, 366 


Liitzen, 


479 


Luxeuil, 


203 


Luxemburg (Bel- 




gian), 


283 


Luxemburg (city) 


,366 


Luxemburg, grand- 


duchy of, 


365 


Luzerne, 


162 


Luzerne, Lake of, 


11 


Luzk, 


602 


Lychen, 


466 


Lyck, 


497 


Lygians, 


472 


Lygumkloster, 


557 


Lymfjord, 


544 


Lynn Regis, 


237 


Lyons, 


214 


Lyonnais, 


213 



PAGE 

18 



Lys, 



Maad, 527 

Maaseyk, 283 

Maassluis, 270 

Macclesfield, 242 

Macedonia, 630 

Macerata, J 34 

Macon, 20 J 

Maddalena, 1 1 1 

Maddaloni, Hi 

Madrid, £7 

Madue Lake, 1 ! 

Maelar Lake, 1 1 

Maenzingen, 168 

Maestricht, 274 

Mafra, 71 

Magdalena, 75 

Magdeburg, 477 

Magdesprung, 404 

Maggiora, 111 

Maggiore Lake, 11 

Magliano, 133 

Magna Graecia, 102 

Magnac Laval, 212 
Magyars, 19, 520, 521 

Mahlberg, 346 

Mahlstrom, 577 

Mahon, 96 

Maidstone, 236 

Mailand, 537 

Maine, 207 
Maine and Loire 

Department, 206 

Mainland, 255 

Maintenon, 205 

Mainz, 356 

Maisenthal, 195 

Majorca, 96 

Maj ores-do mus, 27 

Maladetta, 4 

Malaga, 93 
Malapane, 13, 475 

Malaria, 100 

Malchen, 7 

Mai chin, 409 

Malchin Lake, 11 

Malchow, 410 

Mallow, 259 

Mai in ai son, 184 

Malmedy, 490 

Mai in 6, 571 

Malplaquet, 191 
Malta, 149, 150 

Mamers, 207 

Man, 247 
Man with the iron 

mask, 224 
Mancha, La, 88 
Manche Depart- 
ment, 187 
Manchester, 243 
Mandal, 577 
Mane bach, 394 
Manfredonia, 144 
Mangalia, 630 
Mannheim, 343 
Manosque, 224 
Mauivsa, 95 



656 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Mansfeld, 479 

Mansfield, 242 

Mantes, 184 

Mantua, city of, 539 

, ancient duchy 

of, 538 
Manxmen, 247 
Manzanares, 88 
Marana, 211 
Marbach, 331 
Marbella, 94 
Marbore, 5 
Marburg, 372 
Marburg (in Aus- 
tria), 511 
March River, 16 
Marche, La, 212 
Marche en Fa- 
mine, 283 
Marcomans, 297 
Marco Polo, 55 
Maremma, 120 
Marengo, 111 
Marennes, 211 
Maretimo, 147 
Margate, 236 
Manager, 553 
Maria Taferl, 509 
Mariazell, 511 
Mariboe, 550 
Mariefred, 569 
Marienbad, 515 
Marienberg, 383 
Marienburg, 497, 532 
Marienburg (in Bel- 



PAGE 

223 
557 
573 
169 
167 
223 
167 
540 
95 
93 
221 
195 
364 
257 
244 
148 
119 
119 
Massa di Marema, 124 



Marseilles, 

Marstall, 

Marstrand, 

Marthalen, 

Martigny, 

Martigues, 

Martinach, 

Martinengo, 

Martorell, 

Martos, 

Marvejols, 

Marville, 

Marxburg, 

Maryborough, 

Maryport, 

Mascoli, 

Massa, 

Massa-Carrara, 



gium), 
Marienwerder, 
Mariestad, 
Marignano, 
Marino, San, 
Maringues, 
Marissa, 
Maritime Alps, 
Maritimo, 
Mariupol 



282 
498 
573 
538 
136 
213 
15 
4 
147 
612 



Mark, ancient earl- 
dom of, 485 
Markdorf, 346 
Markgroningen, 331 
Markirch, 199 
iMarkneukirchen, 384 
Markolsheim, 197 
Markranstadt, 383 
Markt-Einersheim 322 
Markt-Erlbach, 321 
Markthennersdorf, 385 
Marly, 183 
Marmande, 215 
Marmora Sea, 10 
Mame, 15, 418 
Marne Depart- 
ment, 192 
Maros Ujvar, 531 
Mai-os Vasarhely, 532 
Marrac, 217 
Marsac, 213 
Marsala, 147 
Marsan, 216 
Marsberg, 485 



Masserano, 108 
Mataro, 95 
Matera, 145 
Matlok, 242 
Maubeuge, 191 
Maulbronn, 331 
Mauleon, 217 
Maupertuis, 210 
Mauriac, 213 
Maurizio, San, 107 
Maurs, 213 
Mauze, 210 
Maxen, 381 
Maxsayn, 362 
May en burg, 466 
Mayence, 356 
Mayenne, 15, 207 
Mayenne Depart- 
ment, 207 
Mayne, 16 
Maynooth, 257 
Mayo, 259 
Mazamet, 220 
Mazzara, 147 
Mazzarino, 147 
Mearns, 252 
Meath, 257 
Meaux, 193 
Mechlin, 279 
Mecklenburg- 

Schwerin, 406 
Mecklenburg-Stre- 

litz, 410 

Medelpad, 574 

Medemblik, 269 

Medewi, 570 

Mediasch, 532 
Medici, House of, 122 

Medicina, 135 

Medina Celi, 88 

Medina Sidonia, 92 
Medina del Rio 

seco, 89 
Mediterranean Sea, 10 

Medoc, 215 

Medwisch, 532 

Meenen, 281 

Meerane, 384 

Meerholz, 374 

Meersburg, 346 



PAGE 

Meersch, 367 

Meganisi, 616 

Megara, 620 

Mehadia, 534 

Mehlsack, 496 

Mehun, 205 

Meilen, 169 

Meinau, 347 

Meiningen, 391 

Meinungen, 391 

Meisenheim, 359 
Meissen, 379, 381 

Melazzo, 148 

Melchthal, 166 

Meldorf, 418 

Mele, 112 

Melfi, 145 

Melibocus, 7 

M elite, 150 

Melk, 509 
Melle, 210, 441 
Mellrichstadt, 323 

Melnik, 515 

Meloria, 125 

Melrose, 249 

Melsungen, 371 
Melton Mowbray, 242 



Melun, 

Memel (city), 

Memel River, 

Memmingen, 

Memmleben, 

Memsen, 

Menai Strait, 

Mende, 

Menden, 

Mendris, 

Mendrisio, 

Mengen, 



184 
496 
13 
324 
480 
436 
246 
221 
485 
165 
165 
335 



Mengeringhausen, 376 
Menin, 
Mentone, 
Mentz, city, 
, ancient elec- 
torate, 
Meppel, 
Meppen, 
Mequinenza, 
Meran, 



Militsch, 
Millesimo, 
Milo, 

Miltenberg, 
Mereczowszczisa, 600 j Mincio, 
Mereville, 184|Mindelheim, 



281 
110 
356 

355 
273 
442 
94 
513 



Mettmann, 

Metz, 

Metzingen unter 
Urach, 

Meudon, 

Meulebeke, 

Meung, 

Meurs, 

Meurthe Depart- 
ment, 

Me use, 

Meuse Depart- 
ment, 

Meyenfeld, 

Meynthal, 

Meyringen, 

Mezen, 

Mezieres, 

Mezin, 

Mezzafuso, 

Mezzovo Mts., 

Michailovka, 

Michelstadt, 

Micheltown, 

Middelburg, 

Middelfart, 

Middle Rhine cir- 
cle, 

Middlesex, 

Mid-Lothian, 

Miechow, 

Miedniki, 

Miedzerzyce, 

Miedzyborz, 

Mietau, 

Migration of na 
tions, 

Mjos Lake, 

Milan, 

Milano, 

Milazzo, 

Milden, 

Milford, 

Milhaud, 



PAGE 

493 
196 



333 

184 
281 
205 
494 

194 
16 

195 
162 
165 
158 
12 
192 

6 
147 

6 
592 
355 
259 
270 
551 

340 

234 
249 
606 
601 
607 
602 
597 

23,24 

11 

537 

537 

148 
168 
245 
216 



Military Frontier, 533 



Mergentheim, 

Merida, 

Merionetshire, 

Merkendorf, 

Merovingians, 

Merse, 

Merseburg, 

Merthyr Tydvil, 

Merwe, 

Merxheim, 

Merzich, 

Meschede, 

Meseritz, 

Messenia, 

Messina, 

Mesto, 

Mestre, 

Methone, 



336 

91 
246 
320 

26 
249 
479 
245 

16 
360 
489 
485 
499 
622 
148 

15 



Minden, 

Mineo, 

Minho, 

Minnesingers, 

Minorca, 

Minsk, 



474 

108 

623 

323 

15 

325 

483 

148 

14 

56 

96 

601 



Miranda de Douro, 73 



Mirande, 
Mirandella, 
Mirandola, 
Mirecourt, 
Missolonghi, 
Mistretta, 
Mitrovicz, 
Mittelmark, 
Mittelwalde, 
541 iMittenwald, 
G'2'2! Mitten walde, 



216 
73 
119 
195 
621 
148 
534 
464, 467 
474 
315 
405 



INDEX. 



65*7 



] 


PAGE 


PAGE 


Mitterburg, 


512 


Mont-Cassel, 


190 


Mockmiihl, 


331 


Mont Dauphin, 


222 


Modane, 


110 


Montdidier, 


188 


Modejares, 


76 


Mont Dore, 


6 


Modena, 117 


, 118 


Montecalieri, 


106 


Modica, 


148 


Monte Cassino, 


142 


Modigliano, 


123 


Montechiaro, 


540 


Modlin, 


606 


Monte Christo, 


125 


Modon, 


622 


Monte Cimone, 


5 


Moen, 


550 


Monte farchio, 


142 


Moers, 


494 


Montefiascone, 


133 


Moesia, Lower, 


629 


Montefusco, 


142 


Moesia, Upper, 


634 


Monte Gibello, 


5 


Mofifat, 


250 


Monte Giuliano, 


146 


Moguer, 


92 


Monteleone, 


145 


Mohacz, 


526 


Montelimart, 


222 


Mohammedans, 


19 


Monte Negro (near 


Mohilew, 


601 


Leghorn), 


125 


Mohilow, 


602 


Montenegro (in 




Mohra, 


391 


Turkey), 


633 


Mohringen, 


347 


Montenotte, 


112 


Mohrungen, 


496 Montepeloso, 


145 


Moissac, 


216 


Montepulciano, 


124 


Mokshansk, 


608 


Montereau fault 




Mola di Bari, 


144 


Yonne, 


193 


Mold, 


246 


Monterosso, 


113 


Moldau River, 


16 


Monte Rotondo, 


5 


Moldavia, 


636 


Monte Sant' An- 




Molfetta, 


144 Mgelo, 


144 


Molina, 


88 Montesanto, 


114 


Molk, 


509 Monte di Sibylla, 


5 


Molle, 


577 Montferrand, 


213 


Mollis, 


161 Montferrat, 


110 


Molln, 


420 Montfort, 208, 271 


Mologa, 


12 Montgomery, 


246 


Molsheim, 


197 Montgomeryshire 


,246 


Mommelliano, 


109 Montherhausen, 


195 


Mompelgard, 


203 Monthey, 


167 


Monaco, 


110 Montiers, 


110 


Monaghan, 


258 Montilla, 


93 


Moncalieri, 


106 Montivilliers, 


186 


Monchique, 


74 Montjoie, 


490 


Mondofiedo, 


91 Mont-Louis, 


219 


Mondovi, 


108 Montlucon, 


204 


Mondragon, 


97 Monti uel, 


202 


Moneins, 


218 Mont de Marsan, 


217 


Monheim, 


326 Montmedy, 


195 


Monistrol, 


221 Montmelian, 


109 


Monmouth, 


240 Montmirail, 


193 


Monmouthshire, 


240 Montmorency, 


184 


Monnikendam, 


26!) Montmorillon, 


210 


Monopoli, 


144 Montpellier, 


220 


Monreale, 


146 Montpensier, 


213 


Mons, 


281 Mont Perdu, 


4 


Monselice, 


541 Montreale, 


146 


Monsheim, 


357 Montreuil, 


189 


Monstiers, 


110 Montrose, 


252 


Montabaur, 


363 


Mont St. Michel, 


187 


Montagnana, 


541 


Montserrat, 


95 


Montaigu, 


278 


Mont Tendre, 


6 


Montalban, 


94 


Mont de Tonnere, 


6 


Montalcino, 


124 


Monts de Faucille, 6 


Montalto, 133 


, 134 Monza, 


538 


Montargis, 


205 Monzon, 


94 


Montauban, 


216 Mook, heath of, 


271 


Montbard, 


201 Moors, 28, 33 


Montbeliard, 


203 Moorslede, 


281 


Mont Blanc, 


4 Moorzele, 


281 


Montbrison, 


214 Moorwerder, 


450 








28 



PAGE 

Moosburg, 315 
Morat, 159 
Moravia, 516 
Moravian Mts., 7 
Morawa, 16 
Moray, 253 
Morbegno, 539 
Morbihan Depart- 
ment, 209 
Mordwines, 607 
Morea, 621 
Morella, 96 
Morez, 203 
Morgarten, 168 
Morges, 168 
Moringen, 440 
Moritzburg, 382 
Morlaix, 209 
Morpeth, 244 
Mors, 552 
Morsburg, 346 
Morsee, 168 
Mortagne, 190, 208 
Mortain, 187 
Mortara, 111 
Morwan Mts., 6 
Mosaisk, 591 
Mosbach, 344 
Moscow, 590 
Moselle, 16 
Moselle Depart- 
ment, 195 
Mosken, 577 
Moskenas-Strom- 

men, 577 
Moskirch, 347 
Mosony, 527 
Moss, 576 
Mostar, 634 
Motala, 570 
Motril, 93 
Mottlau, 13 
Moudon, 168 
Moulins, 204 
Mount Edge- 
combe, 238 
Mount Hecla, 8 
Mount Mellick, 257 
Mountrath, 257 
Mount Rosa, 4 
Moura, 73 
Mouzon, 193 
Moyenvic, 195 
Mucidan, 215 
Mufflon, 113 
Mufti, 626 
Muggendorf, 319 
Miihlberg, 480 
Miihldorf, 315 
MUhlenbach, 532 
Miihlhausen, 481 
MUhlhausen (Al- 
sace), 199 
Muhlheim am 

Rhein, 492 
Muhlheim an der 

Ruhr, 493 

Miihlingen, 404 

Miihltroff, 384, 





PAGE 


Muiden, 


268 


Mulde, 


16 


Mull, 


254 


Mullheim, 


345 


Mullingar, 


257 


Miillrose, 


467 


Mummel Lake, 


338 


Munch berg, 


319 


Miincheberg, 


467 


Munchen, 


314 


Miinchengratz, 


515 


Miinden, 


440 


Miinder, 


436 


Munderkingen, 


335 


Munich, 


314 


Munkacs, 


528 


Miinnerstadt, 


323 


MUnsingen, 


335 


Munster, 


259 


Miinster, 


482 


Munster im Grego- 


rienthal, 


198 


Miinsterberg, 


474 


Miinstereifel, 


492 


Miinzenberg, 


357 


Miinzthal, 


195 


Murano, 


541 


Murat, 


213 


Murcia, 


94 


Mures, 


90 


Muret, 


217 


Murg, 


338 


Muri, 


156 


Muritz Lake, 


11 


Murrhard, 


331 


Murten, 


159 


Murviedro, 


96 


Muskau, 


475 


Mussel burgh, 


249 


Muttenz, 


158 


Mutzig, 


197 


Mutzschen, 


332 


Muyden, 


268 


Mylau, 


384 



Naarden, 269 

Naas, 257 

Nab, 16 

Nabburg, 317 

Nachitschevan, 612 

Naefels, 161 

Nagold, 333 

Nagy-Banya, 528 

Nasry Enyed, 531 

Nagy Falu, 531 

Nagy-Karoly, 528 
Nagy-Szent-Mik- 

los, 528 

Nagy Varad, 528 

Nahe, 16 

Naila, 319 

Nairn, 253 

Nairnshire, 253 

Nakskop, 551 

Namen, 281 

Namslau, 473 

Namur, 281 

Nancy, 194 

Nangis, 184 



658 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Nantes, 209 

Nantua, 202 

Nantwich, 242 

Naples, 141 
Napoli di Malva- 

sia, 622, 623 
Napoli di Roma- 
nia, 621 
Narbonne, 220 
Narenta, 15 
Narni, 133 
Naro, 147 
Narva, 596 
Nassau, duchy, 360 
Nassau (town), 362 
Nassau-Siegen, 486 
Naters, 167 
Naugard, 470 
Nauheim, 374 
Naumburg, 479 
Naumburg am Bo- 



ber, 
Naumburg (in 

Hesse -Cassel), 
Naumburg am 

Queis, 
Naupaktos, 
Nauplia, 
Navia, 
Navan, 
Navarino, 
Navarre (in 

France), 
Navarre (in 

Spain), 
Navarre (palace 

of), 
Naxia, 
Naxos, 
Neapolitan Apen 

nines, 
Neath, ' 
Neau, 
Nebel, 

Necessidades, 
Neckar, 



475 

372 

475 
621 
621 
90 
257 
622 

218 

97 

186 
623 
623 



Neckar-Bischof- 

sheim, 
Neckar Circle, 
Neckargemiind, 
Neckarsteinach, 
Neckarsulm, 
Negropont, 
Neheirn, 
Neidenau, 
Neidenburg, 
Neisse, 
Neisse River, 
Neitra, 
Nemours, 
Nenndorf, 
Nerac, 
Nerike, 
Nervi, 
Nestved, 
Netherlands, 

, Austrian, 

, Catholic, 

, Spanish, 



5 

245 

490 

17 

71 

16, 329 



344 
331 
343 
355 
332 
623 
485 
344 
496 
476 
13 
16 
184 
372 
217 
569 
112 
550 
261 
277 
277 
277, 



PAGE 

Netherlands, king- 
dom of the, 265 
Netherlander, 265 
Netze, 13 
Netzschkau, 384 
Neubrandenburg, 412 
Neuburg on the 

Danube, 326 

Neuchatel, 162, 163 
Neucbatel (in 

France), 186 

Neudamm, 467 

Neudenau, 344 

Neuenburg, 423 

Neuenbiirg, 333 

Neuenhaus, 442 

Neuenstadt, 159 

Neuenstein, 337 

Neuerburg, 489 

Neufahrwasser, 497 
Neufchateau, 195,283 
Neufchatel Lake, 11 
Neuffen, 333 

Neuhaldensleben, 477 
Neuhaus, 437 

Neuhausel, 525 

Neuilly, 183 

Neukirch, 164 

Neukirchen, 372, 493 
Neukloster, 410 

Neumark, 464, 467 
Neumarkt, 317, 473 
Neumunster, 169, 417 
Neunburg vor dem 

Walde, 317 

Neusatz, 525 

Neusiedl Lake, 11 
Neuss, 168, 493 

Neustadt (in Hol- 

stein), 417 

Neustadt (in Meck- 
lenburg), 409 
Neustadt an der 

Aisch, 321 

Neustadt am Culm 318 
Neustadt an der 

Dosse, 466 

Neustadt-Ebers- 

walde, 466 

Neustadt an der 

Haardt, 327 

Neustadt an der 

Heide, 394 

Neustadt (in Hesse- 

Cassel), 372 

Neustadt unterm 

Hohnstein, 441 

Neustadt an der 

Linde, 331 

Neustadt an der 

Orla, 388 

Neustadt in der 

Rosenau, 355 

Neustadt am Rii- 

benberge, 436 

Neustadt an der 

Saale, 323 

Neustadt an der 

VValdnab, 318 



1 


PAGE 




PAGE 


iNeustadtl, 


511 


Nieuwport, 


280 


Neustettin, 


472 


Nievre, 


15 


Neu-Strelitz, 


411 


Nievre Depart- 




iNeustria, 


27 


ment, 


204 


Neu-Titschein, 


517 


Nikolaiken, 


497 


Neuveville, 


159 


Nikolajew, 


611 


Neuwied, 


488 


Nikols'burg, 


517 


Nevers, 


204 


Nimeguen, 


271 


Nevesigna, 


634 


Nimes, 


220 


Neviges, 


493 


N'imptsch, 


473 


Newa, 


13 


Ninove, 


280 


Newark, 


242 


Niort, 


210 


New Branden- 




Nishnei- Novgo- 




burg, 


4] 2 


rod, 


592 


New Breisach, 


198 


Nishnei-Tagilsk, 


608 


Newbury, 


235 


Nishnij Lomov, 


608 


New Castile, 


87 


Nisida, 


141 


Newcastle under 




Nissa, 


635 


Lyne, 


241 


Nivelles, 


278 


Newcastle upon 




Nivernais, 


204 


Tyne, 


244 


NizzadellaPaglia 


,111 


New Galloway, 


250 


Nobility (history) 


, 46 


New Gradisca, 


534 


Nocera, 134 


,142 


New Katzenellnbo- 


Nogat, 


13 


gen, 


364 


Nogayzg, 


611 


New Lanark, 


250 


Nogayan Steppe, 


611 


Newlands, 


250 


Nogent le Roi, 


192 


Newmarket, 


237 


Nogent le Rotrou 


,208 


New Orsova, 


635 


Nogent sur Seine 


192 


New Patrae, 


621 


Noirmoutier, 


210 


Newport, 


240 


Nola, 


142 


New Radnor, 


246 


Noli, 


113 


New Ross, 


256 


Nonnenmattwei- 




Newry, 


258 


her, 


338 


Newstead Abbey. 


242 


Nontron, 


215 


New Strelitz, 


411 


Noord-Beveland, 


270 


Newton upon Ayi 


,250 


Nora, 


569 


Newton Stuart, 


250 


Norburg, 


557 


NexOe, 


550 


Nord Department 


,190 


Nibe, 


552 


Norden, 


443 


Nicastro, 


145 


Norderney, 


443 


Nice, 


110 


Nordhausen, 


481 


Nicolas de Port, 


195 


Nordheim, 


440 


Nicolosi, 


148 


Nord horn, 


442 


Nicopoli, 


629 


Nord land, 


577 


Nicosia, 


148 


Nordlingen, 


324 


Nidau, 


158 


Norfolk, 


236 


Nidda, 


357 


Noricum, 


297 


Nidwalden, 


166 


Norma, 


133 


Niebla, 


92 


Normandy, 


185 


Niedenstein, 


371 


Norman Islands, 


247 


Niederaula, 


373 


Normans, 


30 


Niederbronn, 


198 


Norrkoping, 


570 


Niedernhall, 


337 


Norrland, 


573 


Niederrad, 


456 


Norrtelge, 


568 


Nieder-Selters, 


363 


North Aibingia, 


414 


Niederstetten, 


337 


North Albingians, 


298 


Nied er wildungen 


376 


Northampton, 


241 


Niemen, 


13 


Northampton- 




Niemirow, 


602 


shire, 


241 


Nienburg, 


436 


North Brabant, 


273 


Nienburg an der 




North Cape, 3, 


578 


Saale, 


406 


North Channel, 


10 


Nierstein, 


356 


North Coasts De- 




Niesky, 


475 


partment, 


20b 


Nieuport, 


280 Nonhsau, 


197 


Nieuwe Diep, 


2f>9 North Holland, 


268 


Nieuwkeik, 


272 Northumberland, 


244 


Nieuwpoort, 


270 


Morth Jutland, 


552 



IKDEX. 



659 



PAGE 

243 
9 
244 
255 
246 
242 
575 



North Riding, 
North Sea, 
North Shields, 
North Hist, 
North Wales,. 
North wich, 
Norway, 
Norwegian Lap- 
land, 
Norwich, 
Noto, 

Nottingham, 
Nottinghamshire 
No vara, 
Nova Zembla, 
Novellara, 
Novgorod, 
Novi, 
Novibasar, 

Novo Georgievsk, 606 
Novogorod, 50 

No\o Mirgorod, 611 
Nowogrodek, 601 

Nowoi-Tsherkask, 612 



578 
230 
148 
242 
°42 
111 
593 
119 
593 
112 
635 



Nozay 

Nucko, 

Nuits, 

Nnmantia, 

Numburg, 

Nummedalen, 

Nuremberg, 

Niirnberg, 

Nuoro, 

Nurri, 

Niirtingen, 

Nusloch, 

Nya Elfsborg, 

Nyborg, 

Ny Carleby, 

Nykjobin; 



Nykoping, 

Nymphenburg, 

Nyon, 

Nyons, 

Nystad, 

Nysted, 

Nyvel, 

Oakham, 

Ober-Aargau, 

Oberbaden, 

Ober-Glogau, 

Obergiinzburg, 

Ober-Hohenberg, 

Oberkirch, 

Ober-Kulm, 

Oberlahnstein, 

Obermoschel, 

O be may, 

Obernburg, 

Oberndorf, 

Obernkirchen, 

Oberrad, 

Oberramstadt, 

Ober-Ro^sbach, 

Oberschonau, 

Oberstein, 

Oberstenfeld, 



Oberwesel, 

Obidos, 

Obotrites, 

Obwalden, 

Ocana, 

Occhieppo supe- 

riore, 
Ochsenfurt, 
Ochsenkopf, 
Ochsenwerder, 
Ochrida, 
Oczakow, 
Oden, 

Odenkirchen, 
Odense, 
Odenwald, . 
Oder, 

Oderbruch, 
Odernheim, 
Odessa, 
Odin, 
Odoacer, 
Oedenburg, 
Oederan, 
Oehringen, 
Oeland, 
Oels, 
Oelsnitz, 
Oeraefe-Joekul, 
Oerebro, 
Oeregrund, 
Oeresound, 
Oesel, 
Oesterby, 
Oester-Gothland, 
Oesteriisoer, 
Oester-Joekul, 
Oesteroe, 
599JOestersund, 
550,|Oetting, Old, 
551, 552JOeltingen, 
568|Ofen, 
314 Offenbach, 
168 Offen burg, 
223 Ogsersheim, 
598lOgliastra, 



210 
596 
201 
89 
372 
576 
321 
321 
114 
114 
333 
343 
572 
551 



551 

278 

241 
158 
156 
476 
325 
7 
341 
156 
363 
328 
197 
323 
332 
372 
456 
354 
357 



Oglio, 
Ogulin, 

Ohlau, 

Ohrdruf, 

Ohrnbau, 

Oise, 

Oise Department, 

Oka, 

Okna, 

Olau, 

Oldenburg, city of, 423 

Oldenburg, Grand 



633 

(ill 

547 

493 

551 

7 

13 

458 

356 

611 

547 

45 

526 

384 

336 

571 

445, 474 

384 



569 
568 
9 
597 
568 
570 
577 
8 
558 
574 
315 
326 
525 
355 
341 
327 
114 

15 
533 
150 

13 
394 
322 

15 
184 

12 
637 
473 



duchy of. 
Oldenburg (in 

Holstein), 
Old Castile, 
Oldendorf, 
Oldenzaal, 
Oldesloe, 
373 Old Gradisca, 
426! Oldham, 
332! Old Oetting, 



PAGE I 

487 Old Orsova, 
72 Old Pazna, 
407 Old Rhine, 
166 Old Strelitz, 
87 Oleggio, 
Oieron, 
108 Oletzko, 
323 Olgun, 

7 Olite, 
450 Oliva, 
Oiivenca, 
Olkusz,' 
Ollioules, 
Ohniitz, 
Olonetz, 

Oloron, 

Olpe, 

Olsa, 

Otten, 

Olviopol, 

Omagh, 

Ombrone, 

Ommen, 

Onate, 

Onega Lake, 

Onega River, 

Oneglia, 

Onolzbach, 

Oostburg, 

Opatow, 

Opladen, 

Oporto, 

Oppa, 

Oppeln, 

Oppenau, 

Oppenheim, 

Oppidolo, 

Orange, 

Oranienbaum, 

Oranienburg, 

Orb, 

Oibach, 

Orbe, 

Orbitello, 

Ordufia, 

Ore Mountains, 

Orel, 

Orenburg, 

Orense, 

Orfan, 

Orghei, 

Orgon, 

Orgosola, 

Orihuela, 

Oristano, 

Orkney Islands, 

Orkneys, 

Orlamunde, 

Orleanais, 

Orleans, 

Ornans, 

Orne, 



PAGE 

534 
534 
16 
412 
111 
211, 218 
497 



420 



417 
88 
371 
272 
417 
534 
243 
315 



632 

97 

497 

91 

606 

224 

517 

593 

218 

485 

13 

164 

611 

258 

120 

272 

98 

10 

13 

110 

320 

271 

606 

493 
72 
13 

475 

341 1 

356! 

147! 

223 

4051 

465 

323 

168 

168 

125 

97 

7 

591 

609 
91 

631 

612 

224 

114 
96 

114 

255 

255 

396 

205 

205 

203 
15 



Ortenau, 

Ortenberg, 

Ortenburg, 

Orthez, 

Ortles, 

Ortona a Mare, 

Orvieto, 

Orzi Nuovi, 

Oschersleben, 

Oschiri, 

Osieczno, 

Osilo, 

Osimo, 

Osma, 

Osmanlis, 

Osnabriick, 

Osning, 

Ossa, 

Ossiach Lake, 

Ossuna, 

Ostende, 

Osterburg, 

Osterburken, 

Osterhofen, 

Osterholz, 

Osterhout, 

Osterland, 

Osterode, 

Osterwiek, 

Ostheim, 

Osthofen, 

Ostra, 

Ostrach, 

Ostrog, 

Ostrogoths, 

Ostroleuka, 

Oswestry, 

Otranto, 

Ottensen, 

Otterberg, 

Otterndorf, 

Ottersberg, 

Otttnachau, 

Ottobeuren, 

Ottweiler, 



PAGE 

341 
357 
316 

218 

4 

143 

133 

540 

478 

114 

499 

114 

134 

89 

624 

441 

8 

13 

11 

92 

280 

478 

344 

316 

438 

274 

382, 395 

440 



478 
389 
356 
132 
349 
602 
23 
606 
242 
143 
418 
327 
438 
438 
476 
325 
360, 489 



Orne Department, 187 



Oropa, 
Orosei, 
I Orsova, 
Orsova, Old, 

Orsoy, 
Ortelsburg, 



108 
114 
635 
534 

491 

49ii 



Oudenaarde, 279, 280 

Oudewater, 270 

Ouessant, 209 

Oufa, 609 

Oulx, 107 

Ourem, 72 

Ourique, 73 

Our the, 16 

Ouse, 14 

Ovar, 72 

Ovelgonne, 423 

Over-Flakke, 270 

Overyssel, 272 

Ovidiopol, 61 1 

Oviedo, 90 
Owl Mountains, 7 

Oxford, 237 

Oxfordshire, 237 

Oyonnar, 202 

Ozieri, 114 

Ozorkov, 605 

626 
14d 



P.icha, 
IPachino, 



660 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Pacracz, 530 
Paderborn, 484 
Padua, 541 
Paestum, 142 
Pagalia Orba, 5 
Pago, 535 
Paimpont, 208 
Paisley, 251 
Palais, 209 
Palais Royal, 182 
Palatinate, Bava- 
rian, 326 
Palatinate of Ches- 
ter, 242 
Palatinate, Elec- 
toral, 342 
Palatinate of Lan- 
caster, 242 
Palatinate, Up- 
per, 316, 317 
Palatines, 342 
Palazzo Adriano, 147 
Palencia, 89 
Palenzerthal, 165 
Palermo, 146 
Palestrina, 332 
Palisse, La, 204 
Pallanza, 111 
Pal ma, 96, 147 
Palmajola, 125 
Palmanova, 542 
Palmaria, 113 
Palmi, 145 
Pamiers, 218 
Pampeluna, 97 
Pancorvo, 88 
Pancsova, 534 
Pannonia, 521, 633 
Pantalaria, 147 
Paiitaleu, 97 
Pantelaria, 147 
Paula, 145 
Papa, 526 
Papenburg, 442 
Pappenheim, 322 
Parchim, 409 
Pardo, el, 87 
Parga, G33 
Paris, 182 
Parisians, 183 
Parma, 115, 116 
Paros, 623 
Parsberg, 317 
Parsonstown, 257 
Partenkirchen, 315 
Parthenay, 210 
Parthenope, 141 
Pas de Calais De- 
partment, 189 
Pasewalk, 470 
Passages, Los, 97 
Passarge, 13 
Passarovitz, 635 
Passau, 316 
Passy, 183 
Paterno, 148 
Patradschik, 621 
Patrae, 622 
Patras, 622 



Patricians, 

Patschkau, 

Pattada, 

Pattensen, 

Patti, 

Pau, 

Paula, 

Paulinzelle, 

Paulilatino, 

Paul It ac, 

Pausa, 

Pavia, 

Pavullo, 

Pawlovsk, 

Paxo, 

Payerne, 

Pecs, 

Peebles, 

Peeblesshire, 

Peene, 

Pegau, 

Pegli, 

Peina, 

Pelagio, 

Pelasgians, 

Pella, 



PA HE 
51 

476 
114 
436 
148 
218 
145 
401 
114 
215 
384 
538 
119 
592 
615 
168 
526 
250 
250 

13 
383 
112 
439 

29 
102 
630 



Peloponnesus, 619, 621 
Pelvoux de Val- 

louise, 4 

Pembroke, 245 

Pembrokeshire, 245 

Pempelfort, 492 

Penig, 383 

Peniscola, 96 

Penkun, 470 

Penne, 143 

Pennine Alps, 4 

Penrith, 244 

Penryn, 239 

Pensa, 608 

Penthievre, 209 

Pentland Frith, 255 

Penzance, 239 

Penzlin, 409 
Pepin of Herstall, 27 

Pepin the Little, 27 

Perche, 207 

Perigord, 215 

Perigueux, 215 

Peritia, 615 

Perleberg, 466 

Perm, 607 

Pernau, 597 

Peronne, 188 

Peroso, valley »f, 107 

Perpignan, 219 

Persante, 13 

Perserin, 633 

Perth, 253 

Perthshire, 253 

Perugia, 133 

Perugia Lake, 11 

Pesaro, 134 

Pescara, 143 

Pescia, 123 

Pesco Pagano, 142 

Peso da Regoa, 73 

Pest, 525 

Peterborough, 241 



Peterhead, 

Peterlingen, 

Petersburg, 

Petersdorf, 

Petershagen, 

Peterwardein, 

Petrikau, 

Petrinia, 

Petrusawodsk, 

Petrovsk, 

Petschenegri, 

Petschora, 

Pezenas, 

Pfaffenhofen, 

Pfalz, die, 

Pfalzburg, 

Pfalzel, 

Pfeddersheim, 

Pfeffers, 

Pfeffikon, 

Pflnz, 

Pforta, 

Pforzheim, 

Pfreimdt, 

Pfullendorf, 

Pfullingen, 

Phiiakia, 

Phanagoria, 

Phanari, 

Pharsalus, 

Pheasant Island, 

Phigalia, 

Philippeville, 

Philippi, 

Philippine, 

Philippople, 

Philippsburg, 

Philipseich, 

Philippsruhe, 

Philipstad, 

Philippsthal, 

Philipstown, 

Phokis, 

Phthiotis, 

Piacenza, 

Piana, 

Piano de'Greci, 

Pianosa, Isle of, 

Piast, 

Piave, 

Piazza, 

Picacho de Veleta, 

Picardy, 

Piclong, 

Pico, 

Pico las Posets, 

Picts, 

Piedimonte, 

Piedmont, 

Piedrahita, 

Pienza, 

Piesport, 

Pietrasanta, 

Pisnerol, 

Pila, 

Pilat, 

Pilica, 

Pilier, 

Pillau, 



PAGE 

252 
168 
595 
557 
483 
533 
606 
533 
51)3 
6(19 
521 
12 
220 
315 
364 
198 
489 
356 
160 
169 
338 
480 
340 
318 
346 
333 
615 
613 
622 
631 
217 
622 
282 
630 
271 
629 
344 
355 
374 
573 
373 
257 
6-21 
621 
117 
147 
146 
125 
603 
15 
147 

5 
187 

5 
75 

4 
248 
142 
106 



PAGE 

Pilkallen, 497 

Pillnitz, 382 

Pilsen, 515 

Pinczow, 606 

Pindus, 6 

Pinega, 12 

Pinerolo, 107 

Pinhel, 72 
Pinneberg, 414, 418 

Pinsk, 601 

Pinto, 15D 

Piombino, 125 

Pirano, 512 

Piriius, 620 

Pitmasenz, 328 

Pirna, 382 

Pisa, 124 

Pisino, 512 

Pistoja, 123 

IPitea, 574 

Pitest, 636 

jPithiviers, 205 
Pithyusian Islands, 97 



124 

489 
125 
107 
500 
6 
13, 606 
210 
496 



Pitigliano, 

Pizzighettone, 

Pizzo, 

Plaisance, 

Plantagenet, 

Plasencia, 

Plattenberg, 

Platten See, 

Plan, 

Plane, 

Plauen, 

Plauenscher 

Grund, 
Pleissenburg, 
Pleskow, 
Pless, 

Plessis les Tours, 
Pleszew, 
Plintenburg, 
Plock, 
Ploen Lake, 
Ploermel, 
Plomb de Cantal, 
Plombieres, 
Plon, 
Plotzkau, 
Plurs, 
Plymouth, 
Po, 

Podensac, 
Podestas, 
Podgorze, 
Podlachia, 
Podolia^ 
Poggio a Cajano. 



124 

538 

145 

117 

232 

91,97 

7 

11 

409 

401 

381, 384 

381 

382 

50, 593 

405, 476 
206 
499 



525 
60S 

II 
209 
6 
195 
417 
404 
539 
238 

15 
215 

51 
519 
602 
602 
1-23 



Poggio Imperiale, 123 

Poissy, 184 

Poitiers, 210 

Poitou, 210 

Pola, 512 

Poland, 603 

Polangen, 601 

Polenzo, 108 

Polese, 165 

Polesia, 601 

Polignac, 221 



INDEX. 



661 



PAGE 


Poligny, 


203 


Polish Russia, 


600 


Poiitz, 


469 


Polizzi, 


146 


Polle, 


436 


Pollove, 


108 


Polozk, 


601 


Poltawa, 


594 


Polzin, 


472 


Pombal, 


72 


Pomerania, 


468 


, Back 469, 470, 471 


, Fore, 468 


,469 


, Swedish, 


470 


Pommard, 


201 


Pommersfelden, 


320 


Pomona, 


255 


Pompadour, 


212 


Pompeii, 


141 


Pontac, 


218 


Pout d'Ain, 


202 


Pontarlier, 


20:? 


Pont Audemer, 


186 


Pont Beauvoisie, 


222 


Pont Beauvoisin, 


109 


Pont de Ce, 


207 


Pont du Chateau, 


213 


Pont l'Eveque, 


187 


Pont du Gard, 


221 


Pont a Mousson, 


195 


Pont St. Esprit, 


221 


Pont sur Seine, 


192 


Pont de Vaux, 


202 


Pont de Veyle, 


202 


Ponte, 


108 


Ponte Bodio, 


133 


Pontecorvo, 


133 


Ponte di Lago 




Scuro, 


135 


Ponte de Lima, 


73 


Ponte a Seraglio, 


126 


Ponte Tresa, 


165 


Pontevedra, 


91 


Ponte vico, 


540 


Pontine Isles, 


142 


Pontine Marshes, 


127 


Pontivy, 


209 


Pontoise, 


184 


Pontremoli, 


125 


Ponza Isles, 


142 


Poole, 


238 


Popedom, 


127 


Poperingen, 


281 


Pordenone, 


542 


Porentruy, 


159 


Poretsh, 


635 


Poros, 


6-22 


Port Glasgow, 


251 


Port Louis, 


209 


Port Mahon, 


96 


Port Patrick, 


250 


Port Vendre, 


219 


Portalegre, 


73 


Porte, 


626 


Portici, 


141 


Portland, Bill of, 


238 


Porto, 


72 


Porto (Azores), 


75 


Porto Corsini, 


135 



PAGE 

Porto Drapano, 616 

Porto Fermo, 134 

Porto Ferrajo, 126 

Porto Gai, 615 

Porto Longone, 126 

Porto Mauritio, 113 
Porto San Mauri- 

zio, 113 

Porto Re, 529 

Porto Torres, 114 

Porto Vechio, 225 

Portovenere, 113 

Portsmouth, 238 

Portsoy, 253 

Portugal, 62 

Portugalete, 97 

Posada, 114 

Poschiavo, 162 

Posega, 530 

Posen, 499 

Posneck, 392 

Posony, 524 

Potenza, 145 

Pottendorf, 509 

Pottenstein, 320 

Potteries, 241 

Potsdam, 465 

Potshitatz, 634 

Pouance, 207 

Pouilly, 204 

Pra, 112 

Prades, 219 

Praeneste, 132 

Prag, 514 

Praga, 605 

Prague, 514 

Priistoe, 550 

Prato, 123 

Pratolino, 123 

Praunheim, 374 

Praya, 75 

Preetz, 417 

Pregel, 13 

Premontre, 185 

Prenzlau, 466 

Prenzlow, 466 

Prescot, 243 

Presidios, 98 

Pressburg, 524 

Presteign, 246 

Preston, 243 

Prestonpans, 249 

Pretsch, 479 

Prettigau, 162 

Preussen, 457 
Preussisch Eylau, 496 
Preussisch-Hol- 

land, 496 

Prevesa, 633 

Prevorst, 332 

Pria, 112 

Priebus, 475 

Priegnitz, 466 

Priego, 9? 

Primizl, 514 

Prince Isles, 628 

Pripet, 12 

Pristina, 635 

Pritzwalk, 466 



1 


'AGE 




PAGE 


Privas, 


221 


Raab, 


526 


Procida, 


141 


Raab River, 


16 


Pronia, 


622 


Rabastens, 


220 


Prosecco, 


512 


Rabatto, 


150 


Provence, 


223 


Racconigi, 


107 


Provence, King- 




Radeberg, 


381 


dom of, 


200 


Radeburg, 


381 


Provincial Hun- 




Rade vor dem 




gary, 520 


,524 


Wald, 


493 


Provins, 


193 


Radicofani, 


124 


Prozelten, 


323 


Radnor, 


246 


Priim, 


489 


Radnorshire, 


246 


Pruntrut, 


159 


Radolphzell, 


346 


Pruschani, 


601 


Radom, 


606 


Prussia, Kingdom 


L 


Radzivilov, 


602 


of, 


457 


Ragatz, 


160 


Prussia, Province 




Ragland Castle, 


240 


of, 


495 


Ragnit, 


497 


Prussian Moravia 


,476 


Raguhn, 


405 


Prussians, 


495 


Ragusa, 


535 


Pruth, 


16 


Ragusa (in Sicily] 


,148 


Pskow, 50 


,593 


Rahden, 


484 


Puerto Real, 


92 


Rahnis, 


482 


Puerto de Santa 




Rain, 


315 


Maria, 


92 


Rambervillers, 


195 


Puigcerda, 


95 


Rambouillet, 


184 


Pnlawy, 


606 


Ramea, 


598 


Pultawa, 


594 


Ramlosa, 


572 


Pultusk, 


606 


Ramsay, 


247 


Punta Delgada, 


74 


Ramsgate, 


236 


Purgaturo, 


141 


Randazzo, 


148 


Piirglitz, 


515 


Randers, 


553 


Purmerend, 


269 


Ranstadt, 


357 


Puschlaf, 


162 


Ranzau, 


418 


Puszten, 


521 


Rapallo, 


113 


Puttbus, 


471 


Rapperschweil, 


160 


Puttlitz, 


466 


Rapperswyl, 


160 


Putzig, 


498 


Rappoltsweiler, 


198 


Puycerda, 


95 


Rassova, 


629 


Pay de Dome, 


6 


Rastadt, 


341 


Puy de Dome De- 




Rastede, 


423 


partment, 


213 


Rastenburg, 


496 


Puy de Sancy, 


6 


Rath drum, 


256 


Pylos, 


622 


Rathekau, 


426 


Pyrenean Penin- 




Rathenau, 


466 


sula, 


76 


Rathenow, 


466 


Pyrenees, 


4 


Ratibor, 


476 


Pyrgos, 


622 


Ratingen, 


492 


Pyritz, 


470 


Ratisbon, 


316 


Pyrmont, 


376 


Ratzeburg, 


419 






Ratzeburg, princi 




Quackenbriick, 


441 


pality of, 


412 


Quades, 


472 


Ratzgrad, 


630 


Quarto, 


114 


Rauenthal, 


363 


Quedlinburg, 


478 


Rauhe Alp, 


7 


Queen's County, 


257 


Rauschenberg, 


372 


Queenstown, 


257 


Rava, 


605 


Queluz, 


71 


Ravenna, 


135 


Querande, 


210 


Ravensberg, 


484 


Quercy, 


215 


Ravensburg, 


334 


Querfurt, 


479 


Ravensteen, 


274 


Quesnoy, Le, 


191 


Ravvick, 


499 


Quiberon, 


209 


Re (island), 


211 


Quilleboeuf, 


186 


Reading, 


235 


Qui m per, 


209 


Recklinghausen, 


483 


Corentin, 


209 


Reculet, 


6 


Quimperle, 


209 Redon, 


208 


Quinsy, 


203!RedMndela, 


91 


Quintin, 


2091 


Red Russia, 


518 



662 



INDEX. 





PARE] 


PAGH 




PiGE 


j 


PAGE 


Reeckem, 


283;Rhenish Confed 


- 


Rochefort (in Be 


1- 


Rosieres aux Sa- 




Rees, 


494 


eration, 


294 


gium), 


282 


lines, 


195 


Rega, 


ir 


Rhenish Hesse, 


355 


Rochefoucauld, 




Rosnyo, 


532 


Regalmuto, 


14" 


Rhenish League 


5-1 


La. 


212 


Ross, 240, 254 


Regen River, 


It 


Rhenish province, 486 Rochelle, La, 


211 


RossHiio, 


145 


Regensburg, 


3i r 


Khense, 


488|Rochemaure, 


221 


Rossbach, 


480 


Regenstauf, 


3i7 


Rhine, 


16 [Rochester, 


23( 


Rosslau, 


406 


Regen walde, 


4?()jRhityrnna, 


632 Rochlitz, 


383 


Host, 


577 


Reggio, 


145|Rho, 


538|Rochsbuig, 


383 


Rostock, 


410 


Reggio (in Mo- 




Rhoden, 


376 


Rockenhausen, 


327 


Rostow, 


592 


dena), 


119 


Rhoen-Gebirge, 


7 


Rocroy, 


193 


Rotenburg, 


438 


Rehau, 


319 


Rhone, 


15 


Roda, 


396 


Rotenburg (in 




Re h burg, 


435 


Rhone Depart- 




Rodach, 


3U4 


Hesse), 


371 


Rehna, 


409 


ment, 


214 


Rod by, 


551 


Rotenburgian 




Reibersdorf, 


385 


Rhone-mouths De- 


Rode le Due, 


490 


Quarter, 


371 


Reichenau, 


346 


partment, 


223 


Rodelheim, 


357 


Rothenburg an 




Reichenbach, 38- 


,473 


Ribadeo, 


91 


Rodenberg, 


372 


der Tauber, 


321 


Reichenberg, 364 


t, 516 


Ribe, 


553 


Rodenstein, 


355 


Rother Thurm, 


534 


Reichenhall, 


314 


Ribeauviller, 


198 


Rodez, 


216 


Roth say, 


252 


Reichenstein, 


474 


Ribeira Grande, 


75 


Roding, 


317 


Rottenburg, 


332 


Reichstadt, 


516 


Riberac, 


215 


Rodolph of Haps 


- 


Rotterdam, 


269 


Reikiavik, 


560 


Ribnitz, 


410 


burg, 


301 


Rottum, 273, 550 


Reinerz, 


474 


Riceys, 


192 


Rodosto, 


628 


Rottweil, 


332 


Reinheim, 


354 


Richelieu, 


207 


Roer, 


16 


Roubaix, 


190 


Reisen, 


499 


Richmond, 


243 


Roeraas, 


577 


Rouen, 


185 


Remngen, 


488 


Richtenschweil, 


169 


Roeremonde, 


367 


Rouergue, 


215 


Rernda, 


387 


Ried, 


510 


Roeskilde, 38 


,549 


RoufTac, 


198 


Reraich, 


367 


Riedenburg, 


317 


Rogasen, 


499 


Rough Alp, 


7 


Remireinont, 


195 


Riedlingen, 


335 


Roggenburg, 


325 


Roulers, 


280 


Remoulins, 


2-21 


Riehen, 


157 


Rohan, 


209 


Roulx, 


281 


Remscheid, 


493 


Ries, 


325 


Rolduc, 


490 


Roumelia, 


628 


Renaix, 


280 


Riesa, 


381 


Ro magna, 


131 


Rousselaer, 


280 


Renchen, 


341 


Riesenburg, 


498 


Romainmoustiers 


, 168 


Roussillon, 


219 


Rendsburg, 


417 


Riesengebirge, 


6 


Roman, 


637 


Roveredo, 


513 


Renfrew, 


251 


Riesenkoppe, 


6 


Roman Apennines, 5 


Rovereith, 


513 


Renfrewshire, 


251 


Rietberg, 


484 


Roman German 




Rovigno, 


512 


Rennes, 


208 


Rieti, 


133 


Empire, 


291 


Rovigo, 


541 


Reny, 


612 


Riez, 


224 


Romanians, 18, 19 


Roxant, Cape, 


3 


Reole, La, 


215 


Riga, 


596 


Romans, 


222 


Roxburghshire, 


249 


Reps, 


532 


Riga Gulf, 


9 


Romano, 


540 


Royan, 


211 


Requena, 


88 


Rifcd, 


164 


Romanow, House 




Rubicon, 


127 


Resina, 


141 


Rimini, 


135 


of, 


589 


Rudesheim, 


363 


Rethel, 


193 


Riinnik, 


636 


Rome, 


132 


Rudkjobing, 


551 


Retshitilova, 


594 


Ringkjobing, 


553 


Romhild, 


391 


Rudolstadt, 


401 


Rettimo, 


632 


Ringsted, 


550 


Romney, 


236 


Rue, 


188 


Reus, 


95 


Rinteln, 


371 


Romont, 


159 


Rueil, 


184 


Reuss, principali- 




Rioja, 


88 


Romorantin, 


206 


Rufach, 


198 


ties of, 


397 


Riom, 


213 


Roncevalles, 


97 


RufTec, 


212 


Reuss-Greiz, 


398 


Ripa Transone, 


134 


Ronciglione, 


133 


Rugby, 


241 


Reuss-Lobenstein 


- 


Ripen, 


553 


Ronda, 


93 


Riigen, 469 


,471 


Ebersdorf, 


398 


Ripuarian Franks, 298 


Ronne, 


550 


Riigenwalde, 


471 


Reuss-Schleiz, 


398 


Ritzebiittel, 


450 Ronneburg, 


396 


Rugles, 


186 


Rentlingen, 


332 


Rivara, 


107 Ronneby, 


571 


Ruhla, 


389 


Reval, 


596 


Rivarolo, 


107jRonsdorf, 


493 


Ruhr, 


16 


Revin, 


191 


Ri ve de Gier, 


214 


Ronse, 


280 


Ruhrort, 


494 


Rhaetia, 


297 


Rives, 


222 


Roquefort de Mar 




Rum, 


255 


Rheda, 


484 


Rivesaltes, 


219 


san, 


217 


Ruinilly, 


109 


Rheidt, 


493 


Riviera, 


165 


Roquemaure, 


221 


Rummelsburg, 


472 


Rheims, 


192 


Rivoli, 


1071 Rorschach, 


160 


Rumpenheim, 


374 


Rheina, 


483 


Rjasan, 


592 


Rosas, 


95 


Runkel, 


365 


Rhein-Bischofs- 




Roanne, 


214 


Roscommon, 


259 


Rupel, 


16 


heim, 


342 


Rocca bruna, 


110 


Rosenau, 394, 


532 


Rupelmonde, 


280 


Rheineck, 


160 


Roccalumera, 


148 


Rosenberg, 476, 


498 


Ruppin, 


466 


Rheinfelden, 


156 


Rocamadour, 


216 


Rosendal, 568, 


571 


Rurik, 


588 


Rheingau, 


363 


Rocca San Felice, 


143 'Rosenthal, 


372 


RuskaPoyana, 


5 


Rheinhardsbrunn 


,394 


Rochdale, 


243 Rosersberg, 


568 


Russberg, 


164 


Rheinsberg, 


4661 


Roche sur Yon, 


210 Roses, war of the, 


233 


Russia, 


579 


Rheinzabern, 


327 


Rochechouart, 


211JRosheim, 


197 


Russia, Great, 


590 


Rhenen, 


27l| 


Rochefort, 


2111 


Rosienie, 


601 


, Little, 


594 



INDEX. 



663 



PAGE 

Russian Lapland, 599 



Russt, 


527 


Rustschuk, 


629 


Ruthin, 


246 


Rutland, 


241 


Ruvo, 


144 


Rybinsk, 


592 


Rye, 


'236 


Ryssel, 


190 


Ryswick, 


269 


Saalburg, 


399 


Saale, 


16 


Saalfeld, 


392 


Saanen, 


158 


Saaralbe, 


196 


Saarbriick, 


489 


Saaiburg, 195 


,489 


Saardam, 


268 


Saargemtind, 


195 


Saarlouis, 


489 


Saar-Uniou, 


198 


Sabines, 


102 


Sable, 


207 


Sables d'Olonne, 


210 


Siiby, 


552 


Sachsa, 


481 


Sachseln, 


166 


Sachsenberg, 


376 ! 


Sachsenhagen, 


372 i 


Sachsenhausen, 


376 


Sachsenstadt, 


532 


Sacile, 


542 


Sackingen, 


345 


Sagau, 


475 


Sagard, 


471 


Sagres, 


74 


Sagunt, 


96 


Sahagun, 


89 


Sairaa Lake, 


11 


Sainte Marguerite 


224 


Saintes, 


'211 


Saintonge, 


211 


Sala, 117 


,569 


Salamanca, 


90 


Salatnis, 


621 


Saldafia, 


89 


Salemi, 


146 


Salency, 


184 


Salerno, 


142 


Salers, 


213 


Salic Franks, 


298 


Salies, 


218 


Sal in a, 


149 


Salins, 


203 


Salisbury, 


239 


Sallanche, 


110 


Sallenche, 


110 


Salm, 283 


,483 


Sal minister, 


374 


Salo, 


539 


Salon, 


223 


Salona, 


621 


Salonica, 


630 


Salop, 


242 


Salou, 


95 


Salt-Bommel, 


272 


Saltcoats, 


250 


Saluzzo, 


107 



PAGE 

Salvatierra, 98 

Salzbrunn, 473 

Salzburg, 510 

Salzdahlum, 446 

Salzderhelden, 440 

Salzdetfurt, 439 

Salzhemmendorf, 436 

Salzkammergut, 510 

Salzkotten, 484 

Salzschlierf, 373 

Salzungen, 391 

Salzwedel, 478 
Samara, 12, 608 

Sambre, 16 

Samnites, 102 

Samogitia, 601 

Samojedes, 580 

Samothracia, 632 

Samothraki, 632 

Samsoe, 550 

Samter, 499 

San, 13 

Sancerre, 204 

Sandomir, 606 

Sandwich, 236 

Sangerhausen, 480 

Sanguesa, 97 

Sanquhar, 250 

Sanssouci, 465 

San tana, 88 

Santander, 88 

Santarem, 72 

Santhia, 108 

San ti liana, 88 

Santorin, 623 

San Ambrogio, 107 

San Carlo, 95 

San Casciano, 124 

San Cipriano, 112 

San Damiano, 108 

San Felipe, 96 
San Fernando, 92, 95 

San Filippo, 124 
San Filippo d'Ar- 

gyro, 148 

San Fiorenzo, 225 

San Germano, 142 
San Geronimo de 

Juste, 91 

San Gervasio, 110 
San Giorgio, 108, 117 

San Giovanni, 110 

San lldefonso, 89 

San Jorge, 75 
San Lucar de Bar- 

rameda, 91 
San Marino, 136 
San Marti no, 146 
Sau Martino, val- 
ley of, 107 
San Maurizio, 107 
San Michael, 74 
San Miguel, 74 
San Miniato, 123 
San Nicola, 144 
San Nikolo, G15 
San Pedro de Car- 

dena, 88 
San Piar d' Arena, 112 



PAGE 

San Pietro (isle), 144 
San Pietro d' Are- 
na, 112 
San Remo, 113 
San Rucco, 117 
San Roque, 92 
San Rossore, 125 
San Sebastian, 97 
San Severo, 144 
San Stefano, 125 
St. Affrique, 216 
St. Aignan, 205 
St. Albans, 237 
St. Amand, 190, 204 
St. Amand, Mon- 

troud, 204 

St. Amarin, 199 

St. Amour, 203 

St. Andrews, 251 

St. Asaph, 246 

St. Aubin, 247 

St. Avoid, 196 

St, Barjols, 224 

St. Beat, 217 
St. Bernard, Great, 167 
St, Bertrand de 

Comminges, 217 j 

St. Blasien, 3-15 

St. Brieuc. 208 

St, Brieux, 208 

St. Calais, 207 

St. Chamas, 223 

St. diamond, 214 

St. Claude, 20:*. 

St. Cloud, 183 

St. Cyr, 183 

St. David's, 245 

St. Denis, 183 

St. Die, 195 

St. Dizier, 192 
St. Dmitria Ros- 

tovskaja, 612 
St. Etienne, 214 
St. Fergus, 253 
St. Florent, 225 
St. Florentin, 193 
St. Florian, 510 
St. Flour, 213 
St. Gall, 159, 160 
St. Galmier, 214 
St. Gaudens, 217 
St. Geniez, 216 
St. Geniez de Rive- 
dolt, 216 
St. Genis-Laval, 214 
St. George, 75 
St. George's Chan- 
nel, 10 
St. Georgen, 533 
St. Germain en 

Laye, 183 

St. Gervais, 110 

St. Gilles, 221 

St. Girons, 218 

St. Goar, 488 

St. Goarshausen, 304 

St. Gobain, 188 

St. Gothard, 166 

St. Helen's, 243 



St. Helier, 247 
St. Hippolyte, 202,221 

St. Hubert, 283 

St. Ives, 237 
St. Jago de Com- 

postella, . 90 
St. Jean d' Angel v, 211 
St. Jean d'Aulps", 103 
St. Jean de Losne, 20] 
St. Jean de Luz, 217 
St. Jean de Mau- 
ri enne, 110 
St. Jean Pied de 

Port, 218 

St. Junien, 212 

St. Kilda, 255 

St. Lamberthal, 2S2 
St, Laurent de 

Cerdans, 219 
St. Laurent de 

Medoc, 215 
St. Laurent les 

Var, 224 

St. Leonard, 212 

St. L6, 187 

St. Maixent, 210 

St. Malo, 208 

St. Malzeville, 195 

St. Marcellin, 222 
St. Marie aux 

Mines, 199 

St. Martensdyk, 270 

St. Martory, 217 

St. Maurice, 167 

St. Maximin, 224 

St. Menehouid, 192 

St. Michel, 195 

St. Mihiel, 195 

St. Moritz, 167 

St. Nazaire, 210 

St. Nikolas, 280 

St. Omer, 189 

St. Palais, 218 

St. Peray, 221 

St. Petersburg, 595 

St. Peter's Port, 247 

St. Philibert, 210 
St. Pierre, 189, 247 
St. Pierre d'Al- 

bignv, 109 
St. Pol", 189 
St. Pol de Leon, 2u9 
St. Polten, 509 
St. Pons de To- 
rn iers, 220 
St. Pourcain, 204 
St. Quentin, 188 
St. Quirin, 195 
St. Rambert, 202 
St. Remy, 213, 223 
St. Roca, 75 
St. Saphorin, 168 
St. Savin, 210 
St. Servan, 208 
St. Sever, 217 
St. Sophia, 628 
St. Symphorien de 

Lay, 214 

St. Tron, 283 



664 



INDEX. 



St. Tropez, 

St. Trujen, 

St. Ubes, 

St. Ursanne, 

St. Ursitz, 

St. Valery, 

St. Valery en 
Caux, 

St. Veit, 

St. Vincenzo, 

St. Wendel, 

St. Ya, 

St. Yrieix, 

Santa Cruz, 

Sta. Maria, 

Santa Maria Mag 
giore, 

Santa Maura, 

Santa Severina, 

Saone, 

Saone and Loire 
Department, 

Saragossa, 

Saransk, 

Sarapul, 

Saratow, 

Sardara, 

Sardica, 

Sardinia, island, 

, kingdom, 

Sarepta, 

Sargans, 

Sark, 

Sari at, 

Sarmates, 

Sarmatians, 

Sarnen, 

Sarno, 

Sarralbe, 

Sarrebourg, 

Sarreguemines, 

Sarstedt, 

Sartene, 

Sarthe Depart- 
ment, 

Sarzana, 

Sarzeau, 

Sas van Gent, 

Sasbach, 

Sassari, 

Sassenage, 

Sassuolo, 

Sitter, 



PAGEf PAGE 

224 Saxe-Lauenburg, 419 
283 Saxe-Meiningen, 389 

72 Saxe-Weimar, 386 
159 Saxeln, 366 

159 Saxkjobing, 551 

188 Saxon Palatinate, 388 

Saxon Switzer- 
186 land, 376, 382 

511 Saxons, the, 25, 30, 298 
109 Saxony, Kingdom 
489 of, 376 

108 Saxony, Prussian 
212 province of, 477 

75 Sayda, 381 

75 Scalds, 56 

Scandinavian coun 
142 tries, 30 

616 Scandinavian Mts., 5 
145 Scandinavian Pen- 

15 insula, 562 

Scarborough, 243 

201 Scarlino, 126 

94 Scarpe, 16 

608 Sceaux, 183 

608 Schaafstiidt, 479 

609 Schabacz, 635 
114 Schaechenthal, 166 
629 Schafberg, 7 
113 Schafhausen, 163,164 
103 Schandau, 382 
609 Schapen, 442 
160|Scharmbeck, 438 
247{Schiissburg, 532 
215 Schaumburg, 371, 372 

19 ~ 
588 
166 
142 
196 



Schaumburg- 

Lippe, 

Scheibenberg, 383 

Scheldt, 16 

Schellenberg, 351 

195 Schemberg, 332 

195jSchemnitz, 525 

439 Schernberg, 401 

225 Scherpenheuvel, 278 

Scheveningen, 269 

207 Schidlow, 606 

113 Schiedam, 270 

209jSchiefelbein, 472 
271 , Schiermonnikoog, 272 

34l|Schilda, 480 

lHSchildesche, 484 

222 Schiltach, 346 
118 ; Schio, 
570;Schippenbeil, 



Satorallya Ujhely, 527 Schirgiswalde, 



Schmalkalden, 

Schmiedeberg, 

Schneeberg, 

Schneeberg (Mt.) 

Schneekopf, 

Schneekoppe, 

Schneidemiihl, 

Schnellerts, 

Schnepfenthal, 

Schbmberg, 

Schonau, 

Schonebeck, 

Schonborn, 

Schcinbrunn, 

Sch on burg, Princes 



and Earls of, 
Schoneck, 
Schoenenwerth, 
Schongau, 
Schoningen, 
Schonlanke, 
Schonsee, 
Schoon ho ven, 
Schopfheim, 
Schoppenstedt, 
Schorndorf, 
Schotten, 
Schouwen, 
Schramberg, 
Schreckhorn, 
Schrimm, 
Sch robenhausen, 
Schrock, 
Schulpforta, 
Schiitt, 
Schiittorf, 
Schwabach, 
Schwabeck, 
Schwiibisch 

Gmiind, 



384 
498 
164 
315 
447 
500 
318 
270 
345 
446 
337 
357 
270 
332 
4 
499 
315 
310 
480 
524 
442 
320 
325 

336 



?chwabisch Hall, 335 



332 
361 
376 
161 

478 
426 



401 



Saulgau, 

Saulieu, 

Saumur, 

Sausenberg, 

Sauxillanges, 

Save, 

Savenay, 

Saverne, 

Savigliano 



335 Schjrwind, 
201 Schitomir, 
207 Schkeuditz, 
345 Schlangenbad, 
213 Schlawentzitz, 

16 Schlei, 
210 Schleiden, 
197 Schleiz, 
107 Schleswig 



Savigny sur Braye 206 Schlettstadt, 
Savona, 112 Scliieusingen, 



Savoy, 
Saxe-Altenburg, 
Saxe-Coburg-Go- 
tha, 



109 Sclilitz, 
395 Schlochau, 

Schliichtern, 
392 Schliisselburg 



554, 556 

198 
481 
357 
498 
371 
4S4 



Schwaigern, 

Schwalbach, 

Schwalenberg, 

Schwanden, 

Schwanebeck, 

Schwartau, 

Schwarzburg (an 
cestral castle), 

Schwarzburg, Prin- 
cipalities of, 399 

Sch w arz burg-Ru- 
dolstadt, 401 

Schwarzhurg-Son- 
dershausen, 400 

Schwarzenbek, 420 

Schwarzen- 

berg, 322, 383 

Schwarzenborn, 372 

Schwarzwald, 

Schwatz, 

Schwechat, 

Schwedt, 

Schweidnitz, 

Schweina, 

Schweinfurt, 

Scliweinitz, 

Schweinsberg, 



PAGET PAGE 

373 Schwelm, 485 

474 Schwerin, 408 
383 Schwerin Lake, 11 

7 Schwetz, 498 

7 Schwetzingen, 343 

6 Schwiebus, 467 

500 Schwinge, 17 

355 Schwyz, 164 

394 Sciacca, 147 

475 Sciglio, 145 
343, 345 Scilly Isles, 239 

477 Scone, 253 

323 Scotland, 248 

509 Scots, 248 

Scrivia, 15 

Scudery, 5 

Scutari, 632 

Scylla, 145 

Scythian Desert, 611 

Scythians, 588 

Sea of Azof, 10 

Seaford, 236 

Sebenico, 535 

Sedan, 193 

Seeberg, 394 

Seeland (Switzer 
land), 

Seelburg, 

Seelow, 

Seesen, 

Seez, 

Segeberg, 

Segorbe, 

Segovia, 

Segre, 

Segro, 

Segura, 

Seifhennersdorf, 

Sein, 

Seine, 

Seine Depart- 
ment, 

Seine and Marne 
Department, 

Seine and Oise 
Department, 

Selb, 

Seligenstadt, 

Seligenthal, 

Selimnia, 

Selkirk, 

Selkirkshire, 

Selters, 

Semendria, 

Seminara, 

Semlin, 

Sempach, 

Semur en Auxois, 201 

Semur en Brion- 
nais, 201 

Senarica, 143 

Senf ten berg, 468 

Senlis, 185 

473|Senner Haide, 427 
39l!Senner Heath, 427 
323 Sennheim, 199 

480: Sens, 193 

372 Sensburg, 497 

145 



7 
513 
50!) 
466 



158 

597 

467 

447 

187 

417 

96 

£9 

207 

14 

14 

385 

209 

15 

182 

184 

183 
319 
355 
373 
629 
250 
250 
363 
635 
145 
533 
162 



Schwciz, 155, 164 Sepino, 



INDEX. 



665 



PAGE 


PAGE 


Sepsi Szent Gy- 




Sierra de Guada- 




orgy, 


532 


lupe, 


5 


Septi mania, 


214 


Sierra de Guada- 




Septmoncel, 


203 


rama, 


5 


Seraglio, 


628 


Sierra Monchique, 5 


Seraing, 


282 


Sierra Morena, 


5 


Serchio, 


120 


Sierra Nevada, 


5 


Sereg, 


247 


Sierra de Ronda, 


5 


Seres, 


630 


Siewierz, 


606 


Sereth, 16 


,520 


Sigtnaringen, 


349 


Serpa, 


73 


Signa, 


123 


Serravalle, 




Sigtuna, 


568 


111, 136 


,542 


Siguenza, 


88 


Serravezza, 


125 


Sijean, 


220 


Servia, 


634 


Silberberg, 


473 


Servians, 


29 


Silesia, 


472 


Servitude, 


36 


Silesia, Austrian, 


517 


Sesia, 


15 


Silesia, Lower, 




Sessa, 


142 


472, 473 


,474 


Sessola, 


616 


, Upper, 472 


,475 


Sestri di Le- 




Silesian Neisse, 


13 


vante, 


113 


Silistria, 


629 


di Pouente, 


112 


Silivri, 


628 


Setubal, 


72 


Silja Lake. 


11 


Seu d'Urgel, 


95 


Sillery, 


192 


Sevastopol, 


610 


Silves, 


74 


Sevenaer, 


272 


Simaneas, 


90 


Seven Hills, 


8 


Simbirsk, 


608 


Sevennes, 


6 


Simferopol, 


610 


Severn, 


14 


Simmenthal, 


158 


Severia, 


606 


Simmern, 


488 


Seville, 


91 


Simplon, 


167 


Sevre Nantaise, 


15 


Sindelfingen, 


331 


Sevre Niortaise, 


16 


Sindringeu, 


337 


Sevres, 


184 


Sines, 


73 


Seyne, 


224 


Sinigaglia, 


134 


Seyssel, 


202 


Siniscola, 


114 


Sezanne, 


193 


Sinsheim, 


344 


Sforza, 


537 


Sinzig, 


488 


Shaftsbury, 


238 


Sion, 


167 


Shannon, 


14 


Siroceo, 


100 


Sheffield, 


244 


Sissach, 


157 


Shetland, 


255 


Sisteron, 


224 


Shetland Islands, 


255 


Sistova, 


629 


Shields, 


244 


Sittard, 


368 


Shiffnal, 


242 


Sitten, 


167 


Shrewsbury, 


242 


Skagastoeltind, 


6 


Shropshire, 


242 


Skagastrand, 


560 


Shumla, 


629 


Skagen, 


552 


Sibo, 


531 


Skagerack, 


9 


Sicilian Vespers, 


139 


Skalholt, 


560 


Sicily, 


146 


Skane, 


571 


Siculians, 


102 


Skanderborg, 


553 


Sid mouth, 


238 


Skara, 


572 


Siebenbiirgen, 


530 


Skeen, 


576 


Siebengebirge, 


8 


Skeninge, 


570 


Sieders, 


167 


Skiathos, 


623 


Siedlce, 


606 


Skiellingsfjeld, 


558 


Sieg River, 


16 


Skive, 


552 


Siegburg, 


492 


Skjelskoer, 


550 


Siegen, 


486 


Skjold, 


547 


Sielbeck, 


426 


Skjoldunger, 


547 


Siemiatyce, 


602 


Sk'ofde, 


573 


Siena, 


124 


Skokloster, 


568 


Sieradz, 


605 


Skopelos, 


623 


Sierk, 


196 


Skyros, 


623 


Sierques, 


196 


Slagelse, 


550 


Sierra de Cuenca, 


5 


Slaves (tribe of 




Sierra de Estrella, 


, 63 


the), 


19 





PAGE 




PAGE 


Slavkov, 


606 


Sophia, 


629 


Slavonia, 


529 


Soprony, 


526 


Slavonians, 


18, 19 


Sorau, 


468 


Slawensik, 


476 


Sorbes, 


378 


Sleswick, 554, 556 


Soreze, 


220 


Sligo, 


259 


Sorgono, 


114 


Slobodskoi, 


608 


Sori, 


112 


Slobosk, 


608 


Soria, 


89 


Slonim, 


601 


Soroe, 


550 


Slough, 


235 


Soroka, 


612 


Sluis, 


270 


Sorrento, 


141 


Sluzk, 


601 


Sorromastro, 


97 


Smoaland, 


570 


Sorso, 


114 


Smolensk, 


591 


Sospello, 


110 


Smorgoni, 


600 


Souillac, 


216 


Sneek, 


272 


Sound, 


9 


Snoehiitta, 


6 


Southampton, 


238 


Snowdon, 


8 


South Brabant, 


278 


Soana, 


124 


South Holland, 


269 


Bobernheim, 


488 


South Jutland, 


554 


Soden, 


374 


South Russia, 


610 


Soderfors, 


568 


South Shields, 


244 


Soderhamn, 


574 


South Uist, 


255 


Soderkoping, 


570 


South Wales, 


245 


Sodermanlaud, 


568 


Smthwark, 234 


,235 


Soderoe, 


558 


Sovana, 


124 


Sodertelge, 


569 


Spa, 


282 


Sodor, 


247 


Spaccaforno, 


148 


Soest, 


485 


Spaccafurno, 


148 


Sofiovka, 


594 


Spaichingen, 


332 


Soho, 


241 


Spain, 


76 


Soignies, 


281 


Spalato, 


535 


Soissons, 


185 


Spalatro, 


535 


Solano, 


77 


Spalding, 


237 


Soldau, 


496 


Spalt, 


322 


Soldin, 


467 


Spandau, 


465 


Soleure, 


164 


Spangenberg, 


371 


Solferino, 


539 


Spanish mark, 


31 


Solikamsk, 


607 


Spanish Nether- 




Solingen, 


492 


lands, 


277 


Soller, 


96 


Sparta, 


622 


Sollinger Wald, 


8 


Spello, 


134 


Solms, Princes and 


Sperlinga, 


148 


Earls of, 


357 


Spessart, 


7 


Solms-Braunfels 


488 


Spezia, 


113 


Solnhofen, 


326 


Spezzia, 113 


,622 


Solofra, 


142 


Sphakia, 


632 


Solsona, 


95 


Sphakiotes, 


632 


Soltau, 


437 


Spielberg, 


516 


Solvitsborg, 


571 


Spire, 


327 


Sombor, 


525 


Spithead, 


238 


Somersetshire, 


239 


Spitzbergen, 


593 


Somlyo, 


531 


Splugeu, 


162 


Somme, 


15 


Spoleto, 


133 


Somme Depart- 




Sporades, 


623 


ment, 


188 


Spreewald, 


458 


Sommerda, 


481 


Spremberg, 


468 


Sommerein, 


524 


Springe, 


436 


Sommieres, 


221 


Squillace, 


145 


Somorrostro, 


97 


Staatsflanders, 


270 


Sonderburg, 


557 


Stabio, 


165 


Sondershausen, 


400 


Stablo, 


283 


Sondrio, 


539 


Stade, 437 


,438 


Sonneberg, 


392 


Stadtamhof, 


317 


Sonnenberg, 


392 


Stadtberg, 


485 


Sonnenstein, 


382 


Stadthagen, 


429 


Sonnenwalde, 


468 


Stadt Ilm, 


401 


Sonnenwirbel, 


7 


Stadtlohn, 


483 


Sontra, 


371 


Stadt Oldendorf, 


447 



666 



INDEX. 



] 


PAGE PAGE 




PAGE 


PAGE 


Stadtsteinach, . 


320 


Stohnsdorf, 


475 


Sulphur-districts 




Tagus, 


14 


Stadtsulza, 


387 


Stollberj?, 


490 


(in Sicily), 


.147 


Tain, 222 


,254 


Staefa, 


169 


Stollberg-Werni- 




Sultan, 


626 


Talanti, 


621 


Staefis, 


159 


gerode, 478 


,479 


Sulz, 199, 333 


Talavera de la 




Staffa, 


254 


Stolpen, 


385 


Suiza, 


387 


Reyna, 


87 


Staffarda, 


107 


Stolzenau, 


436 


Sulzbach, 


317 


Tallya, 


527 


Staffelstein, 


320 


Stolzenfels, 


487 


Sunderland, 


244 


Taman, 


613 


Stafford, 


241 


Stonehaven, 


252 


Sundgau, 


197 


Tamaszov, 


607 


Staffordshire, 


241 


Stonehouse, 


238 


Sundswall, 


574 


Tambach, 


394 


Stalimene, 


632 Storchnest, 


499 


Suntel, 


8 


Tarn bow, 


5fi2 


Stallupohnen, 


497 Storkow, 


466 


Superga, La, 


107 


Tamina Valley, 


160 


Stamford, 237 


241jStor Lake, 


11 


Supplingenburg, 


447 


Tamworth, 


241 


Stammheim, 


169 Stormarn, 


414 


Sura, 


12 


Tanais, 


12 


Stansstadt, 


166iStornoway, 


255[Surrev, 


235 


Tanaro, 


15 


Stanz, 


166 ; Stourbridge, 


240:Sursee, 


162 


Tangermiinde, 


478 


Stanzstad, 


166 Strabane, 


258'Susa, 


107 


Tanninges, 


110 


Starenberg Lake, 


11 ; Strait of Bonifacio 


, 10 [Sussex, 


236 


Tanzenberg, 


511 


Standard, 


470! Strait of Dover, 


9 1 SUsteren, 


368 


Taormina, 


148 


Stargard (in Meek- Strait of Gibraltar, 10 1 Sutherland, 


254 


Tapiau, 


496 


lenburg-Strelitz) 412, Strait of Jenikale 


, lOiSuwalki, 


606 


Taranto, 


144 


Stari Maidar, 


634 Strait of Messina, 


10 


Svanike, 


550 


Tarare, 6 


,214 


Starkenburg, 


354 Strait of Otranto, 


10 


Sveaborg, 


599 


Tarascon, 218, 223 


Staroi-Tsherkask, 


612 Stralsund, 


470 


Svearike, 


567 


Tarbes, 


216 


Stassfurth, 


478jStrangford, 


258 


Svendborg, 


551 


Tarczal, 


527 


Staszov, 


606 Stranraer, 


250 


Swabia, 


324 


Tarentaise, 


110 


States of the 


Stran rawer, 


250 


Swabian Alps, 


7 


Targowicz, 


602 


Church, 


127;Strasburg, 


197 


Swabian Austria, 


334 


Tarifa, 


92 


Stato degli Pre- 


Strassberg, 


349 


Swabian Circle, 


292 


Tarn, 


15 


sidii, 


125 Stratford, 


240 


Swabian League. 


54 


Tarn Department, 


220 


Stattholder, 


267 Straubing, 


316 


Swaffham, 


237 


Tarn and Garonne 


Staubbach, 


158 


Strehlen, 


473 


Swansea, 


245 


Department, 


216 


Staufen, 


345 


Strelitz, 


412 


Sweden, 


567 


Tarnopol, 


519 


Staufenberg, 


357 


Strengnas, 


569 


Sweden and Nor- 




Tarnow, 


519 


Stavanger, 


577 


Striegau, 


473 


way, 


562 


Tarnowitz, 


476 


Stavenhagen, 


409 Strivali Isles, 


616 


Swedish Lapland, 574 


Tarraconensis, 


84 


Staveren, 


272 


Strobeck, 


478 


Swiask, 


607 


Tarragona, 


95 


Steckborn, 


166 


Stromboli, 


149| Swine, 


13 


Tarrasa, 


95 


Steckenitz, 


17 


Strom ness, 


255 


Swinemiinde, 


469 


Tarrazona, 


94 


Steenbergen, 


274 


Stromoe, 


558 


Switzerland, 


151 


Tarshish, 


84 


Steenwyk, 


272 


Stromstad, 


573 


Sword-law (his- 




Tasnad, 


531 


Stege, 


550 


Stromza, 


15 


tory), 


54 


Taso, 


632 


Steiermark, 


510 


Strophades, 


616 


Swornik, 


634 


Tata, 


526 


Steigerwald, 


7 


Stroud, 


240 


Syberona, 


145 


Tatar Basardshik, 


629 


Stein, 


164 


Struma, 


15 


Syke, 


436 


Tatarians, 


580 


Stein am Rhein, 


164 


Strymon, 


15 


Syra, 


623 


Tatra Mountains, 


5 


Steinau, 374 


473 


Stuart, House of, 


233 


Syracuse, 


147 


Tauber-Bischofs- 




Steinbach, 341 


,391 


Stubbekjobing, 


551 


Sysran, 


608 


heim, 


344 


Steinfurt, 


483 


Stiihlingen, 


347 


Szamos Ujvar, 


531 


Taucha, 


383 


Steinheide, 


392 


Stuhlweissenburg 


,526 


Szassvaros, 


532 


Taunton, 


239 


Steinheim, 


355. 


Stuhm, 


498 


Szathmar-Nemet, 


528 


Taunus, 


8 


Steinhude, 


430 


Stuhmsdorf, 


498 


Szegedin, 


528 


Tauric Chersonese 610 


Steinthal, 


197 


Stupinigi, 


106 


Szekely Keresstur, 532 


Tauric Mts., 


8 


Stendal, 


478 


Sturmhaube, Great ( 


Szekely Vasarhely 532 


Tauris, 


610 


Steppes in Russia, 582 


, Little, 


6,7 


Szekes-Fejervar, 


526 


Taurogsren, 


601 


Sternberg, 


409 


Stuttgart, 


331 


Szekler, 53] 


L, 532 


Tavastehus, 


599 


Stetten, 


349 


Styria, 


510 


Szentes, 


528 


Tayira, 


74 


Stettin, 


469 


Subiaco, 


132 


Szepes-Var, 


527 


Tavistock, 


238 


Stevens-Waerd, 


368 


Sublime Porte, 


626 


Szigeth, 


528 


Tavolara, 


114 


Steyer, 


510 


Suczawa, 


520 


Szigethvar, 


526 


Tay, 


14 


Stia, 


124 


Sudbury, 


236 


Szissek, 


529 


Teate, 


143 


Stilo, 


145 


Sudetic Mts., 


6 


Szolnok, 


527 


Teck, 


335 


Stirling, 


251 


Sueones, 


566 


Szydlowiec, 


606 


Tecklenburg, 


483 


Stirlingshire, 


251 


Sueves, 


24 






Tegern Lake, 


11 


Stober, 


13 


Suffolk, 


236 


Taasinge, 


551 


Tegernsee, 


315 


Stockach, 


346 


Suhl, 


481 


Taevingen, 


164 


Teignmouth, 


238 


Stockholm, 


568 


Suhlingen, 


436 


Tafalla, 


97 


Teisendorf, 


315 


Stockport, 


242 


Sulau, 


474 


Taganrog, 


612 


Tejo, 


14 


Stockton, 


244 


Sulitelma, 


6 


Tagliacozzo, 


143 


Telgte, 


483 


Stoer, 


17 


Sulmona, 


143 


Tagliamento, 


15 


Teltow, 


465 



INDEX. 



667 



PAGE 

528 
472 
114 
466 
221 
110 
481 
623 
280 
515 
515 
143 
75 
12 
4 
144 
110 
146 
280 
271 
133 
629 
133 
141 
Terranova, 114, 147 



Temesvar, 
Tempelburg, 
Tempio, 
Templin, 

Tence, 

Tend a, 

Tennstadt, 

Tenos, 

Tenremonde, 

Tepl, 

Teplitz, 

Tern mo, 

Terceira, 

Terek, 

Terglou, 

Terlizzi,. 

Termignon, 

Termini, 

Termonde, 

Ter Neuse, 

Tend, 

Ternova, 

Tei-racina, 

Terra di Lavoro, 



Terschelling, 269 

Teruel, 94 

Teschen, 517 

Tesino, 164 

Teste de Buch. 215 
Tete de Flandres, 280 
Tete d'Ours, 6 

Teie de Rang, 6 

Teterow, 409 

Teuuschi, 607 

Telsclien, 515 

Tettnang, 335 

Teuffen, 157 

Teuschnitz, 320 

TeutoburgerWald, 8 
Teutoues, 297 

Teutonic Order 46, 336 
Teviotdale, 249 

Tewkesbury, 240 

Texel, 269 

Thal-Ehrenbreit- 

stein, 
Thaiitter, 
Thames, 
Thann, 
Tharand, 
Thasos, 
Theaki, 
Tiieate, 
Thebes, 

Thedinghausen, 
Theiss, 
Themar, 
Theodoric, king of 

the Ostrogoths, 25 
Thera, 623 

Theresienstadt, 525 
Therma, 
Thermopylae, 
Thessalia, 
Thessalouica, 
Theux, 
Tuiel, 
Thielt, 



487 
357 

14 
199 
381 
6:52 
6lfi 
143 
62) 
447 

16 
391 



630 
621 
631 
630 

282 
271 
281 



PAGE 

Thiengen, 346 

Thiers, 213 

Thionville, 196 

Thirty years' 

war, 58, 302 

Thisted, 552 

Thiva, 621 

Tholen, 270 

Thomar, 72 

Thomas a Kempis 493 
Thonon, 109 

Thorda, 531 

Thorn, 498 

Thorout, 281 

Thorsenge, 551 

Thorshalla, 569 

Thorshavn, 558 

Thouars, 210 

Thracia, 628 

Thuin, 281 

Thule, 560 

Thun, 158 

Thun, Lake of, 11 
Thurgau, 165 

Thuringia, ancient 

landgraviate of, 388 
Thuringians, 298 

Thuringerwald, 7 

Thurles, 260 

Thurnau, 320 

Th urn and Taxis, 317 
254 
1621 
15 
132 
15 
278 
274 
251 
497 
187 
113 
239 
113 
623 
240 
260 
539 
611 
636 
278 
317 
499 
534 
315 
238 
132 
613 
345 
160 
202 
527 
87 
134 
133 
498 
542 
97 
605 



Th urso, 

Thusis, 

Tiber River, 

Tibur, 

Ticino, 

Tienen, 

Tilburg, 

Tillicoultry, 

Tilsit, 

Tinchebray, 

Tinello, 

Tin -Islands, 

Tino, 

Tinos, 

Tin tern Abbey, 

Tipperary, 

Tirano, 

Tiraspol, 

Tirgovist, 

Tirlemont, 

Tirschenreuth, 

Tirschtiegel, 

Tittel, 

Tittmoning. 

Tiverton, 

Tivoli, 

Tmutarakan, 

Todtnau, 

Toggenburg, 

Toissey, 

Tokay, 

Toledo, 

Tolentino, 

Tolfa, 

Tolkemit, 

Tolmezzo, 

Tolosa, 

Tomaszov, 



PAGE 

Tondern, 556 

Tongern, 283 
Tonnay-Charente, 21 1 

Tonneins, 215 

Tonnere, 193 

Tonning, 556 

Tonsberg, 576 

Toplitz, 515 

Topo, 75 

Topola, 635 

Tordesillas, 89 

Torgau, 480 

Tornea, 13 

Tornea (town), 599 

Toro, 90 

Torquemada, 89 
Torre de Moncorvo 73 
Torre dell' Annun- 

ziata, 141 
Torres Vedras, 71 
Torriglia, 112 
Tortoli, 114 
Tortona, 111 
Tortosa, 95 
Toscolano, 540 
Touraine, 206 
Toul, 196 
Toulon, 224 J 
Toulouse, 219, 
Tonrcoing, 190 
Tournameats, 46 
Tournay, 231 
Tournon, 221 
Tournus, 201 
Tours, 206 
Trachenberg, 474 
Trafalgar, 92 
Trankehnen, 497 
Tralee, 260 
Tramin, 513 
Trani, 144 
Transjuranian Bur- 
gundy, 200 
Transylvania, 530 
Trapani, 146 
Trappe, La, 208 
Trasen, 16 
Traun, 16 
Traunstein, 314 
Ti-ausnitz, 316 
Trave, 17 
Travemiinde, 452 
Travendahl, 418 
Travers, 163 
Travnik, 633 
Traz os Montes, 73 
Trebigno, 634 
Trebnitz, 474 
Tiebur, 354 
TrefTurt, 481 
Treguier, 209 
Treisen, 351 
Tremiti, 144 
Tremitian Isles, 144 
Tremouille, 210 
Trencsin, 525 
Trent, 14,513 
Treport, 186 
Trestenburg, 531 





PAGE 


Treuen, 


384 


Treuenbrietzen, 


466 


Treves, ancient 




archbishopric 




of, 


487 


, city of, 


483 


Treviglio, 


538 


Treviso, 


542 


Trevoux, 


202 


Treysa, 


372 


Trianon, 


183 


Tribbesee, 


470 


Tri berg, 


345 


Ti-ibsees, 


470 


Trichonium, 


621 


Trient, 


513 


Trier, 


488 


Triesen, 


351 


Triest, 


512 


Trieste, 


512 


Trifels, 


328 


Trikala, 


631 


Trim, 


257 


Trimmbach, 


164 


Trino, 


103 


Tripolizza, 


622 


Triptis, 


388 


Trivento, 


144 


Trivier en Dombe 


s202 


Trivier sur Mog- 




nand, 


202 


Trochtelflngen, 


349 


Troense, 


551 


Trogen, 


157 


Ti-oizkoi Sergiev, 


591 


Troki, 


60!) 


Trollhiitta, 


572 


Tromsoe, 


578 


Trondhiem, 


577 


Tropea, 


145 


Troppau, 


517 


Trosa, 


569 


Troubadours, 


56 


Troyes, 


191 


Truro, 


239 


Truxillo, 


91 


Tryberg, 


345 


Tschadyrdagh, 


8 


Tscherlitz, 


168 


Tsheboksar, 


607 


T^hernoi-Jar, 


609 


Tshernomorsk Cos- 


sacks, 


6!2 


Tuam, 


259 


Tubingen, 


332 


Tubize, 


279 


Tudela, 89, 97 


Tudor, house of, 


233 


Tniieries, 


182 


Takum, 


598 


Tula, 


591 


Tulczin, 


602 


Tullamore, 


257 


Tulle, 


212 


Tullgarn, 


569 


Tullow, 


257 


Tunbridge, 


236 


Tunbridge Wells, 


236 


Turbia, 


110 



668 



INDEX. 





PAGE 


PAGE 




PAGE 




PAGE 


Turenne, 


212 


Unterseen, 158 


Vacha, 


389 


Venezia, 


541 


Turin, 


106 


Unterwalden, 166 


Vacz, 


525 


Venice, city of, 


541 


Turkey, 


624 


Upland, 568 


Vado, 


113 


, ancient Re- 




Tiirkheiml98,325,328 


Upper Alps Depart- 


Vad utz, 


351 


public of, 


540 


Turkish Croatia, 


634 


ment, 222 


Vaels, 


368 


Venloo, 


274 


Turkish Dalma- 




Upper Alsace, 197, 198 


Vaihingen, 


331 


Venosa, 


145 


tia, 


634 


Upper Andalu- 


Vaison, 


225 


Ventimiglia, 


113 


Turkish Gradis- 




sia, 93 


Vajda Hunyad, 


531 


Vercelli, 


108 


ca, 


634 


Upper Austria, 509 


Valais, 


167 


Verden, 


438 


Turks, 


19 


Upper Bavaria, 314 


Valangin, 


163 


Verdun, 


196 


Turnovo, 


631 


Upper Franconia, 318 


Valdepenas, 


88 


Veria, 


631 


Tursi, 


145 


Upper Garonne 


Valdieri, 


108 


Verneuil, 


186 


Tuscany, 


120 


Department, 219 


Valencai, 


205 


Vernon, 


186 


Tuscia, 


122 


Upper Hesse, 357 


Valence, 


222 


Vernoux, 


221 


Tusculum, 


132 


Upper Hesse (of 


Valencia, 95, 96 


Verocze, 


530 


Tuttlingen, 


333 


Hesse-Cassel), 372 


Valenciennes, 


190 


Verola Nuova, 


540 


Tuy, 


91 


Upper Hungary, 527 


Valenza, 


111 


Verona, 


542 


Tweeddale, 


250 


Upper Ingelheim, 356 


Valkenburg, 


368 


Versailles, 


183 


Twer, 


593 


Upper Italy, 103 


Valladolid, 


89 


Versmold, 


484 


Two Sicilies, 


137 


Upper Loire De- 


Vallendar, 


487 


Versoix, 


161 


Two Sevres De- 




partment, 221 


Valli di Comac- 




Versoy, 


161 


partment, 


210 


Upper Lorraine, 194 


chio, 


127 


Verviers, 


282 


Tynemouth, 


244 


Upper Lusa- 


Vails, 


95 


Vervins, 


188 


Tyras, 


12 


tia, 385, 475 


Valogne, 


187 


Vesoul, 


203 


Tyrconel, 


258 


Upper Marne De- 


Valona, 


633 


Vesprim, 


526 


Tyree, 


255 


partment, 192, 203 


Valpo, 


530 


Vesuvius, 


5 


Tyrnau, 


524 


Upper Moesia, 634 


Vals, 


221 


Veurne, 


281 


Tyrol, 


513 


Upper Palatin- 


Vandals, 


24 


Vevay, 


168 


Tyrone, 


258 


ate, 316, 317 


Vannes, 


209 


Vezelay, 


201 






Upper Pyrenees 


Var, 


15 


Viadana, 


539 


Ubede, 


93 


Department, 216 


Var Department, 


224 


Vial as, 


221 


Uchte, 


436 


Upper Rhenish 


Varallo, 


111 


Viana, 73, 


Uckermark, 


466 


circle, 292 


Varazze, 


113 


Vianden, 


366 


Uckermiinde, 


470 


Upper Rhine cir- 


Vardanes, 


12 


Vianen, 


270 


Uddewalla, 


573 


cle (of Baden), 344 


Vardar, 15 


,630 


Viareggio, 


126 


Udine, 


542 


Upper Rhine De- 


Varel, 


424 


Vic, 


195 


Udvarhely, 


532 


partment, 198 


Varennes, 


195 


Vic sur Cere, 


213 


Ueberlingen, 


346 


Upper Saxon cir- 


Varese, 113 


,538 


Vicenza, 


542 


Ueberlingen Lake, 11 


cle, 293 


Varesh, 


633 


Vich, 


95 


Uelzen, 


437 


Upper Silesia, 472, 475 


Varigotti, 


113 


Viel Salm, 


283 


Uerdingen, 


493 


Upper Stamm- 


Varna, 


630 


Vienna, 


508 


Uetersen, 


418 


heim, 169 


Vasarhely, 


528 


Vienne, 


222 


Uexkiill, 


597 


Upper Valais, 167 


Vassals, 


36 


Vien le Chateau, 


192 


Uffenheim, 


320 


Upper Vienne De- 


Vassy, 


192 


Vienne Depart- 




Ugbrook, 


238 


partment, 212 


Vasvar, 


526 


ment, 


210 


Ugine, 


109 


Uppingham, 241 


Vathi, 


616 


Vienne River, 


15 


Uist, North, 


255 


Upsala, 568 


Vaucluse Depart- 




Vierlande, 


451 


, South, 


255 


Urach, 333 


ment, 


224 


Vierraden, 


466 


Ujensk, 


592 


Uralsk, 609 


Vaucouleurs, 


193 


Viersen, 


494 


Ujest, 


476 


Urbino, 134 


Vaud, 


167 


Vierzon, 


205 


Ukraine, 


594 


Urgel, 95 


Vechta, 


423 


Viesti, 


144 


Uleaborg, 


599 


Uri, 166 


Veere, 


270 


Vif, 


222 


Ulm, 


333 


Urnaesch, 157 


Vegesack, 


454 


Vigan, Le, 


221 


Ulricehamn, 


572 


Ursberg, 325 


Velas, 


75 


Vigevano, 


111 


Ulrichstein, 


357 


Urseren, 167 


Veldenz, 


489 


Vignemale, 


5 


Ulriksdal, 


568 


Usedom, 469 


Velez Malaga, 


93 


Vigo, 


91 


Ulster, 


257 


Usicza, 635 


Velez el Rubio, 


94 


Vigone, 


107 


Uman, 


594 


Usingen, 362 


Velletri, 


133 


Vilaine, 


16 


Umbrians, 


102 


Uslar, ' 440 


Veltlin, 


539 


Ville Bois sous 




Umea, 


574 


Uso, 127 


Venaissin, 224, 225 


Belley, 


202 


Unistadt, 


355 


Usseglio, 107 


Venasque, 


225 


Villena, 


94 


Ungstein, 


327 


Ussel, 212 


Vendee Depart- 




Villedieu les 




Universities, found- 


Uster, 169 


ment, 


210 


Poeles, 


187 


ed in Europe, 


42 


Ustica, 146 


Vendee River, 


16 


Villefort, 


221 


Unkel, 


488 


Ustjug-Weliki, 593 


Vendome, 


206 


Villefranche, 




Unna, 


485 


Utrecht, 271 


Venedig, 


541 


214, 216 


,219 


Unst, 


255 


Utrera, 91 


Veneria, La, 


107 


Villeneuve, 


168 


Unter-Hallau, 


164 


Uxijar, 93 


Venetes, 102 


540 


Villeneuve 




Unter-Kulm, 


156 


Uzes, 221 


Venetian Friaul, 


542| 


d'Agen, 


215 



INDEX. 



669 



PAGE 


PAGE 


Villeneuve l'Ar- 




Vohenstrauss, 


318 


cheveque, 


193 


Vdhrenbach, 


347 


Villeneuve d' Avig- 


Vohringen, 


349 


non, 


221 


Voigtland383,384,393 


Villeneuve de 




Voiron, 


222 


Berg, 


221 


Volcanello, 


149 


Villeneuve le Roy, 193 


Volcano, 


149 


Villingen, 


347 


Volenay, 


201 


Villmergen, 


156 


Volga, 


12 


Vilsen, 


436 


Volhynia, 


602 


Vilshofen, 


316 


Volkach, 


323 


Vilvorden, 


278 


Volkmarsen, 


372 


Villach, 


512 


Vollenhoven, 


272 


Villacidro, 


114 


Volo, 


631 


Villa do Conde, 


73 


Volsci, 


102 


Villa Demidof, 


123 


Volterra, 


123 


Villa d'Este, 


538 


Voltri, 


112 


Villafranca, 


110 


Volturno, 


15 


Villafranca de Pa- 




Vol vie, 


213 


nades, 


95 


Vonltza, 


621 


Villafranca di Pie 


- 


Voorne, 


270 


monte, 


107 


Voralberg, 


514 


Villanueva, 


9? 


Voiden, 


441 


Villareal, 


73 


Vormark, 


466 


Villareal de San 




Vorsfelde, 


447 


Antonio, 


74 


Vosges, 


6 


Villa viciosa, 


87 


Vosges Depart- 




Villa viciosa (in 




ment, 


195 


Asturias), 


90 


Vostizza, 


622 


Villa Vicosa, 


73 


Voulte, La, 


221 


Vimieira, 


71 


Vouziers, 


193 


Vimoutiers, 


187 


Vrachori, 


621 


Vinadeo, 


108 


Vukovar, 


530 


Vinaroz, 


96 






Vincennes, 


183 


Waag, 


16 


Vindelicia, 


297 


Waal, 


16 


Vineta, 


469 


Wachenheim, 


327 


Vintimiglia, 


113 


Wachtersbach, 


374 


Vique, 


95 


Wadowice, 


518 


Vire, 


187 


Wadstena, 


570 


Visconti, 


537 


Waedenschwyl, 


169 


Vise, 


283 


Waedensweil, 


169 


Viseu, 


72 


Waerschot, 


280 


Visigoths, 23, 28 


Waesland, 


280 


Visoko, 


633 


Waesten, 


281 


Vissegrad, 


525 


Waga, 


12 


Vistula, 


13 


Wageningen, 


272 


Viterbo, 


133 


Waging, 


315 


Vitre, 


208 


Wagram, 


509 


Vitry le Francais, 


192 


Waiblingen, 


331 


Vittoria, 


98 


Waibstadt, 


344 


Vittoria (in Si- 




Waitzen, 


525 


cily), 


148 


Wajka, 


524 


Viu, 


107 


Wakefield, 


244 


Vi varais, 


221 


Walcheren, 


270 


Viverro, 


91 


Walchwyl, 


168 


Viviers, 


221 


Walcourt, 


282 


Vivis, 


168 


Wald, 169 


,493 


Vizeu, 


72 


Waldbach, 


193 


Vizille, 


222 


Waldbroel, 


492 


Vizzini, 


148 


Waldburg, 


334 


Vlaamsch-Hoofd, 


280 


Waldeck, Princi- 




Vlaardingen, 


270 


pality of, 


375 


Vlieland, 


269 


Waldeck (town), 


376 


Vodable, 


213 


Waldenburg, 157 


337, 


Vodina, 


630 


334 


,473 


Vogelsberg, 


7 


Waldenses, 101 


, 107 


Voghera, 


111 


Waldheim, 


3.^3 


Vogogna, 


111 


Waldkappel. 


371 



PAGK 

Waldkirch, 345 

Waldmunchen, 317 

Waldsassen, 317 

Waldsee, 335 

Waldshut, 345 

Wales, 245 

Walhalla, 317 

Waljewo, 635 

Wallachia, 635 

Wallachia, Little, 636 

Walldurn, 344 

Wallenstadt, 160 

Wallerstein, 326 

Walloons, 275 

Walsall, 241 

Walsrode, 437 

Waltenberg, 531 

Waltershausen, 394 

Wandsbeck, 417 
Wangen, 158, 334 

Wangeroog, 424 

Wanlockhead, 250 

Wanfried, 371 

Wanzleben, 478 
War of succession, 

the Spanish, 85 

Warasdin, 529 

Warberg, 572 

Warburg, 484 

Warde, 553 

Waren, 409 

Warendorf, 483 

Warmbrunn, 475 

Warnemunde, 410 

Warneton, 281 

Warnow River, 17 

Warrington, 243 

Warsaw, 605 

Wartburg, 388 

Wartenberg, 474 

Wartha, 474 

Warthe, 13 

Warwick, 240 

Warwick Castle, 240 

Warwickshire, 240 

Wasa, 599 

Wasa, House of, 566 

Wasselnheim, 197 

Wasselonne, 197 

Wasseralfingen, 335 

Wasserburg, 315 

Wassertriidingen, 320 

Wasungen, 391 

Waterford, 259 

Waterloo, 278 

Watweiler, 198 

Watzmann, 4 

Wavre, 278 

Waxholm, 568 

Wearmouth, 244 

Wechselburg, 383 

Wedel, 418 

Wednesbury, 241 

Weerdt, 367 

Weesp, 269 

Wegeleben, 478 

Weichselmiinde, 497 

Weida, 338 

Weiden, 317 



PAGE 

Weikersheim, 337 

Weilbach, 363 

Weil burg, 362 

Weil, 332 

Weile, 553 

Weilheira, 315 

Weilmiinster, 362 

Weilnau, 362 

Weimar, 387 

Weinfelden, 166 

Weingarten, 334 

Weinheim, 343 

Weinsberg, 331 

Weissbad, 157 
Weissenburg, 198, 531 
Weissenburg iin 

Nordgau, 321 
Weissenfels, 480 
Weissenhorn, 326 
Weissensee, 481 
Weissenstadt, 319 
Weissenstein, 596 
Weisskiiehen, 534 
Weissmain, 320 
Welau, 496 
Welbeck Abbey, 242 
Welehrad, 516 
Wells, 239 
Wels, 510 
Welshpool, 246 
Welzheim, 337 
Wenden, 597 
Wener Lake, 11 
Wenersborg, 572 
Wenings, 357 
Werben, 478 
Werchi Lomov, 608 
Werchoturie, 607 
Werdau, 383 
Werden, 494 
Werdenberg, 160 
Werder, 466 
Werl, 485 
Wermland, 573 
VVerne, 483 
Wernigerode, 478 
VVerra, 17 
Wertheim, 344 
Werther, 484 
Werwick (in Bel- 
gium), 281 
Wesel, 494 
Wesenberg, 596 
Weser, 17 
Wesergebirge, 8 
Weser Mountains, 8 
Weset, 283 
Wessem, 368 
Wesserling, 199 
West Flanders, 280 
West Friesland, 272 
West Galloway, 250 
Westhofen, 356 
Westkapellen, 270 
West Lothian, 249 
Westmanland, 569 
West Meath, 257 
Westminster, 234 
Westmoreland, 244 



670 



INDEX. 



PAGE I PAGE 

Westphalia, duchy iWildungen, 376 

of, 485 Wilhelmsbad, 374 

Westphalia, king- Wilhelmshobe, 370 

dom of, 294 Wilhelmstein, 430 

Westphalia, Prus- IWilhelmsthal, 389 

sian province of, 482 Willemstadt, 274 
Westphalian I William the Con 

circle, 293 \ queror, 

Westphalian Treaty | William Tell, 



of peace, 
Westphalians, 
West Prussia, 
West Riding, 
West Russia, 
Westerbottn, 



303 Willisau, 
298Wilna, 
495 Wilsdruf, 
243 Wilsnack, 
600 Wilster, 
574; Wilton, 



Wester-Gothland, 572 Wilton house, 



Westeroas, 
Westervik, 
Westerwald, 
Western High- 
lands, 
Western Islands, 



569 Wilts, 

570 Wiltshire, 
8,Wilz, 

Wimmerby, 
253JWimmis, 
Wimpfen, 



Wetluga, 

Wettenhausen, 

Wetter, 

Wetter Lake, 

Wetteren, 

Wettin, 

Wettingen, 

Wetzlar, 

Wevelinghoven 

Wexford, 

Wexio, 

Weymouth, 

Wharnside, 

Whitby, 

Whitehaven, 

White Russia, 

White Sea, 

Wiborg, 

Wick, 

Wicklow, 

Widdern, 

Widflin, 

Wied, 

Wieda, 

Wieliczka, 

Wien, 

Wienerisch-Neu- 

stadt, 
Wieprz, 
Wiesbaden, 
Wiese, 
Wieselburg, 
Wiesentheid, 
Wiesloch, 
Wifflisburg, 
Wigan, 
Wight, isle of, 
Wigton, 
Wigtonshire, 
Wilchingen, 
Wild bad, 
Wilde in ann, 
Wildenfels, 
Wilder Lake, 
Wildeshausen, 
Wildhaus, 



74, 254 jWinander Lake, 
12: Winchelsea, 

325 Winchester, 

372|Windau, 
11 Windisch, 

280 Winds-bach, 



480 
156 
488 
493 
256 
570 
238 

8 
243 
244 
601 

9 
552, 599 
254 
256 
331 
629 
488 



Windsheim, 

Windsor, 

Wineda, 

Winnenden, 

Winnweiler, 

Winschoten, 

Winsen an der 

Luhe, 
Winterstetten- 

stadt, 
Winterthur, 
Wipperfurt, 
Wirtemberg, 
Wisbeach, 
Wisby, 

Wisby (history) 
Wischehrad, 
Wislitza, 



448 Wismar, 
519 

508 



33 
155 
162 

600 
381 
466 
417 
239 
239 
239 
239 
366 
570 
158 
355 
12 
236 
238 
598 
156 
320 
321 
235 
469 
331 
328 
273 

437 

334 

169 
492 
329 
237 
571 
50 
514 
606 
410 
601 



Witebsk, 

Wittelsbach, House 

of, 313 

509 Wittenberg, 479 

13 Wittenburg, 409 

362 Wittgenstein, 486 

338 Wittlich, 489 

527 Wittmund, 443 

323 Wittstock, 466 

343, 344 Witzenhausen, 371 

168 Wjatka, 608 

243 Wladimir, 592 

238 Woburn, 238 

250 Woburn Abbey, 238 

250 Woerden, 271 

164 Wolau, 473 
333 Wolchonsky Forest 8 

444 i Woldenberg, 467 ! 

384 Wolfach, 342 

3::8 Wolfenbuttel, 446 

423 Wotfhagen, 37' 

160 Wolf stein, 327 



PAGK 




PAGE 


Wolgast, 


470!Ypres, 


280 


Wolkenstein, 


383 


Ysendyk, 


271 


Wollin, 


469 


Yssel, 


16 


Wollmirstadt, 


478 


Ysselburg, 


494 


Wolmar, 


597 


Ysselstein, 


271 


Wologda, 


593 


Yssingeaux, 


221 


Wolsk, 


609 


Ystad, 


571 


Wolverhampton, 


241 


Yverdun, 


168 


Wood bridge, 


236 


Yvetot, 


186 


Woodstock, 


237 






Woolsthorpe, 


237 


Zaardam, 


268 


Woolwich, 


236 


Zabern, 


197 


Worbis, 


481 


Zafra, 


91 


Worcester, 


240 


Zahara, 


92 


Worcestershire, 


240 


Zahna, 


479 


Wordingborg, 


550 


Zahringen, casth 




Workington, 


244 


of, 


345 


Worksop, 


242 


Zahringians, 


339 


Worksop Manor, 


242 


Zalathna, 


531 


Workum, 272 


,274 


Zamora, 


90 


Worlitz, 


405 


Zamosk, 


606 


Wormditt, 


496 


Zante, 


616 


Worms, 


356 


Zara, 


535 


Worms (Russian 




Zaritzin, 


609 


isle), 


596 


Zarki, 


606 


Woronesh, 


592 


Zarskoje-Selo, 


595 


Worth, 


317 


Zator, 


518 


Wosnosensk, 


611 


Zawichost, 


606 


Wreden, 


483 


Zealand, 270 


,549 


Wrexham, 


246 


Zebug, 


150 


Wriezen, 


466 


Zdunska Wola, 


606 


Wschowa, 


499 


Zduny, 


499 


Wiilfrath, 


493 


Zehdenik, 


466 


Wumme, 


17 


Zeiden, 


532 


Wunsiedel, 


319 


Zeitun, 


621 


Wunstorf, 


435 


Zeitz, 


479 


Wupper, 


16 


Zele, 


280 


Wiirttemberg, 


329 


Zell, 345 


,487 


Wurzach, 


334 


Zell am Hammers- 


Wiirzburg, 


322 


bach, 


341 


Wiirzburg, grand- 




Zella, 


394 


duchy of, 


294 


Zelle, 


437 


Wurzen, 


382 


Zeller Lake, 


11 


Wusterhausen an 




Zellerfeld, 


444 


der Dosse, 


466 


Zempelburg, 


498 


Wustrow, 


437 


Zengg, 


533 


Wvk, 


557 


Zentha, 


526 


Wyk te Duurstede 271 


Zerbst, 


405 


Wyl, 


160 


Zeulenroda, 


398 


Wytschegda, 


12 


Zeven, 


438 


Xanten, 494 
Xativa, 96 
Xeres de los Caval- 

leros, 91 
Xeres de la Fron- 

tera, 92 
Xucar, 14 


Zevenaer, 

Zeyst, 

Ziegenhain, 

Ziegenhals, 

Ziegenriick, 481 

Ziereiiberg, 

Zieriksee, 

Zigeth, 


272 
271 
372 
476 
482 
371 
270 
526 


Yarmouth, 


237 


Zilah, 


531 


Yell, 


255 


Zinna, 


466 


Yenne, 


109 


Zipserhaus, 


527 


Ynglingar, 


566 


Zittau, 


385 


Yonne, 


15 


Zizers, 


162 


Yonne Depart- 




Znaym, 


517 


ment, 


201 


Zobten, 


473 


York, 


243 


/Job ten berg, 


7 


York shire, 


243 ''onngen, 


156 


Yotighall, 


259 7.i >m bur, 


525 


Ypern, 


230, 


Ziirbig, 


4oU 



INDEX, 



671 





PAGE 1 PAGE 


Zorge, 


448 Ziiipich, 491 


Zornca, 


150, Zutn Stein, 157 


Zuckmantel, 


5 17| Zurich, 168 


Zug, 


1681 Zurich, Lake of, 11 


Zuid-Beveland, 


270JZurzach, 158 


Ziiliicbau, 


467|Zutphen, 271 



Zuyder Zee, 9 

Zuyd-Voonie, 270 

Zweibrucken,327, 328 
Zwenkau, 383 

Zwickau, 383 

Zwingenberg, 354 



Zwiscbenahn 




Lake, 


420 


Zwoll, 


272 


Zwornik, 


634 


Zwyndrecht, 


280 


Zytomierz, 


602 



THE END. 



t*** g ?8 



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